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/ S
1
p g
(P
A
-P
)/ S
1
p g h. S
2
/ S
1
- h h (S
2
/ S
1
- 1) ( m oI Iluid oI sp.gr S1)
(P
A
-P
)/ pg h ( S
2
-S
1
) ( m oI water)
iii) Inverted U -tube Manometer:
It consists oI a glass tube bent in U-shape and held inverted as shown in Fig.2.8. When the two
ends oI the manometer are connected to the points between which the pressure diIIerence is
required to be measured, the liquid under pressure will enter the two limbs oI the manometer,
thereby causing the air within the manometer to get compressed. The presence oI the compressed
air results in restricting the heights oI the columns oI liquids raised in the two limbs oI the
manometer. An air cook as shown in Fig.2.8, is usually provided at the top oI the inverted U tube
which Iacilities the raising oI the liquid columns to suitable level in both the limbs by driving out
a portion oI the compressed air. Inverted U tube manometers are suitable Ior the measurement oI
small pressure diIIerence in liquids.
Fig.7
Since the speciIic weight oI air is negligible as compared with that oI liquid, between C' and
D may be neglected.
P
A
/ S
1
p g - y ( y-h) P
/ S
1
p g
(P
A
-P
)/ S
1
p g h ( m oI liquid oI sp.gr S1)
(P
A
- P
)/ p g h S
1
( m oI water)
ead Weight Pressure Gauge:
Dead Weight Pressure Gauge Testers are used Ior calibrating and standardizing pressure gauges
and pressure transducers upto a pressure oI 1000 bar (kg/sq.cm) HEICO Dead Weight Pressure
Gauge Testers are so designed and manuIactured that extremely small variations and very small
pressures can be measured with great accuracy i.e. upto 0.1 or better. The standardizing
pressure is developed by loading with standardized weights a vertically arranged ram which
works in a cylinder Iilled with oil. This cylinder is connected to an oil reservoir through an
isolating valve. A priming pump, a pressure pump, pressure gauge adaptors etc. are also
connected to the cylinder. A set oI standardized weights, Ior the testing range oI the tester, is
supplied with each instrument. A set oI adaptors Ior diIIerent sizes oI pressure gauge threads is
also provided along with a set oI spanners, a needle puller and a screw driver. Dead Weight
Pressure Gauges Testers are oIIered in Iour models.
80
Single Ram, Single Gauge Type.
82
Single Ram, Two Gauge Type
84
Double Ram, Single Gauge Type.
86
Mceod gauge:
A McLeod gauge isolates a sample oI gas and compresses it in a modiIied mercury manometer
until the pressure is a Iew mmHg. The gas must be well-behaved during its compression. The
technique is slow and unsuited to continual monitoring, but is capable oI good accuracy.
Useful range: above 10
-4
torr (roughly 10
-2
Pa) as high as 10
6
Torr (0.1 mPa),
0.1 mPa is the lowest direct measurement oI pressure that is possible with current technology.
Other vacuum gauges can measure lower pressures, but only indirectly by measurement oI other
pressure-controlled properties. These indirect measurements must be calibrated to SI units via a
direct measurement, most commonly a McLeod gauge.
iaphragm:
Fig.8: A pile oI pressure capsules with corrugated diaphragms in an aneroid barograph.
A second type oI aneroid gauge uses the deIlection oI a Ilexible membrane that separates regions
oI diIIerent pressure. The amount oI deIlection is repeatable Ior known pressures so the pressure
can be determined by using calibration. The deIormation oI a thin diaphragm is dependent on the
diIIerence in pressure between its two Iaces. The reIerence Iace can be open to atmosphere to
measure gauge pressure, open to a second port to measure diIIerential pressure, or can be sealed
against a vacuum or other Iixed reIerence pressure to measure absolute pressure. The
deIormation can be measured using mechanical, optical or capacitive techniques. Ceramic and
metallic diaphragms are used.
Useful range: above 10
-2
Torr (roughly 1 Pa)
Bellows:
In gauges intended to sense small pressures or pressure diIIerences, or require that an absolute
pressure be measured, the gear train and needle may be driven by an enclosed and sealed bellows
chamber, called an aneroid, which means "without liquid". This bellows conIiguration is used in
aneroid barometers altimeters, altitude recording barographs, and the altitude telemetry
instruments used in weather balloon radiosondes. These devices use the sealed chamber as a
reIerence pressure and are driven by the external pressure. Other sensitive aircraIt instruments
such as air speed indicators and rate oI climb indicators (variometers) have connections both to
the internal part oI the aneroid chamber and to an external enclosing chamber.
Electronic pressure sensors:
O Piezoresistive Strain Gage
Uses the piezoresistive eIIect oI bonded or Iormed strain gauges to detect strain due to
applied pressure.
O apacitive
Uses a diaphragm and pressure cavity to create a variable capacitor to detect strain due to
applied pressure.
O Magnetic
Measures the displacement oI a diaphragm by means oI changes in inductance
(reluctance), LVDT, Hall EIIect, or by eddy current principal.
O Piezoelectric
Uses the piezoelectric eIIect in certain materials such as quartz to measure the strain upon
the sensing mechanism due to pressure.
O Optical
Uses the physical change oI an optical Iiber to detect strain due applied pressure.
O Potentiometric
Uses the motion oI a wiper along a resistive mechanism to detect the strain caused by
applied pressure.
O #esonant
Uses the changes in resonant Irequency in a sensing mechanism to measure stress, or
changes in gas density, caused by applied pressure.
Ionization gauge:
Ionization gauges are the most sensitive gauges Ior very low pressures. They sense pressure
indirectly by measuring the electrical ions produced when the gas is bombarded with electrons.
Fewer ions will be produced by lower density gases. The calibration oI an ion gauge is unstable
and dependent on the nature oI the gases being measured, which is not always known. They can
be calibrated against a McLeod gauge which is much more stable and independent oI gas
chemistry.
Thermionic emission generates electrons, which collide with gas atoms and generate positive
ions. The ions are attracted to a suitably biased electrode known as the collector. The current in
the collector is proportional to the rate oI ionization, which is a Iunction oI the pressure in the
system. Hence, measuring the collector current gives the gas pressure. There are several sub-
types oI ionization gauge.
Useful range: 10
-10
- 10
-3
torr (roughly 10
-8
- 10
-1
Pa)
ot cathode:
Fig.9: ayard-Alpert hot-cathode ionization gauge
A hot-cathode ionization gauge is composed mainly oI three electrodes acting together as a
triode, wherein the cathode is the Iilament. The three electrodes are a collector or plate, a
Iilament, and a grid. The collector current is measured in picoamps by an electrometer. The
Iilament voltage to ground is usually at a potential oI 30 volts, while the grid voltage at 180210
volts DC, unless there is an optional electron bombardment Ieature, by heating the grid, which
may have a high potential oI approximately 565 volts. The most common ion gauge is the hot-
cathode ayard-Alpert gauge, with a small ion collector inside the grid. A glass envelope with an
opening to the vacuum can surround the electrodes, but usually the Nude Gauge is inserted in the
vacuum chamber directly, the pins being Ied through a ceramic plate in the wall oI the chamber.
Hot-cathode gauges can be damaged or lose their calibration iI they are exposed to atmospheric
pressure or even low vacuum while hot. The measurements oI a hot-cathode ionization gauge are
always logarithmic.
Electrons emitted Irom the Iilament move several times in back and Iorth movements around the
grid beIore Iinally entering the grid. During these movements, some electrons collide with a
gaseous molecule to Iorm a pair oI an ion and an electron (Electron ionization). The number oI
these ions is proportional to the gaseous molecule density multiplied by the electron current
emitted Irom the Iilament, and these ions pour into the collector to Iorm an ion current. Since the
gaseous molecule density is proportional to the pressure, the pressure is estimated by measuring
the ion current.
The low-pressure sensitivity oI hot-cathode gauges is limited by the photoelectric eIIect.
Electrons hitting the grid produce x-rays that produce photoelectric noise in the ion collector.
This limits the range oI older hot-cathode gauges to 10
8
Torr and the ayard-Alpert to about
10
10
Torr. Additional wires at cathode potential in the line oI sight between the ion collector and
the grid prevent this eIIect. In the extraction type the ions are not attracted by a wire, but by an
open cone. As the ions cannot decide which part oI the cone to hit, they pass through the hole
and Iorm an ion beam. This ion beam can be passed on to a
O Faraday cup
O Microchannel plate detector with Faraday cup
O "uadrupole mass analyzer with Faraday cup
O "uadrupole mass analyzer with Microchannel plate detector Faraday cup
O ion lens and acceleration voltage and directed at a target to Iorm a sputter gun. In this
case a valve lets gas into the grid-cage.
old cathode:
There are two subtypes oI cold-cathode ionization gauges: the Penning gauge, and the Inverted
magnetron, also called a Redhead gauge. The major diIIerence between the two is the position oI
the anode with respect to the cathode. Neither has a Iilament, and each may require a DC
potential oI about 4 kV Ior operation. Inverted magnetrons can measure down to 1x10
12
Torr.
Likewise, cold-cathode gauges may be reluctant to start at very low pressures, in that the near-
absence oI a gas makes it diIIicult to establish an electrode current - in particular in Penning
gauges, which use an axially symmetric magnetic Iield to create path lengths Ior ions that are oI
the order oI metres. In ambient air, suitable ion-pairs are ubiquitously Iormed by cosmic
radiation; in a Penning gauge, design Ieatures are used to ease the set-up oI a discharge path. For
example, the electrode oI a Penning gauge is usually Iinely tapered to Iacilitate the Iield emission
oI electrons.
Maintenance cycles oI cold cathode gauges are, in general, measured in years, depending on the
gas type and pressure that they are operated in. Using a cold cathode gauge in gases with
substantial organic components, such as pump oil Iractions, can result in the growth oI delicate
carbon Iilms and shards within the gauge that eventually either short-circuit the electrodes oI the
gauge or impede the generation oI a discharge path.
alibration:
Pressure gauges are either direct- or indirect-reading. Hydrostatic and elastic gauges measure
pressure are directly inIluenced by Iorce exerted on the surIace by incident particle Ilux, and are
called direct reading gauges. Thermal and ionization gauges read pressure indirectly by
measuring a gas property that changes in a predictable manner with gas density. Indirect
measurements are susceptible to more errors than direct measurements.
O Dead-weight tester
O McLeod
O mass spec ionization
namic transients:
When Iluid Ilows are not in equilibrium, local pressures may be higher or lower than the average
pressure in a medium. These disturbances propagate Irom their source as longitudinal pressure
variations along the path oI propagation. This is also called sound. Sound pressure is the
instantaneous local pressure deviation Irom the average pressure caused by a sound wave. Sound
pressure can be measured using a microphone in air and a hydrophone in water. The eIIective
sound pressure is the root mean square oI the instantaneous sound pressure over a given interval
oI time. Sound pressures are normally small and are oIten expressed in units oI microbar.
O Irequency response oI pressure sensors
O resonance
iscussion and onclusion:
From the discussion, we learn about diIIerent types oI pressure measurement device and their
working principles.
Bibliograph:
O en.wikipedia.com
O www.scribd.com
O A Text book oI Hydraulics, Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines y R. S. Khurmi
O http://www.google.com.bd/imghp?hlbn&tabwi