Exercise 2.1 : Carbohydrate Objective : To perform several basic tests frequently used to identify or test for certain carbohydrate.

Hypothesis : Sucrose, glucose, maltose and starch can be classified as carbohydrate but they have different tests to identify for each of it. Result : Tests Molish Sucrose -colourless solution change to black purple precipitate Glucose -colourless solution change to oily black spot Maltose -colourless solution change to oily black spot -a small amount of precipitate is formed Starch -colourless solution change to dark purple -oily dark spot is formed -brown precipitate is formed -blue solution change to cloudy solution -white precipitate is formed Benedict -blue solution remains unchange -blue solution change to reddish orange solution -bricked red precipitate is formed Iodine -colourless solution change to yellow solution -colourless solution change to yellow solution -blue solution change to reddish orange solution -bricked red precipitate is formed -colourless solution change to yellow solution -white solution change to dark purple solution -blue solution remains unchange

-oily dark spot is -no precipitate is formed formed

Barfoed

-blue solution remains unchange

-blue solution remains unchange

-blue solution remains unchange

Discussion : Carbohydrates are a major source of energy for our bodies. In general, carbohydrates are polyhydroxyl compounds that contain a carbonyl group. Polyhydroxyl means that the compound has many hydroxyl (OH) groups while a carbonyl group is a carbon double bonded to an oxygen (C=O). Carbohydrate can be classified into three groups which are monosaccharide, disaccharide and polysaccharide. A monosaccharide is a single sugar unit. The most common monosaccharides are made up of six carbon atoms and are called hexoses. Glucose is an example of hexose (Figure A). Saccharides can exist in two interchangeable forms: an open-chain form and a closed-chain form. Glucose exists almost entirely in the closed-chain form.

Disaccharide carbohydrates are made up of two monosaccharide units linked together. When two glucose molecules are linked together they form the disaccharide, maltose (Figure B).

Polysaccharide is a result when many monosaccharide units are link together. Examples of polysaccharide are starch, glucose and glycogen which are all made up of glucose molecules linked in different arrangements.

There are four tests which can identify the present of carbohydrate :
1) Molish Test :

From the observation, we can see that glucose will change from colourless solution to oily black spot solution. There is also no precipitate formed. The reaction happened is very fast compare to sucrose, maltose and starch. This shows that glucose is a monosaccharide which gives the rapid positive test. While for maltose and sucrose, a small amount of precipitate is formed. 2) Barfoed Test : This test will show positive test for reducing monosaccharide. Reducing monosaccharides are oxidized by the copper ion in solution to form a carboxylic acid and a reddish precipitate of copper (I) oxide within three minutes. But from this experiment, there is no such result. For sucrose, glucose and maltose, the blue solution remains unchang while for starch, the blue solution will change to cloudy solution and also white precipitate is formed. This shows that no reducing monosaccharide present. 3) Benedict Test : In this test, only reducing sugar will show the positive result. From the observation, only glucose and maltose will show the positive result which turn the blue solution to reddish orange solution. Besides, brick red precipitate is formed. But for sucrose and starch, the blue solution will remain unchange. This can be conclude that sucrose and starch are non -reducing sugar.
4) Iodine test :

Starch is a polysaccharide that is easily detected by the iodine test. The many glucose units linked together to form starch molecules traps the iodine molecules and produces a dark blue black complex. From the observation, only starch will show the positive result which can change from white solution to blue black solution. Conclusion : The hypothesis is accepted. Sucrose, glucose, maltose and starch can be classified as carbohydrate but they have different tests to identify for each of it. References :
1) http://www.harpercollege.edu/tm-

ps/chm/100/dgodambe/thedisk/carbo/molisch/molisch.htm

2) http://www.harpercollege.edu/tm-

ps/chm/100/dgodambe/thedisk/carbo/barf/barfoed.htm
3) http://www2.volstate.edu/CHEM/1030/Labs/Carbo9.htm

Exercise 2.2 : Protein Objective : To perform several basic tests frequently used to identify or test for certain protein. Hypothesis : Albumin and milk contain protein. Result : Test Biuret Millon Albumin Milk

-colourless solution change to -white solution change to purple solution pinkish solution -colourless solution change to -white solution change to white precipitate white precipitate -jelly-like coagulated is formed

Discussion : Proteins also known as polypeptides are organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain. The amino acids in a polymer chain are joined together by the peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid residues. In this experiment, two test are conducted to test the present of protein in albumin and milk. 1) Biuret Test : The biuret test is a chemical test used for detecting the presence of peptide bonds. In a positive test, a copper(II) ion is reduced to copper(I), which forms a complex with the nitrogens and carbons of the peptide bonds in an alkaline solution. A purple colour indicates the presence of proteins. For albumin, the solution will change from colourless to purple while for milk, the white solution change to light purple. Hence, both albumin and milk show the positive result. 2) Millon Test : From the observation, we can see that the albumin and milk change from colourless solution to white precipitate after added with Millon solution. This shows the positive result with the presence of protein in both albumin and milk.

Conclusion : The hypothesis is accepted. Albumin and milk contain protein. References :
1)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein

Exercise 2.3 : Lipid Objective : To perform several basic tests frequently used to identify or test for certain lipid. Hypothesis : Coconut oil, palm oil and vegetable oil are all contain lipid. Result : Test Acrolein Colouring Coconut oil -rancid smell is observed -colourless solution change to light orange solution -oil layer is formed Palm oil -rancid smell is observed -colourless solution change to light orange solution -oil layer is formed Vegetable oil -rancid smell is observed -colourless solution change to light orange solution -oil layer is formed

Discussion : Lipids are a broad group of naturally-occurring molecules which includes fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamins A, D, E and K, monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include energy storage, as structural components of cell membranes, and as important signaling molecules. Lipids may be divided into eight categories: fatty acids, glycerolipids, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, saccharolipids and polyketides (derived from condensation of ketoacyl subunits); and sterol lipids and prenol lipids (derived from condensation of isoprene subunits). There are two types of test to identify the presence of lipid in coconut oil, palm oil and vegetable oil: 1) Acrolein Test : When a fat is heated strongly in the presence of a dehydrating agent such as sodium bisulphate, the glycerol portion of the molecule is dehydrated to form the unsaturated aldehyde, acrolein (CH2=CH-CHO), which has the peculiar odor of burnt grease. A sample is heated with sodium bisulfate, and acrolein is released if the test is positive. From the observation, all the three types of oil give the positive result which release the racid or burnt grease smell.

2) Colouring Test : In this test, the presence of lipid is tested with Sudan IV. In lipid, Sudan IV will be dissolve but is insoluble in water. From the observation, the solution changes from colourless to light orange solution which gives the positive result. Hence, lipid is present in those oil. Conclusion : The hypothesis is accepted. Coconut oil, palm oil and vegetable oil are all contain lipid. References :
1)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid

2) http://bioweb.wku.edu/courses/biol121/Carbo/Lipid1.asp