Euler Introduction to Analysis of the Infinite Book I Translated by John D. Blanton Springer-Verlag New York Berlin Heidelberg London Paris TokyoTranslator John D. Blanton Department of Mathematics St. John Fisher College Rochester, NY 14618 USA Mathematical Subject Classification 01-XX. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Euler, Leonard, 1707-1783 Introduction to analysis of the infinite Translation of Introductio in analysin infinitorum I Series. Infinite—Early works to 1800 2. Products, Infinite—Early works to 1800 3. Fractions, Continued—Early works to 1800 | Title QA295 E8413 1988 515" 243 88-18475 Printed on acid-free paper © 1988 by Springer-Verlag New York Inc All rights reserved This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer-Verlag. 175 Fifth Avenue, New York. NY 10010, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc in this publication, even if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone ‘Camera-ready copy supplied by the translator. Printed and bound by R R Donnelley & Sons, Harrisonburg, Virginia Printed in the United States of America. 987654321 ISBN 0-387-96824-5 Springer-Verlag New York Berlin Heidelberg ISBN 3-540-96824-5 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New YorkPREFACE Often I have considered the fact that most of the difficulties which block the progress of students trying to learn analysis stem from this: that although they understand little of ordinary algebra, still they attempt this more subtle art. From this it follows not only that they remain on the fringes, but in addition they entertain strange ideas about the concept of the infinite, which they must try to use. Although analysis does not require an exhaustive knowledge of alge- bra, even of all the algebraic techniques so far discovered, still there are topics whose consideration prepares a student for a deeper understanding. However, in the ordinary treatise on the elements of algebra, these topics are either com- pletely omitted or are treated carelessly. For this reason, I am certain that the material I have gathered in this book is quite sufficient to remedy that defect. T have striven to develop more adequately and clearly than is the usual case those things which are absolutely required for analysis. Moreover, I have also unraveled quite a few knotty problems so that the reader gradually and almost imperceptibly becomes acquainted with the idea of the infinite. There are also many questions which are answered in this work by means of ordinary algebra, although they are usually discussed with the aid of analysis. In this way the interrelationship between the two methods becomes clear. I have divided this work into two books; in the first of these I have confined inyself to those matters concerning pure analysis. In the second book I have explained those things which must be known from geometry, since analysis isvi ordinarily developed in such a way that its application to geometry is shown. In both parts, however, I have omitted the elementary matters and developed only those things which, in other places, are either completely omitted or only cur- sorily treated or, finally, follow from new arguments. Thus, in the first book, since all of analysis is concerned with variable quan- tities and functions of such variables, I have given a full treatment to functions. I have also treated the transformation of functions and functions as the sum of infinite series. In addition I have developed functions in infinite series. Many kinds of functions whose characteristic qualities are discovered by higher analysis are classified. First I have distinguished between algebraic and transcendental functions: the former are formed from the ordinary algebraic operations on variable quantities; the latter arise from other procedures or from the infinite repetition of algebraic operations. The primary subdivision of algebraic functions is into that of non-irrational and irrational. 1 have shown how the former can not only be simplified, but also factored, and this is very useful in integral calculus. It has been shown to what extent irrational functions can be brought to non-irrational form by means of suitable substitutions. Both types can be developed in infinite series, but this method is usually applied with the greatest usefulness to transcendental func- tions. It is clear that the theory of infinite series has greatly extended higher analysis. Several chapters have been included in which I have examined the pro- perties and summation of many infinite series; some of these are arranged in such a way that it can be seen that they could hardly be investigated without theof analysis. Series of this type are those whose summations are expressed either through logarithms or circular ares. However, since these are transcendental quantities which can be defined by quadratures of the hyperbola and the circle, for the most part they are usually treated in analysis. After that I shall have progressed from powers of quantities to exponential quantities, which are simply powers whose exponents are variables. From the inverse of these I have arrived at the most natural and fruitful concept of logarithms. Whence not only are very ample uses of these immediately obtained, but also from them it is possible to obtain all those infinite series by which ordinarily these quantities are represented. Then there is produced a method of reasonably simple construction of tables of logarithms. In a like manner I have turned my attention to circular ares. This type of quantity, although quite different from logarithms, neverthe- less, there is such a close mutual relationship that when the latter is viewed as a complex quantity, it is converted into the former. Just as logarithms have their own particular algorithm, which has most useful applications in all of analysis, I have derived algorithms for the trigonometric quantities, so that these calcula- tions can be made as easily as for the logarithmic and algebraic quantities. The extent of the usefulness of this for the solution of very difficult problems becomes clear in several chapters of this book. Indeed, very many other examples from analysis could be offered were they not sufficiently known already, and in fact more are being found almost daily. But this investigation brings the greatest help to the resolution of rational functions into real factors. Since this is so important for integral calculus, I have given this diligent attention. I have inves- tigated those infinite series which arise from the development of this type ofviii function, and are known as recurrent series. For these I have given both summa- tions and general terms and also other important properties. Since the resolution into factors has led to these series, so in turn, I have pondered to what extent the product of several factors, and even infinite products, can be expressed in a series. This business opened the way to knowledge of a myriad of series. Since a series can be expressed as an infinite product, I have found rather convenient numerical expressions with the aid of which the logarithms of sines, cosines, and tangents can easily be computed. Furthermore, from this same source we can derive the solutions of many problems which are concerned with the partition of numbers. Questions of this sort would seem to defeat analysis without this help. Such a diversity of material might easily have grown into several volumes, but I have, as far as possible, expressed everything so succinctly that everywhere the foundation is very clearly explained. The further development is left to the industry of the readers. In this way they will have an opportunity to try their own ingenuity and further develop analysis itself. Nor do I hesitate to proclaim that within this book there are contained many things which are clearly new, but also some sources have been uncovered from which many significant further discoveries can be drawn, I have used the same arrangement in the second volume, where I have treated those topics which are commonly called higher geometry. Before I discuss conic sections, which in other treatments almost always come first, I have pro- posed a theory of curves with enough generality that it can advantageously be applied to an examination of the nature of any curve whatsoever. I use only an