Chapter 4 Circuit Theorems

Outline
Linearity Property Superposition Source Transformation Thevenins Theorem Nortons Theorem Maximum Power Transfer

Introduction
Discuss concepts of: Superposition Superposition, Source transformation, and Maximum power transfer. Since Kirchhoff's laws are unsuitable for analysis of complex circuits, theorems such as Thevenins and Nortons theorems will be discussed for analysis of complex circuits. These theorems are applicable to linear circuits.

Linearity Property
Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear relationship between cause and effect. If the input (excitation) is multiplied by a constant, then the output (response) is multiplied by the same constant. For a resistor, for example, Ohms law relates the input i to the output v, v = iR. If the current is increased by a constant, k, then the voltage increases correspondingly by k - Homogeneity property: kiR = kv. Additivity property the response to a sum of inputs is the sum of the responses to each input applied separately. If v1 = i1R and v 2 = i 2R
v = ( i1 + i 2 ) R = i1R + i 2R = v1 + v 2 then applying ( i1 + i 2 ) gives
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Linearity Property
A resistor is a linear element because the voltage-current relationship satisfies both the homogeneity and the additivity properties. In general, a circuit is linear if it is both additive and homogeneous. A linear circuit consists of only linear elements, linear dependent sources and independent sources. A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly proportional) to its input input. 2R = v2/R is a quadratic function, the Note: since p = i relationship between power and voltage (or current) is nonlinear.

Example 4.1
Consider the given linear circuit. The linear circuit has no independent sources inside it. It is excited by a voltage source vs, which serves as the input. The circuit is terminated by a load R and the current i through R is taken as an output.

Suppose vs = 10V gives i = 2A. According to the linearity principle, vs = 1V will give i = 2k (k = 1/10), i = 2(1/10) = 0.2A. Similarly, i = 1mA must be due to vs = 10k (k = 110-3/2), vs = 5mV. 6

Example 4.2
For the given circuit, find v0 when is = 15A and is = 30A 30A.

Example 4.2
Solution: By current division: i 2 = i 2 v0 = 4i 2 = 4 s = is 6 3 When: 2 i s = 15A, v 0 = (15 ) = 10V 3 2 i s = 30A, v 0 = ( 30 ) = 20V 3 This shows that when the current value is doubled, the voltage doubles.
8
iS i1 2 + vo 4

i R1 2 is = is = s R1 + R 2 2 + (6 + 4 ) 6
i2 6

Example 4.3
Assume that V0 = 1V and use linearity to calculate the actual value of V0 i the given l l h l l f in h i circuit.

Example 4.3
Solution: V 1 1 If V0 = 1V, then i1 = 0 = A and v1 = i1 (12 + 8 ) = (12 + 8 ) = 2 5V 1V h d 2.5V 8 8 8 Since the 12 and 8 resistors are in parallel with the voltage source, v s = v1 = 2.5V. Assuming v 0 = 1V gives v s = 2.5V. Using the linearity property, the actual source 10 voltage of 10V will give v 0 = 1 = 1( 4 ) = 4V. 2.5
VS = 10 V + v1 12 i1

+ vo

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Superposition
When a circuit has two or more independent sources, one way to determine the value of a specific value ( p (voltage or current) is to g ) use nodal or mesh analysis. An alternative is to determine the contribution of each independent source to the variable and then add them up. This is known as superposition. The idea of the superposition rests on the linearity property. The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltage across (or currents through) that element due to each independent source acting alone.

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Superposition
Steps to apply superposition principle: Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active source using the technique covered previously. Repeat previous step for each of the other independent sources. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent sources. Note: Consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources are turned off. This implies that every voltage source is replaced by 0V (or a short circuit), and every current source by 0A (or an open circuit). This way we obtain a simpler and more manageable circuit. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.
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Example 4.4
Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit. i i

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Example 4.4
Solution: Since there are only two sources, let v = v1 + v 2 where v1 and v 2 are the contribution due to the 6V voltage source and the 3A current source respectively. To obtain v1 , set the current source to zero KVL (loop 1): 6 + 8i1 + 4 i1 = 0 i1 = 0.5A v1 = 4 i1 = 4 ( 0.5 ) = 2V or using voltage division: v1 = 4 ( 6 ) = 2V 8+4

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Example 4.4
Solution (contd.): b To obtain v 2 , set the voltage source to zero. v v KCL: 3 = i 2 + i 3 3 = 2 + 2 v 2 = 8V 8 4 or using current division: i3 = 8 ( 3 ) = 2A and v 2 = 4 i 3 = 4 ( 2 ) = 8V 8+4

Hence, v = v1 + v 2 = 2 + 8 = 10V

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Example 4.5
Use the superposition theorem to find v0.

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Example 4.5
Solution: There are two sources. Let v 0 = v1 + v 2 where v1 and v 2 are the contribution due to the 20V voltage source and the 8A current source respectively. To obtain v1 , set the current source to zero. KVL (loop 1): 20 + 2i1 + 3i1 + 5i1 = 0 i1 = 2A v1 = 2i1 = 2 ( 2 ) = 4V or using voltage division: v1 = 2 ( 20 ) = 4V 2+3+5
+ v1 2 3 i1 5

20 V

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Example 4.5
Solution (contd.): To obtain v 2 , set the voltage source to zero. Since R1 = R 2 = 5, using current division, i1 = i 2 = v 2 = 2i 2 = 2 ( 4 ) = 8V Thus, v 0 = v1 + v 2 = 4 + 8 = 12V
+ v2 2

8 = 4A. 2
i2 i1 5

8A

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Example 4.6
Find vx using superposition in the circuit.

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Example 4.6
Solution: The circuit involves a dependent (current) source which must be left intact. Let v x = v1 + v 2 , where v1 and v 2 are the contribution due to the 10V voltage source and the 2A current source respectively. To obtain v1 , set the current source to zero. KCL: i1 + 0.1v1 = i 2 10 v1 v + 0.1v1 = 1 20 4 v1 = 2.5V
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10 V + 20 i1 v1 i2 4 0.1v1

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Example 4.6
Solution (contd.): To obtain v 2 , set the voltage source to zero. KCL: 2 + 0.1v 2 = i 3 + i 4 v v 2 + 0.1v 2 = 2 + 2 20 4 40 + 2v 2 = v 2 + 5v 2 40 = 4v 2 v 2 = 10V Hence, v x = v1 + v 2 = 2.5 + 10 = 12.5V
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20 i v 3 2 i4 2A 4 0.1v2

Example 4.7
Find I in the circuit using superposition principle. i i l

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Example 4.7
Solution: There Th are 3 sources. Let I = i1 + i 2 + i 3 , where i1 , i 2 and i 3 are the h d h contribution due to the 16V, 12V and 4A sources respectively. To obtain i1 , set all sources to zero except the 16V voltage source. 16 i1 = = 1A 16
6 2 i1 16V + 8

To obtain i 2 , set all sources to zero except the 12V voltage source. 12 i2 = = 0.75A 16
6 2 i2 12V 8 +

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Example 4.7
Solution (contd.): To obtain i 3 , set all sources to zero except the 4A current source. Using current division i 3 = 2 ( 4 ) = 0.5A 2 + 14
2 6 4A i3 8

Hence, I = i1 + i 2 + i 3 = 1 0.75 + 0.5 = 0.75A

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Source Transformation
Another tool for simplifying circuits and follows the concept of equivalence. A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source vS in series f p p g g with a resistor R by a current source iS in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.

Source transformation of independent sources

If the sources are turned off, the equivalence resistance at terminal a-b i b th th t d ff th i l it tt i l b in both circuits is R. When terminal a-b are short-circuited, the short circuit current flowing from a to b is iSC = vS/R in the circuit on the left-hand side and iSC = iS for the circuit on the right-hand side. In order for the two circuits to be equivalent, vS/R = iS. Hence, source transformation requires that: v v S = i S R or i S = S 25 R

Source Transformation
The application of source transformation to dependent sources is similar to that of independent sources.

Source transformation of dependent sources

Note: The arrow of the current source is directed towards the positive terminal of the voltage source. Source transformation is not possible when R = 0, which is the case with an ideal voltage source. However, for a practical, non-ideal source, R is not equal to 0. Similarly, an ideal current source with R = cannot be replaced by a finite voltage source.

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Example 4.8
Find v0 using source transformation in the given circuit. i i

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Example 4.8
Solution: , g ( First, transform the current and voltage sources (3A4 = 12V and 12V/3 = 4A).

Transform the 4 and 2 resistors in series which gives 6 and then transform the 12V voltage source (12V/6 = 2A) t f th lt 2A).

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Example 4.8
Solution (contd.): p gives 2 and combine the Combine the 3 and 6 resistors in parallel which g 2A and 4A current sources (4A 2A = 2A).

Using current division:

2 ( 2 ) = 0.4A 2+8 v 0 = 8i = 8 ( 0.4 ) = 3.2V i=

(or further combine the resistors in parallel.)

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Example 4.9
Find i0 in the circuit using source transformation. f i

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Example 4.9
Solution: g || g g Combining 6||3 gives 2 and transforming the 5A current source (5A2 = 10V). Also, combining the 1 and 4 resistors in series gives 5.
2 5V
+

io 10V + 7 5 3A

Combining the 10V and 5V voltage sources gives 15V and then transforming the th 15V source (15V/2 = 7 5 A). 7.5 A)
io 7.5A 2 7 5 3A

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Example 4.9
Solution (contd.): g ( ) || Transforming the two current sources (7.5A+3A = 10.5A) and also 2||5 = 10/7.
io 10.5A 7 (10/7)

Using current division:

i0 = 7 (10 5 ) = 1.78A 10.5 1 78A 7 + 10 7 10

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Example 4.10
Find ix using source transformation in the given circuit. i i

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Example 4.10
Solution: Transform the CCVS 2ix/5 = 0.4ixA.
ix 4A 10 5 0.4ix

Combining the two sources.

ix 4 0.4ix A 10 5

Using current division: ix =

5 ( 4 0.4 i x ) 10 + 5 i x = 1.176A

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Thevenins Theorem
Provides a technique by which the fixed part of the circuit is replaced by an equivalent circuit. p c d q v c c

(a) Original circuit

(b) Thevenin equivalent circuit

Thevenins theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

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Thevenins Theorem
VTh is the open circuit voltage across the terminals a-b. RTh is the input resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

Consider two cases in finding RTh: Case 1: If the network has no dependent sources, turn off all independent sources. RTh is the input resistance of the network looking between terminals a-b.
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Thevenins Theorem
Case 2: If the network has dependent sources, turn off all independent sources. As with superposition, dependent sources are not to be turned off because they are controlled by circuit variables. variables Apply a voltage source vo at the terminals a and b to determine the resulting current io to have RTh = vo/io. Alternatively, insert a current source io at terminals a-b and find the terminal voltage vo to have RTh = vo/io.

Both the approaches will give the same result and any value of vo and io can be used.
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Thevenins Theorem
If RTh takes a negative value (v = iR), it implies that the circuit is supplying power. Consider a linear circuit terminated by a load RL. The current RL through the load and the voltage VL across the load are easily determined once the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit at the load terminal is obtained.

IL =

VTh RTh + R L RL VTh RTh + R L

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VL = R L I L =

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Example 4.11
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown below to the left of the terminals a b Then find a-b. the current though RL = 6, 16 and 36.

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Example 4.11
Solution: Find RTh by turning off the 32V voltage source (replace it with a short-circuit) y g g ( p ) and the 2A current source (replace it with an open-circuit) as shown in Fig. a. 4 (12 ) RTh = 4||12 + 1 = + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4 4 + 12 Consider Fig. b to find VTh. (Note: No current flows through the 1 resistor, therefore, it becomes redundant.)

(a) Finding RTH (b) Finding VTH

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Example 4.11
Solution (contd.): Applying mesh analysis: Loop 1: 32 + 4 i1 + 12 ( i1 i 2 ) = 0 16i1 12i 2 = 32 (1) Subs. ( 2 ) into (1) and solve for i1 : i1 = 0.5A Since the 1 resistor is redundant ( no voltage drop across it ) , VTh i equal to the voltage across the 12 resistor. is l h l h i VTh = 12 ( i1 i 2 ) = 12 ( 0.5 ( 2 ) ) = 30V Alternatively, other methods such as nodal analysis or source transformation can be used. Loop 2: i 2 = 2A ( 2 )

Example 4.11
Solution (contd.): Thevenin equivalent circuit :

The current through R L : VTh 30 = IL = RTh + R L 4 + R L When: R L = 6 I L = 30 10 = 3A R L = 16 I L = 30 20 = 1.5A R L = 36 I L = 30 40 = 0.75A

Thevenin equivalent circuit

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Example 4.12
Using Thevenins theorem, find the equivalent circuit to the l f of the terminals in the circuit i i h left f h i l i h i i and then find I.

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Example 4.12
Solution: To find RTh, turn off the current source and the voltage source as shown in g Fig. a. 6 6
RTh = ( 6 + 6 )||4 = 12||4 =
4 12 ( 4 ) = 3 12 + 4 Use source transformation to determine VTh as shown in Fig. b. Transform the 12V source (12V/6 = 2A). 6 + VTh RTh (a)

2A

2A

(b)

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Example 4.12
Solution (contd.): The two current sources combine to give 4A. g Transform the 4A current source (4A6 = 24V).
24 V + 6 6 + VTh

Using voltage division: VTh = Thevenin equivalent circuit:

3

4 ( 24 ) = 6V 6+6+4

(c)

I=
6V

VTh 6 = = 1.5A RTh + R L 3 + 1

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Example 4.13
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit below to the l f of the terminals. i i b l h left f h i l

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Example 4.13
Solution: To find RTh, set the independent source equal to zero but leave the dependent source. Excite the network with v0 connected to the terminal a-b. Lets use v0 = 1V for ease and then obtain RTh = v0/i0 = 1/i0 . (A current source i0 can be used instead of v0 to get RTh Ix 3 a = v0/i0 = v0/1 . )
i0 5 1.5Ix 4 + v0 = 1V

Transform the CCCS (1.5Ix5= 7.5Ix) (1 5I 7 5I ).

5 Ix 3 a

i0 + 7.5Ix i1 4 i2 + v0 = 1V

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Example 4.13
Solution (contd.): Applying mesh analysis: Loop 1: 7.5I x + 5i1 + 3i1 + 4 ( i1 i 2 ) = 0 7.5I x + 5I x + 3I x + 4 ( I x + i 0 ) = 0; [ i1 = I x ; i 2 = i 0 ] 4.5I x + 4 i 0 = 0 (1) 1+4 1 4 ( i 0 I x ) = 0; [ i1 = I x ; i 2 = i 0 ] 0 4 I x + 4i0 = 1 ( 2 ) Loop 2: 1+4 ( i 2 i1 ) = 0

Solve (1) and ( 2 ) simultaneously : I x = 2A and i 0 = 2.25A v 1 RTh = 0 = =0.444 i0 2.25

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Example 4.13
Solution (contd.): To find VTh, consider the following circuit and apply source transformation.
5 Ix 3 a + VTh 4

6V

+ 1.5Ix

Transform the 6V voltage source (6V/5 = 6/5A).

Ix 3 a

6/5 A

1.5Ix

+ VTh

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Example 4.13
Solution (contd.): Combine the current sources (6/5+1.5Ix) and transform it [(6/5+1.5Ix)5 = 6+7.5Ix(V)].
5 Ix 3 a + VTh 4

6 + 7.5Ix

V 6 + 7.5I x 6 + 7.5I x = = R 5+3+4 12 12 I x = 6 + 7.5I x Ix = VTh = I x 4 = 1.33 ( 4 ) = 5.33V I x = 1.33A

Thevenin equivalent circuit:

0.444

5.33V
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Example 4.14
Obtain the Thevenin equivalent of the given circuit. i i

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Example 4.14
Solution: To find RTh , apply v 0 = 1V at the terminals : Applying mesh analysis: 5i1 + 10i1 + 4 ( 5i1 ) + 15i1 15i 2 = 0 Mesh 2: 1+15 ( i 2 i1 ) = 0 Mesh 1: 5i1 + 10i1 + 4v x + 15 ( i1 i 2 ) = 0; [v x = 5i1 ]
10 + vx 4vx + io 5 i1 15 i2 + vo = 1V

10i1 15i 2 = 0 (1)

15i1 15i 2 = 1 ( 2 )

Solve (1) and ( 2 ) simultaneously : i1 = 1 5 A and i 2 = 2 15 A i 0 = i 2 = 2 15 A RTh = v0 1 15 = = = 7.5 2 i0 2 15

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Example 4.14
Solution ( contd. ) : To fi d T find VTh , consider the following circuit. id h f ll i i i KVL: 5i + 10i + 4v x + 15i = 0; [v x = 5i ] 5i + 10i 20i + 15i = 0 10i = 0 i =0 VTh = 15i = 15 ( 0 ) =0V 0V
+ vx 10 4vx + 5 i 15 + vTh

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Nortons Theorem
Nortons theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short-circuit current through short circuit the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

Original circuit

Norton equivalent circuit

RN is the same as RTh: RN = RTh

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Nortons Theorem
IN is the short-circuit current from terminal a to b: IN = iSC

Finding Norton current

Dependent and independent sources are treated the same way as in Thevenins theorem. Relationship between Nortons and Thevenins theorem.

This is essentially source transformation and for this reason, source transformation is often called Thevenin-Norton transformation.

V R N = RTh and I N = Th RTh

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Nortons Theorem
Since VTh, IN and RTh are related, to determine the Thevenin or q q Norton equivalent circuit requires: the open circuit voltage VOC across terminals a and b. the short circuit current ISC at terminals a and b. the equivalent or input resistance RIN at terminals a and b when all independent sources are turned off. Any two of the three can be calculated using the method that takes the least effort and the third can be found using Ohms law. Since V VTh = VOC , I N = I SC , RTh = OC = R N I SC the open-circuit and short-circuit tests are sufficient to find any Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit. 56

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Example 4.15
Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the given circuit. i i

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Example 4.15
Solution: Find RN the same way as RTh. Set the independent sources to zero.
3 3

RN

R N = ( 3 + 3 )||6 = 6||6 66 = = 3 6+6

To obtain IN, short-circuit terminal a-b. Ignore the 6 resistor since it is short circuited (all current will flow through the short circuit) short-circuit). Transform the voltage source (15V/3=5A) and combine the two current sources (5A+4A = 9A).
3 3 IN

9A

Through current division: 9 I N = = 4.5A 2

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Example 4.15
Solution (contd.): Alternatively IN can be determined by VTh/RTh. Obtain VTh as the Alternatively, open-circuit voltage across terminals a-b. Norton equivalent circuit:
a

IN = 4.5A

RN = 3
b

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Example 4.16
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the given circuit. i i

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Example 4.16
Solution: To obtain RN, set the independent current source to zero and connect a voltage of v0 = 1V to the terminals and RN = v0/i0 = 1/i0.
2vx + 6 2 1 i0 + vx +

ix

1V

KVL: 2v x + 6i x v x = 0; [v x = v 0 = 1V ] 2 + 6i x 1 = 0 i x = 0.5A v Apply KCL at node 1: i 0 = i x + x = 0.5 + 0.5 = 1A 2 vo 1 R N = = = 1 io 1

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Example 4.16
Solution (contd.): short circuit ab To obtain IN, short-circuit terminals a-b and find ISC. Ignore the 2 resistor since it is short-circuited. Also, since vx = 0, the dependent voltage source gives 0V. Since the 6 resistor is short-circuited: ISC = IN = 10A. 2v
x

+ 6 10 A 2 + vx Isc

Norton equivalent circuit:

a

IN = 10A

RN = 1
b

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Maximum Power Transfer

Aim is to transfer/deliver maximum power to a load in a system with known internal losses. The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power a linear circuit can deliver to a load. For the given Thevenin equivalent, with adjustable load resistance RL, 2 the power delivered to the load is

VTh p = i 2R L = RL RTh + R L

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Maximum Power Transfer

For a given circuit, VTh and RTh are fixed. By varying the load p resistance RL, the power delivered to the load varies as shown below.

The power is small for small or large values of RL but maximum for some value of RL between zero and infinity. Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load (RL = RTh).
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Maximum Power Transfer

Note: Maximum power transferred (RL = RTh)

pmax =
When RL RTh

V2

Th

4 RTh
2

VTh p = RL RTh + R L

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Example 4.17
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the given circuit. Find the maximum f i h i i i Fi d h i power.

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Example 4.17
Solution: Determine the Thevenin resistance RTh and the Thevenin voltage VTh across the terminals a-b. To get RTh , use the circuit below:

RTh = 2 + 3 + ( 6||12 ) = 5 +

6 12 = 9 6 + 12

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Example 4.17
Solution: To get VTh, consider the following circuit:
Mesh analysis: Mesh 1: 12 + 18i1 12i 2 = 0 Mesh 2: i 2 = 2A Solve for i1 , i1 = 2 3 A Analyze mesh 2 to determine VTh :

12 ( i 2 i1 ) + 3i 2 + VTh = 0 12 2 2 3 + 3 ( 2 ) + VTh = 0 VTh = 22V For max. power transfer: R L = RTh = 9 and the max. power is: pmax =
2 VTh 22 2 = = 13.44W 4RL 4 (9 )
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))

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