CIRED

17th International Conference on Electricity Distribution

Barcelona, 12-15 May 2003

IMPACT ON POWER SYSTEM BY STATIONARY FUEL CELL APPLICATIONS

Dirk AUDRING, Gerd BALZER University of Technology Darmstadt, Germany daudring@eev.tu-darmstadt.de Sven DEMMIG BEWAG AG Berlin, Germany demmig.sven@bewag.com Werner ZIMMERMANN ABB Utilities GmbH Mannheim, Germany werner.s.zimmermann@de.abb.com

INTRODUCTION Liberalization of electrical energy market offers great opportunities for development and marketing of dispersed generation. Quite a few manufactures develop fuel cells for a wide range of applications. Stationary fuel cells for dispersed generation are one field of application. This paper considers fuel cells as dispersed generators, but a lot of results are applicable to other distributed energy converters. Proliferation of distributed generation makes new demands on local distribution companies [1]. They have to assess the impact of distributed generation on power system planning, operation, protection and tariff. A dynamic simulation model using EMTDC program was developed in order to investigate the impact of fuel cells on power system [2]. The results of simulations on model networks with dispersed fuel cells will be discussed. Examinations include short-circuit performance, protection, grounding and islanding. Fuel cells connected to power system are suitable for cogeneration of heat and power due to high ratio of electric to thermal power of about 1 and a part-load capability at a high efficiency. Hence fuel cells are appropriate to supply manufacturing plants and department stores as well as office, public and residential buildings [3]. Utilization of produced heat depends on operating temperature of fuel cell. Operating temperature is determined by type of fuel cell and ranges from 80C up to 980C [4]. Operating modes are current-controlled, heat-controlled and remote-controlled operation. Remotecontrolled operation is also known as virtual power plant and offers local distribution company the opportunity to run dispersed fuel cells according to requirements of network. Since independent heatcontrolled and current-controlled operation is more severe on operation and planning of network, these operating modes will be discussed in this paper in detail. This paper describes impact on power system by dispersed fuel cells. Recommendations are given for simple and efficient integration of fuel cell systems into the power system. Special considerations are necessary to ensure safety and selectivity.

PROTECTION SCHEME OF NETWORK CONNECTION Electrical output of fuel cell is direct voltage. Fuel cells are stacked to get an appropriate voltage level. A step-up converter boosts voltage of fuel cell stack to feed a singlephase or three-phase inverter. The inverter injects power directly or via an inverter-transformer into power system. Protection of network connection is shown at Fig. 1. Overvoltage and undervoltage protection relays are mandatory for fuel cell systems. Present guidelines [5] recommend the following set-point values: Overvoltage protection relay: 1.06 p.u. Undervoltage protection relay: 0.8 p.u. If only over- and undervoltage protection is installed, an accessible disconnecting facility for utility staff is required.
Distribution Switchboard
u

=
i

~ ~
uPCC Overvoltage relay, Undervoltage relay Overfrequency relay, Underfrequency relay, Measurement of Networkimpedance

Fuel cell stack

Inverter

Mandatory Protection

Fig. 1: Protection of network connection

An accessible disconnecting facility is not necessary, if automatic power system monitoring with disconnecting device is used for three-phase power injection with rating lower than 30 kVA or single-phase power injection with rating lower than 4.6 kVA. The automatic power system monitoring has to include over- and underfrequency protection relay and measurement of network impedance [5]. Since measurement of network impedance is an active technique, disturbances of network voltage occur and many installed units may interact and measure incorrect [6].

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17th International Conference on Electricity Distribution

Barcelona, 12-15 May 2003

LIMITATION OF POWER INJECTION Rated power is determined dependent on operation modes, e.g. current-controlled operation or heat-controlled operation. Power injection of dispersed fuel cells is limited by: voltage variation at point of common coupling (PCC) [5,7], permissible voltage range of network [8] and current carrying capacity of devices. Voltage variation due to functional switching of a single fuel cell limits power rating [5,7]. Since fuel cells feed via an inverter and are switched synchronised to power system, transient currents do not occur and hence stationary voltage variation equals voltage variation due to functional switching. Stationary voltage variation can be calculated by means of short-circuit power and angle at point of common coupling as well as rated power and power factor angle of fuel cell (equation (1)).
SFC j ( ) u = e sc,pcc FC S sc,pcc

generators and will lead to discrimination of some inquiries of connection. Simple and fair guidelines are necessary to enable dispersed generation in large scale.
Generator reference-arrow system
s c, pcc sc F = , pcc C 0 sc ,p c FC = 1 5 c FC = 30 sc ,p c c FC = 45
FC

4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5

(1)

sc ,p

|upcc| [%]

cc FC =

~ ~ ~

sc,pccFC= 75

= 90 sc,pcc FC

60
0.08

P Q

0.02

0.04

0.06

SFC Ssc,pcc

0.1

with: Ssc,pcc sc,pcc SFC FC

- short-circuit power at PCC - short-circuit angle at PCC - complex power of fuel cell - power-factor angle of fuel cell

Fig. 3: Voltage variation at PCC due to functional switching of a single fuel cell unit

The resulting voltage at PCC with power injection of a fuel cell can be derived by vector summation of voltage variation and node voltage at PCC without the fuel cell (Fig. 2). Absolute value of the resulting voltage variation |uPCC| is calculated and shown at Fig. 3 as a function of ratio of complex power injection to short-circuit power depending on differences of angles. If power factor angle of fuel cell is unknown or changes during operation, an angle difference of 0 is to assume to consider the worstcase scenario.

IMPACT OF OPERATION MODE ON LOAD FLOW Main operating modes of fuel cells are heat-controlled and current-controlled operation. The model network as shown in Fig. 10 was simulated with about 50% fuel cells powered residential buildings. Fuel cells were rated and operated with heat-controlled and current-controlled operation. Base of heat-controlled operation is a typical thermal power characteristic. Rated power of heatcontrolled fuel cells is about three to four times higher than current-controlled fuel cells [3]. Current-controlled operation is based on standardised load characteristic of residential customer. Loads are modelled by means of standardised load characteristics [9]. Current-controlled Operation Current-controlled operation is favourable to local distribution company, if generation follows the load characteristic of local load. If typical load characteristic of consumer is generated by fuel cells, infeed from medium voltage network is diminished and hence distribution transformer and medium voltage network are relieved. Feeding according to a load characteristic enables easy accounting by net metering. Fig. 4 compares currents through power transformer with heat-controlled operation, current-controlled operation and without dispersed generation on a working day in winter.

Im

UPCC,

wit hout fuel cell

Fig. 2: Exemplary vector summation of voltages at PCC (Not to scale!)

As an example, a fuel cell with a rated power of 40 kVA and maximum inductive power factor of 0.95 (FC = 18.2) results in a maximum voltage rise of 1.96 % at a PCC with a short-circuit power of 2.0 MVA and a short-circuit angle of 30. Present guidelines permit a voltage variation of 2% for all dispersed generators at network area. This requires network calculation for every inquiry of connection to power system. That is not feasible with a lot of dispersed

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UPCC,

wit h fuel cell

|UPCC| Re U PCC - FC

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CIRED

17th International Conference on Electricity Distribution

Barcelona, 12-15 May 2003

Current-controlled operation relieves power transformer. Some fuel cells are shut down at night and hence loadcurrent increases slightly. Fuel cells with current-controlled operation smooth load curve. Voltage rise due to current-controlled fuel cells is within acceptable limits (Fig. 5). Tap changer of power transformer is not switched due to low voltage rise and hence instantaneous tripping of fuel cells leads to the same voltages as the calculation of load flow without fuel cells (solid line at Fig. 5).
I [kA]
1,0 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 -0,2 -0,4 -0,6 3:00 6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 0:00

needed for hot water and fuel cells are shut down or at noload condition. Since rating of fuel cells for heat-controlled operation is higher [3], current may flow from mediumvoltage network to high-voltage-network (Fig. 4). A significant difference is heavy increase of power injection during morning hours, where heat is demanded but electrical energy consumption is low. Power surplus at heat-controlled operation results in a voltage peak around 6 a.m. to 7 a.m. (Fig. 5). Voltage raise due to high power injection of heat-controlled fuel cells is extenuated by tap changer of power transformer at highvoltage to medium-voltage network. If all fuel cells are tripped instantaneously (e.g. due to a voltage sag as described at Fig. 11), voltage drops some per cent until tap changer of power transformer has controlled voltage on medium-voltage side (dash double-dotted line at Fig. 5). NEUTRAL POINT CONNECTION OF FUEL CELL SYSTEMS

without fuel cells

current-controlled operation

heat-controlled operation

Time [hh:mm]
Fig. 4: Current at power transformer from high-voltage network to medium-voltage network at different operating modes on a working day in winter

Possible methods of neutral-point connection of dispersed fuel cells depend on grounding scheme of network. Starpoints of fuel cells have to be isolated at isolated or resonant-earthed systems in order to avoid interference with network protection. Both isolated or earthed starpoints of fuel cells are possible at earth-neutral systems. Isolated star-points of transformerless inverter or invertertransformer of fuel cell do not influence zero-sequence and hence grounding scheme of power system is not affected. If neutral point of transformerless inverter is connected to neutral conductor, high frequency currents are injected into neutral conductor. Especially the switching frequency of inverter is to filter out. Control of inverter has to measure and reduce zero-sequence current injection.
|| [A] a) b)

u [p.u.]
1.04 1.03 1.02 1.01 1 0.99 0.98

without dispersed fuel cells current-controlled fuel cells heat-controlled fuel cells after shut-down of heat-controlled fuel cells

10

10
0:00 3:00 6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 0:00

Time [hh:mm]

Fig. 5: Voltages at node of low-voltage network at different operating modes on a working day in winter
10
-1

Heat-controlled Operation Fuel cells with heat-controlled operation generate power surplus in winter. During summer thermal energy is only

/1

/1

Fig. 6: Low-order harmonics of current in neutral conductor to distribution transformer; case a) direct-grounded inverter-transformers and case b) isolated star-points of inverter-transformers

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17th International Conference on Electricity Distribution

Barcelona, 12-15 May 2003

Fuel cell systems with direct-grounded inverter-transformer (like at Fig. 7) influence zero-sequence of network independent from power injection of fuel cell. Fig. 6 compares results of simulations with direct grounded inverter-transformer (case a) and isolated invertertransformer (case b) at an earth-neutral network. The distribution transformer at secondary substation and loads on low-voltage network are earthed in both cases. Fig. 6 shows low-order harmonics of current through neutral conductor connected at distribution transformer. Since direct grounded distributed inverter-transformers reduce zero-sequence impedance, fundamental frequency component of current (here 50 Hz) is reduced in case a. Third harmonic current is higher with direct grounded inverter-transformer (case a) due to saturation effects and different ratings of transformers. Zero-sequence impedance of inverter-transformer can be increased by means of a starpoint reactance at distributed inverter-transformers. Neutral point connection of distribution transformer at secondary substation must not be changed in order to ensure function of shock-hazard and network protection. Impact of neutral point connection of inverter transformer of dispersed fuel cells on unsymmetrical faults to earth and feeder protection is discussed at the next chapter. SHORT-CIRCUIT PERFORMANCE AND IMPACT ON NETWORK PROTECTION Since inverter is current controlled at inner control loop and current injection is limited by current carrying capacity of inverter valves, fuel cell contributes maximally their rated current to network during short-circuit [2]. Shortcircuit current is increased by percentage of voltage rise at fault location due to fuel cells. Since voltage rise due to dispersed generation is limited to 2 % according to present guidelines, short-circuit current is maximally raised by 2 %. Hence increase of thermal stress of equipment is negligible. Transferred short-circuit current at feeder protection of faulted feeder is slightly reduced by dispersed fuel cells between feeder protection and fault location. Fuel cells between fault location and end of feeder reduce also minimum tripping current at radial networks.

Fuel cells may cause reverse currents through directional protection relay's, like meshed network master relay's at distribution transformers of meshed low-voltage network. Set-point values of tripping current in reverse direction have to be higher than operating current to enable power flow to medium-voltage network.
iL,N [kA]
4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 0 0.05 0.1 0.15

Currents through phase conductors:

(t-TSC) [s]
Fig. 8: Currents through terminals of distribution transformer during a single-phase to earth short-circuit

iL,FC [kA]
0.4

Currents through phase conductors:

0.2

-0.2 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15

(t-TSC) [s] iPEN,FC [kA]

0.8 0.4 0 -0.4 -0.8 -1.2 0 0.05 0.1 0.15

Current through neutral conductor:

(t-TSC) [s]
Fig. 9: Currents through terminals of a direct-grounded invertertransformer of a fuel cell during a single-phase to earth short-circuit

iL3,N iL2,N iL1,N

iL3,FC iL2,FC iL1,FC

}
~ ~ ~ =
ZE,T,FC

3PEN~50Hz 230/400V

Fuel cell system

iPEN,FC Single-phase to earth short-circuit

Fig. 7: Equivalent network with single-phase to earth short-circuit

Non-directional overcurrent protection relay's of faultless feeders are not affected by fuel cells during short-circuit.

Neutral point connection of inverter-transformer of dispersed fuel cells influence unsymmetrical faults to earth, like single-phase and two-phases to earth faults. Fig. 7 shows the equivalent circuit diagram of a simplified grounded low-voltage network with a direct-grounded inverter-transformer of fuel cell. A direct-grounded starpoint of inverter-transformer reduces zero-sequence impedance. Fed single-phase to earth short-circuit of distribution transformer (Fig. 8) splits between zerosequence impedances. Hence high zero-sequence current flows through the inverter transformer of fuel cell (Fig. 9).

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17th International Conference on Electricity Distribution

Barcelona, 12-15 May 2003

Neutral conductor has to carry three times the zerosequence current. Zero-sequence current of direct grounded inverter-transformer is mainly determined by short-circuit power at fault location and zero-sequence impedance of network side. Currents through phase conductors multiple exceeds operating current of fuel cell. Overcurrent protection at distribution switchboard may trip and disconnect fuel cell during a single-phase to earth shortcircuit [2]. Since feeder protection is not automated, fuel cell has to be reconnected manually. A star-point reactance reduces zero-sequence current at inverter-transformer. Isolated star-points of inverter-transformer of dispersed fuel cells do not influence zero-sequence of network and hence fuel cells contribute maximally their rated current to an unsymmetrical fault to earth. INFLUENCE OF SYSTEM DISTURBANCES ON FUEL CELLS Voltage drop during a short-circuit may trip undervoltage protection relay's of fuel cells at faultless feeders, if tripping time of feeder protection is longer than tripping time of undervoltage protection relay. Fig. 10 represents the examined medium-voltage model network. Fuel cells are connected at medium-voltage and subordinated lowvoltage networks.

below 0.8 p.u. and hence undervoltage protection relay's of fuel cells trip and disconnect fuel cells from power system. Present guidelines recommend instantaneous tripping (in this case 50 ms [10]), if voltage at point of common coupling drops below 0.8 p.u. [5]. The overcurrent-time protection relay at faulted feeder trips here after 500 ms and disconnects medium-voltage feeder A. Short-circuits on medium-voltage networks may affect a huge number of dispersed generators on subordinated networks and may result in a loss of dispersed power generation. Hence local distribution company has to provide sufficient controlling power. Selectivity may be achieved by delaying the tripping of undervoltage protection relays of fuel cells longer than tripping time of feeder protection, if possible. Simultaneously, uncontrolled and unintended isolated operation of a network area by dispersed generators must be avoided to ensure safety und prevent from out of step reclosing.

URMS [p.u.]
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4

UB1, UB2, UB3, UB4

Yd5 110/10,5 kV 40 MVA; ukr= 12 %

0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 -0.025 0.0

UA1 UA2, U A3, UA4

0.025 0.05 0.075 0.475 0.5

UA1
FC

A1

B1

UB1
FC

(t-TSC) [s]

0.525 0.55

Fig. 11: RMS-Voltages at low-voltage side of distribution transformers

UA2
FC

A2

B2

SC
A3 B3

UB2
FC

ISLANDING Fuel cells with self-commutated inverter inject constant current during network connection. Higher-level control is power control, which sets reference value for current control. Set-point of power injection is determined by operating mode. If part of network with dispersed generation is disconnected from power system, voltage and frequency changes to equalise active and reactive power generation and consumption. Fluctuating behaviour of loads lead to a permanent change of voltage and frequency. An unintended, temporary stable, isolated network may occur, if voltage and frequency remain within the limits of protection relays of fuel cells. Since a small, disconnected part of network has a high fluctuation of loads, voltage or frequency may run suddenly outside the limits of protection relays of fuel cells. Fluctuating loads are equalising themselves at a large

UA3
FC

UB3
FC

UA4
FC

A4

B4

UB4
FC

Length of cable each 1,0 km NAKBA 3 x185 mm

Fig. 10: Single-line diagram of medium-voltage model network corresponding to Fig. 11

Fig. 11 shows the simulated RMS-values of node voltages on low-voltage side of distribution transformers during a three-phase short circuit at medium-voltage node A2. Voltages on all subordinated low-voltage networks drop

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17th International Conference on Electricity Distribution

Barcelona, 12-15 May 2003

disconnected network area and hence variation of voltage and frequency is smaller, but power consumption of large network area is higher and so a lot of installed dispersed fuel cells must be operating to feed the loads. The possibility to achieve an unintended, stable isolated network is higher at large network areas than at small branches. Since short-circuit power of fuel cell is low, fuel cells are not capable to feed a network area with short-circuit. If a feeder is disconnected for maintenance, fuel cells must be shutdown. Grounding and shorting the disconnected feeder secures from working on an energised network area. Several approaches are researched to prevent from unintended isolated operation of dispersed generators [6]. CONCLUSIONS Power injection into power system is limited by voltagerise due to functional switching of a single unit, the upper limit of the voltage range for all distributed generators and current carrying capacity of the devices. Current-controlled operation relieves high-voltage network and power transformer. Heat-controlled operation may lead to a power surplus in winter, especially in the morning hours. Non-directional overcurrent protection of feeders is not affected by fuel cells. Exceptions are fuel cells with direct grounded inverter transformer, where tripping of overcurrent protection at point of common coupling is possible due to high zero-sequence currents during unsymmetrical faults to earth. Directional protection relays have to allow operating current in reverse direction to prevent from false tripping. Voltage sag during a short-circuit may trip undervoltage protection relay's of fuel cells at faultless feeders, if tripping time of feeder protection is longer than tripping time of undervoltage protection relay. Hence selectivity is only achieved by delaying tripping of undervoltage protection relay's until faulted feeder is disconnected. Technical problems with integration of fuel cells into power system are solvable. Fuel cells have to prove reliability, availability and economic efficiency, before they take on important tasks of electrical power supply.

REFERENCES [1] Cigre Working Group 37.23, 1999, Impact of increasing contribution of dispersed generation on the power system, Cigre Report 137. [2] D. Audring, G. Balzer, 2002, Simulating electrical performance of stationary fuel cells for dispersed generation, Proceedings 14th Power System Computation Conference (PSCC). [3] D. Audring, G. Balzer, O. Schmitt A. Wildenhain, 2001, Impact on power system by fuel cells supplying residential buildings, Proceedings IEEE Porto PowerTech 2001, IEEE. [4] R. H. Wolk, 1999, Fuel cells for homes and hospitals, IEEE Spectrum, May 1999, 45-52. [5] VDEW-Richtlinie, 2001, Eigenerzeugungsanlagen am Niederspannungsnetz, VWEW-Verlag, Frankfurt/M. [6] D. Schulz, R. Hanitsch, 2001, Netzkopplung von Photovoltaikanlagen Realisierungsmglichkeiten der Netzberwachung, Proceedings 16. Nationales Symposium Photovoltaischer Solarenergie, Staffelstein, 218-226 [7] IEC 1000, 1994, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - part 3: Limits, IEC. [8] EN 50160, 1999, Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public distribution systems, European Standard CENELEC. [9] Adam, Schiefdecker, Meier, Fnfgeld, 1999, Reprsentative VDEW-Lastprofile, VWEWVerlag, Frankfurt/M [10] Data sheet SIPROTEC 7RW600, Siemens PT&D, Raleigh 1998

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