The Role of Acetic Acid in Wine As one of the most chemically simplistic acid in wine, acetic acid can

be either beneficial or detrimental based on its concentration. Its presence in wine is mainly due to yeast and bacterial metabolism. But it is also formed as wine ages in oak cooperage. The normal level of acetic acid in wine is around 300mg/liter. This number may not mean much to you, but it is very important to winemakers. Around this level, acetic acid is very desirable, contributing to the wines smell and taste. Another positive benefit of acetic acid is through its reaction with esters, producing acetate esters, which contributes to a wines fruit character. It is critical, however, to keep the acetic acid concentration around 300mg/liter. As it increases above this critical number, it gradually gives the wine a sour taste, and the perception of vinegar becomes more apparent. This can ruin a perfectly good wine. A high concentration of acetic acid in wine is a strong indication that the grapes have been contaminated. The culprit of contamination is usually acetic acid or lactic acid bacteria. Winemakers and viticulturists will pay the utmost attention to make sure that this does not occur. The Role of Tannins in Wine, Wine Taste and Winemaking Tannins occur when various phenols polymerize, or join together. On the palate, tannins give a sensation opposite of acidity. Unlike acid which makes the mouth salivate, tannins will give the mouth a sensation of dryness, or astringency. High tannin concentration tends to give the sensation of bitterness and roughness. Within reason, tannins give wine very desirable characteristics. Because they are a preservative, wines that are tannic in their youth often have the ability to age and become more complex when stored at the correct wine storage temperature. They also are helpful during the clarification process; tannins naturally bond to proteins and can then be removed with other solid matter to make a wine visually brilliant. Fining agents such as egg whites can be used to induce this process. White wines generally pick up tannins from being aged in wooden barrels. The younger the barrel, the more tannins it will impart in a wine. Additionally, it is very important that the tannins in grapes are fully ripe before they are harvested. Green tannins are rough and undesirable. This should be a primary focus of the vineyard managers decision to harvest. While sugar and acidity readings are extremely important, nothing can substitute actually tasting the grapes to ensure that tannins are ripe and the phenolics are fully developed. If grapes are harvested before the tannins are fully ripe, this can be remedied to a certain extent by a skilled winemaker. Tannin molecules will soften if the grape must is heated. This process is known as polymerizing the tannins.

The results are smoother, more graceful sensation on the palate. This process is also known as hot maceration and will also give the must added pigments and flavor characteristics. Hot maceration is often used so the winemaker can remove the skins and solids during the alcoholic fermentation process. This results in a less tannic wine that still has desired pigment and flavor characteristics. The Role of Citric Acid in Wine and Winemaking Citric acid plays a major role in a winemakers influence on acidity. Many winemakers use citric acid to acidify wines that are too basic and as a flavor additive. This process has is benefits and drawbacks. Adding citric acid will give the wine freshness otherwise not present and will effectively make a wine more acidic. The major disadvantage of adding citric acid is its microbial instability. As mentioned earlier, bacteria use citric acid in their metabolism, thus the citric acid added may just be consumed by bacteria, promoting the growth of unwanted microbes. Because of its microbial instability, winemakers will often use tartaric acid to acidify wines. Tartaric acid offers many advantages like a high degree of microbial stability and a stronger influence on total acidity.

The Role of Sulfur Dioxide in Wine A small amount of SO2 is produced naturally as a byproduct of fermentation, but most of the SO2 has been added by the winemaker. During white wine production, it is added at almost every stage of the process, and is more or less required after malolactic fermentation is complete. It is used to a lesser extent during red wine production, but is still a necessary component in many production techniques. The Up Side The most important mechanism of action for Sulfur Dioxide is as an anti-microbial agent. It regulates the growth of harmful yeast and bacterial growth in the wine. However, the good yeasts used in the winemaking process have developed a resistance to SO2 over the years, allowing them both to live in harmony with each other. This gives the good yeasts as competitive advantage over the harmful yeasts in the fermentation process. Another important role of Sulfur Dioxide lies in its anti-oxidant properties. This guards against browning and protects the fruit-like qualities of the wine. SO2 can bind with a molecule called acetaldehyde. Many of you have experienced the smell of this molecule from a brown, bruised apple. It is also produced when a wine undergoes oxidation. When SO2 reacts with acetaldehyde, they bond together, producing a harmless, odorless molecule. The Down Side If a winemaker uses too much SO2, it can kill the good yeast, haulting fermentation before the desired end point. It can also stop malolactic fermentation from

completing, yield wines that taste unfinished. You can tell a wine that has too much Sulfur Dioxide by its characteristically pungent odor. It smells similar to that of a recently struck match. SO2 binds to a group of molecules called anthocyanin; which give red wines their color. When SO2 reacts with anthocyanin, it renders them inert, and they lose their color and properties. SO2, Sulfites and Humans When a wine label says contains sulfites it is referring to the fact that sulfur dioxide has been added. Since 1987, wines sold in the United States must have a warning label that they contain sulfites. Because Sulfites are naturally occurring in the fermentation process, a wine free of sulfites is a natural anomaly. Sulfites produced from fermentation range from 6 to 40 parts per million (ppm). So almost every wine has sulfites in it, but it is within the discretion of the winemaker to add more. Some people have adverse reactions to sulfur dioxide, but their numbers are small. Most winemakers take great care to add as little sulfur dioxide as possible. It is usually added both before and after the fermentation process. It is possible, but quite difficult to make a stable wine without adding sulfur dioxide. Ginger The active components of ginger include phenolic compounds (shogaols and gingerols), sesquiterpenes (bisapolene, zingiberene, zingiberol, sesquiphellandrene, curcurmene), galanolactone, gingesulfonic acid, zingerone, geraniol, neral, monoacyldigalactosylglycerols, gingerglycolipids. The active component responsible for ginger's anti-nausea effect is not known. Also, the composition of ginger may vary widely according to different regions of origin and postharvesting factors. No studies have specifically evaluated gingers safety during pregnancy and lactation, however, it is generally recognized as safe in thirty countries. The effect of ginger on the fetus has not been extensively studied. Because of its effects on platelet aggregation and thromboxane synthesis in vitro, caution is advised for patients taking anticoagulants or those scheduled for surgery. Ginger is rich in a number of nutrients, including the following: It has proteins, essential fats and vitamins B and C. Minerals include potassium, magnesium, calcium and phosphorous. The oil of ginger is a mixture of 20 constituents, and is responsible for its aroma. One of these is gingerol, which has phenols, making it pungent. Zingibaine and protease are potent enzymes. It is rich in antioxidants, some of which are more powerful than vitamin E. The phytonutrients include carotenes, flavonoids and trace minerals. There is no cholesterol in ginger. Fermentation Ethanol ("alcohol") results by conversion (anaerobic glycolysis) of sugar materials in presence of yeasts, a so-called "alcoholic fermentation", either as spontaneous fermentation from the ubiquitously existing yeast (Saccharomyces) or by addition of special yeast. The fermentation is the basis for the production of alcoholic beverages. However, by fermentation only alcohol concentrations to maximally 18 per cent by

volume are attainable. High per cent beverages ("spirits") as well as bioethanol (as fuel replacement) are received by distillation. The summary fermentation equation C6H12O6 -> 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2 is only a rough summary of a complex reaction sequence which was already set up in 1815 by Lavoisier. In a glycolyse reaction sequence glucose is first phosphorylated with ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) in presence of the enzyme Hexokinase to the Glucose-6phospate, which reacts with the enzyme Phosphofructokinase to Fructose-6phosphate, which leads with further ATP to the Fructose-1,6-diphosphate. With the enzyme Aldolase two C3-components results: Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and Dihydroxyacetone phosphate. The further fermentation process results in a hydride transmission by means of NAD+ (Nicotinamide-adenine-dinucleotide) under oxidation to 3- and 2-Phosphoglycerine acid, which supply under elimination of water Phosphoenol pyruvate. Dephosphorylation with ADP (Adenosine diphosphate) results in Pyruvic acide, which forms acetaldehyde under development of CO2 (carbon dioxide), leading finally with NADH (reduced form of the NAD+) to ethanol. The total balance can be described by the "idealized fermentation equation": C6H12O6 + 2 ADP + 2 H3PO4 -> 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2 + 2 ATP + 2 H2O In practice, grains, plants, fruits, or vegetables are combined with water to create a liquid blend mash containing Polysaccarides. These are splitten by Amylase into Oligosaccarides an finally fermented by Maltase the Monosaccarides, in particular Glucose. Alternatively, also a thermal splitting can take place via graduated boiling with hot water at 65 to 95 oC, or simply directly from sugar-containing raw materials, like grape juice mash. The actual fermentation takes place with approx. 20 oC by the enymes contained in yeasts under air exclusion, thus anaerobic conditions, for the avoidance of the acetic acid fermentation. Fermentation takes place under development of carbon dioxide, thus preventing the income of air, since it is specifically heavier than the oxygen of air. After 2-4 days approx. 6 to 10 per cent alcohol content is reached (special yeasts up to 18 per cent) and the fermentation finished by the death of the yeast. In order to obtain higher alcohol contents, a following distillation is necessary. Red Wine Alcoholic Fermentation The Process of Fermentation in Red Wine Production The fermentation temperature of red wine is higher than white wine. (75-85 degrees Fahrenheit as opposed to around 55 degrees Fahrenheit) But the entire process rarely takes longer than two weeks compared to a month or more for white wines. In sum, the alcoholic fermentation of red wine is shorter, but more intense than white wine. When alcoholic fermentation begins, the yeast cells grow and multiply in the must for up to one day. Over the next few days, the majority of the sugar will be converted by the yeast. During this time, carbon dioxide escapes and raises the skins to the top of the fermentation container, forming the cap. The cap is either punched down by hand,

or juice from the bottom of the container is pumped over the top. Great care must be taken to insure that the juice is not overly oxidized during this process. The higher the temperature and the more the skins are immersed in the wine, the more tannin they will impart. Slightly lower fermentation temperatures are used for varietals prized for their fresh characteristics and subtle aromas such as Pinot Noir. Fuller-bodied red wines are often left in contact with their skins for over a month to extract as much tannin and pigment as possible. Yeast Types The Different Yeast Types used to Ferment Wine Grape Must Probably the best argument for adding cultured yeast is that natural yeast is not extremely effective at high sugar levels and can die before the desired alcohol level is reached. Cultured yeasts have been specifically developed to not be as susceptible to these problems. Different strains have varying responses to these two issues. An additional potential problem to using natural yeasts is that there are often adverse bacteria on grape skins. In some circumstances, this can be disastrous to the winemaking process. However, be aware that some of Californias best wines have and continue to be fermented with natural yeast. Natural yeasts can be neutralized by adding sulfur dioxide to the juice before fermentation. Montrachet and Champagne are two cultured yeast types that are commonly used during winemaking. Very few strains of yeast can survive over 16% alcohol. Yeast is only active between 26 and 97 degrees Fahrenheit. The enzymes responsible for fermentation are denatured above 149 degrees Fahrenheit. Many high-quality wines are flash pasteurized at 176 degrees Fahrenheit for about 1 minute. Sulfur dioxide or sorbic acid is added after fermentation to kill any additional yeast cells. Pressure over 8 atmospheres will also kill yeast cells. There are 2 major types of yeast used in the winemaking process: natural and cultured. Natural yeasts are present on the skins of grapes. They stick to the slightly waxy coating that develops on grapes. The yeast cells and other natural organisms that live on a grapes skin are called the bloom. Cultured yeasts are raised in the laboratory to develop certain characteristics. Many winemakers prefer cultured yeasts for their reliability and predicable behavior during the winemaking process. Although the addition of sulfur should be kept to a minimum, it is very difficult to make a stable wine without using sulfur at all. Too much sulfur will create off-aromas and can ruin a wine. Yeasts are tiny fungi organisms used in the fermentation process of wine. There are thousands of species of yeasts, but Saccharomyces cerevisiae is most commonly used for wine production. In nature, yeasts often thrive in environments that contain a lot of sugar. Yeasts are naturally present of grape skins as well as many other fruits.

There are benefits of using either natural occurring or added cultured yeasts. The addition of one instead of the other depends on the winemakers philosophy. Many believe that natural yeast imparts more complex flavors and aromas in resulting wines. Others culture specific yeasts to give their wines what they believe to be more controlled and predictable characteristics. In modern winemaking, the latter type of yeast is more commonly used. Racking The Role of Racking in the Wine Production Process Because visually brilliant wines are what the majority of the market demands, most wines go through some kind of clarification process. Harmful organism and other solids are also removed that can lead to spoilage. Racking can be quite time consuming, but many of the best wines are clarified primarily through racking. This is because racking is the least invasive to the wines character. Many winemakers believe that the rough application of other clarification processes will dilute their wines flavor and aroma profiles. When using large tanks, the winemaker places the transfer hose above the sediment. He/she must pay careful attention to make sure no sediment is included. Wines that undergo fermentation in small oak barrels are also racked from the remaining yeast cells, known as the lees, before bottling. The process is very similar to decanting wine, but on a larger scale. Sugar Chemistry Sugar chemistry helps to explain its role in wine. One of these is fermentation, where yeasts metabolize sugars for energy, yielding alcohol as a major byproduct. In dry wine, yeasts consume almost all of the sugar from the grapes. In sweet wine, the yeasts are killed before all the sugar is used, leaving residual sugars.

Fermentation Containers The Importance of Fermentation Containers in the Winemaking Process Depending on where and how they were made, oak barrels will impart certain characteristics into wine. Oak has an affinity for certain varietals, but new barrels are very expensive. Most oak barrels used in California are either from France or America. Stainless Steel The major benefit of stainless steel tanks is controlling the fermentation temperature. They are also easy to sterilize and fit with additional equipment. Stainless steel tanks are used when the winemaker wants to retain the grapes natural characteristics.

Wooden Vats Either out of preference or necessity, some wineries use large wooden vats for fermentation. Though more difficult to control their temperature than metal, the small amount of oxygen that seeps through the wood is thought to be beneficial by many winemakers. They are also less expensive than stainless steel tanks. Concrete Tanks Although they were once much more widespread, many California wineries still use concrete tanks for fermentation. Concrete is very inexpensive and can be line with other materials to help prevent corrosion and to make sterilization more effective.