ME3072 MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING II

BSc Eng (Hons) in Mechanical Engineering Semester - 4

Outline
Introduction to Welding Fusion-Welding Processes Solid-State Welding Processes Metallurgy of Welding Weld Quality Brazing & Soldering

Fundamentals of Joining Processes

Prepared By : R.K.P.S Ranaweera BSc (Hons) MSc Lecturer - Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Moratuwa (for educational purpose only)

Joining Processes

Classification of Joining Processes

Introduction to Welding
Is a process by which two materials, usually metals are permanently joined together by coalescence, which is induced by a combination of temperature, pressure and metallurgical conditions. Is extensively used in fabrication as an alternative method for casting or forging and as a replacement for bolted and riveted joints. Also used as a repair medium to reunite metals. Types of Welding:
Fusion welding Solid-state (forge) welding
5

Attention must be given to the cleanliness of the metal surfaces prior to welding and to possible oxidation or contamination during welding process. Production of high quality weld requires:
Source of satisfactory heat and/or pressure Means of protecting or cleaning the metal Caution to avoid harmful metallurgical effects

Advantages of welding over other joints:

Lighter in weight and has a great strength High corrosion resistance Fluid tight for tanks and vessels Can be altered easily (flexibility) and economically
6

Weldability has been defined as the capacity of metal to be welded under the fabrication conditions imposed into a specific, suitably designed structure & to perform satisfactorily in the intended service. The following metals have good weldability in the descending order: Iron, Carbon Steel, Cast Steel, Cast Iron, Low Alloy Steels and Stainless Steels. Welding is extensively used in the following fields: automobile industry, aircraft machine frames, tanks, structural work, machine repair work, ship building, pipe line fabrication ,thermal power plants and refineries, fabrication of metal structures.
7

Steps in executing welding:

Identification of welds, calculation of weld area by stress analysis, preparation of drawings Selection of appropriate welding process Welding procedure welding sequence, testing, etc Execution of welding with supervision & inspection Slag removal, weld dressing Stress relieving by proper treatment Testing, preferably by nondestructive methods

Process of joining similar metals with the help of filler rod of the same metal is called autogeneous welding, and joining of metals using filler rod of is called heterogeneous welding.
8

 Types of welded joints:

Lap joint Butt joint Corner joint Edge joint T-joint

Welding positions: Flat position, Horizontal position Vertical position and overhead position.

Welders have to protect themselves against spark, hot metal, ultraviolet, infrared and visible light rays, welding fumes, and other hazards.

10

Fusion-Welding Processes
Introduction
Is defined as the melting together & coalescing of materials by means of heat, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal. Thermal energy required for these operations is usually supplied by chemical (oxy-fuel gas, thermit) or electrical ( arc, resistance, electron beam, laser beam) means. Welds undergo important metallurgical & physical changes that will effect its performance.
11

Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)

Refers to a group of welding processes that use, as their heat source, the flame produced by the combustion of fuel gas and oxygen. Types of Gas used:
Oxyacetylene high temperature Hydrogen low temperature Methylacetylene propadiene low temperature

Heat is generated in accordance with a pair of chemical reactions:

12

Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in Oxyfuel-gas welding and cutting operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing, flame. The gas mixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene.
13

(a) General view of and (b) cross-section of a torch used in oxyacetylene welding. The acetylene valve is opened first; the gas is lit with a spark lighter or a pilot light; then the oxygen valve is opened and the flame adjusted.
14

Filler Metals
Used to supply additional material to the weld zone Available as rod or wire made of metals compatible with those to be welded Consumable filler rods may be bare, or they may be coated with flux. Purposes of the flux:
- Retard oxidation of the surfaces of the part being welded, by generating gaseous shield around the weld zone - Helps to dissolve and remove oxides and other substances from the workpiece and form a stronger joint - Slag developed protects the molten puddle of metal against oxidation as it cools - Provides means of adding various alloying elements into the weld metal to enhance the properties of the joint - Stabilizes the arc by providing certain chemicals
15 16

Basic equipment used in Oxyfuel-gas welding. To ensure correct connections, all threads on acetylene fittings are lefthanded, whereas those for oxygen are right-handed. Oxygen regulators are usually painted green, acetylene regulators red.

Pressure Gas Welding

Arc Welding: Consumable Electrode

Heat is obtained from electrical energy. Arc is produced between the tip of the electrode and the workpiece to be welded, by the use of an AC or a DC power supply. Arc produce temperatures about 30,000 0C

Schematic illustration of the pressure-gas welding process.

17

18

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

About 50% of all industrial and maintenance welding is currently performed by this process. Also known as stick welding. Electric arc is generated by touching the tip of a coated electrode against the workpiece and then withdrawing it quickly to a distance sufficient to maintain the arc.
Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc welding process.

Current used generally ranges between 50 A to 300 A & power requirements are generally 10kW Type of current:
DC straight & reverse polarity AC
Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc welding operations (also known as stick welding, because the electrode is in the shape of a stick).
20

19

 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Weld arc is shielded by granular flux, consisting of lime, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride, silica, and other compounds. It prevents spatter & sparks and suppresses the intense ultraviolet radiation and fumes. Flux also act as a thermal insulator promoting deeper penetration of heat into the workpiece. Consumable electrode is a coil of bare round wire 1.5 mm 10 mm in diameter. Applications include thick plate welding for shipbuilding and for pressure vessels.
21

Electrical current typically range between 300 A to 3000 A & weld speed is high as 5 m/min.

Schematic illustration of the submerged-arc welding process and equipment. The unfused flux is recovered and reused.
22

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Formerly called metal inert gas (MIG) welding. Weld area is shielded by an effective inert atmosphere of argon, helium, carbon dioxide, or various other gas mixtures. In addition, deoxidizers are usually present in the electrode metal itself, prevent oxidation of the molten weld puddle. Suitable for welding a variety of ferrous and nonferrous metals. Metal can be transferred by three methods: spray, globular and short circuiting.
23

Schematic illustration of the gas metal-arc welding process, formerly known as MIG (for metal inert gas) welding.

Basic equipment used in gas metal-arc welding operations.

24

 Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

Similar to GMAW, with the exception that the electrode is tubular in shape & is filled with flux. Produce a more stable arc, improve weld contour , and produce better mechanical properties of the weld metal. Electrodes are usually 0.5 mm 4 mm in diameter & the power required is about 20 kW. Used for welding of variety of joints, mainly on steels, stainless steels and nickel based alloys. Self-shielded cored electrodes are also available
25

Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc-welding process. This operation is similar to gas metal-arc welding.
26

Electrodes
Is classified according to the strength of the deposited weld metal, the current (AC or DC), & the type of coating. Identified by numbers or letters or by color code. Typical coated electrode numbers are 150 to 460 mm in length & 1.5 to 8 mm in diameter. (Wire diameter must not vary more than 0.05 mm & Coatings must be concentric with wire) Electrodes are coated with claylike material that include silicate binders & powder materials such as oxides, carbonates, fluorides, metal alloys, and cellulose. 27

Designations for Mild Steel Coated Electrodes

28

 Arc Welding: Non-consumable Electrode

Unlike arc-welding processes, non-consumable electrode processes typically use a tungsten electrode. Shielding gas is supplied from external source. Stable arc gap is maintained because the electrode is not consumed.

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

Also know as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding. Filler metal is supplied from a wire & are similar to the metals to be welded. Shielding gas is usually argon or helium. Is used for wide variety of metals & applications, particularly aluminium, magnesium, titanium & refractory metals. Power supply is either DC at 200 A or AC at 500 A and power requirements range from 8 kW to 20 kW.
30

29

Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW)

The gas tungsten-arc welding process, formerly known as TIG (for tungsten inert gas) welding.

Uses an arc in a shielding atmosphere of H2. Arc is between 2 tungsten or carbon electrodes. Hydrogen also cools the workpiece.

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

A concentrated plasma arc is produced and is aimed at the weld area. Arc is stable and reaches temperatures as high as 33,000 0C. Plasma is ionized hot gas, composed of nearly equal numbers of electron and ions
31 32

Equipment for gas tungsten-arc welding operations.

Plasma is initiated between tungsten electrode and the orifice by a low current pilot arc. Shielding is supplied by means of an outer shielding rings and the uses of gases, such as argon, helium or mixtures. Two methods of plasma arc welding: transferred arc method (a) or nontransferred arc method (b).

Thermit Welding (TW)

Involves exothermic reactions between metal oxides & metallic reducing agents and the heat produced in this reaction is used for welding. Common mixtures of materials used in welding steel & cast iron are iron oxide, aluminium oxide, iron and aluminium. Mixtures may also contain other materials to impart special properties to the weld. Is suitable for welding & repairing large forgings and castings.
34

33

Procedure - align the part to be joined built a mold allow to flow superheated products

Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

Heat is generated by high velocity narrow beam electrons & the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted in to heat as they strike the workpiece Requires special equipment to focus the beam on the workpiece in a vacuum.

Laser Beam Welding (LBW)

Utilizes a high power laser beam as the source of heat to produce a fusion weld. The beam has high energy density, therefore deep penetrating capability.
35 36

Comparison of Conventional and Electron- or Laser-Beam Welding

Cutting
A piece of metal can be separated in to two or more pieces or into various contours by the use of heat source that melts and removes a narrow zone in the workpiece. Oxyfuel Gas Cutting (OFC)
Cutting occurs mainly by the oxidation of the steel Basic reaction with the steel are,

The relative sizes of the weld beads obtained by conventional (tungsten arc) and by electron-beam or laser-beam welding

37

38

Solid-State Welding Processes

Introduction
Solid-phase welds are produced by bringing the clean faces of components into intimate contact to produce a metallic bond with or without application of heat, but application of pressure is essential to induce plastic flow.

(a) Flame cutting of steel plate with an oxyacetylene torch, and a cross-section of the torch nozzle. (b) Cross-section of a flamecut plate showing drag lines.

Arc Cutting
Air carbon arc cutting Plasma arc cutting Lasers and electron beams
39 40

10

 Cold Welding (CW)

Pressure is applied to the workpieces, through either dies or rolls. Also known as roll bonding. Prior to welding, the interface is degreased, wire brushed, and wiped to remove oxide smudge. Can be used to join small workpieces made of soft, ductile metals.
Schematic illustration of the roll bonding, or cladding, process

Ultrasonic Welding (USW)

Faying surfaces of the two components are subjected to a static normal force and oscillating shearing (tangential) stress. Shearing stresses are applied by the tip of a transducer and frequency of oscillation is generally in the range of 10 kHz to 75 kHz. Temperatures generated usually in the range of one-third to one-half of the melting point. Can be used with wide variety of metallic and nonmetallic materials, including dissimilar metals and plastics.
42

41

(a)

(b)

Friction Welding (FRW)

Steps of operation
On of the components remains stationary while the other is placed in a chuck or collet and rotated at a high constant speed. Two members to be joined are then brought into contact under an axial force. Rotating member is then brought to a quick stop, while the axial force is increased. Pressure at the interface and the resulting friction produce sufficient heat for a strong joint to form.

(a) Components of an ultrasonic welding machine for lap welds. The lateral vibrations of the tool tip cause plastic deformation and bonding at the interface of the workpieces. (b) Ultrasonic seam welding using a roller.
43

Types of FRW processes: Inertia friction welding, Linear friction welding and Friction stir welding 44

11

(a)

Friction Stir Welding (RSW)

Use of a third body to rub against the faying surfaces Probe at the tip heat and mix or stir the material

(b)

(a) Sequence of operations in the friction welding process (b) Shape of fusion zone in friction welding, as a function of the force applied and the rotational speed.
45

The principle of the friction stir welding process. Aluminum-alloy plates up to 75 mm (3 in.) thick have been welded by this process
46

Resistance Welding (RW)

Heat required for welding is produced by means of electrical resistance across two components to be joined. Actual temperature rise at the joint depends on the specific heat and on the thermal conductivity of the metals to be joined. Magnitude of the current in resistance welding operations may be as high as 100,000 A, although the voltage is typically only 0.5V 10V. Similar or dissimilar metals can be joined.
47

Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)

Tips of two opposing solid cylindrical electrodes touch a lap joint of two sheet metals, and resistance heating produces a spot weld Currents range from 3000 A to 40,000 A
(a) Sequence in resistance spot welding. (b) Crosssection of a spot weld, showing the weld nugget and the indentation of the electrode on the sheet surfaces. This is one of the most commonly used process in sheetmetal fabrication and in automotive-body assembly.
48

12

Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)

Is a modification of spot welding wherein the electrodes are replaced by rotating wheels or rollers. Using a continuous AC power supply, the electrically conducting rollers produce a spot weld when ever the current reaches a sufficient high level in the AC cycle. Can produce a joint that is liquid tight or gas tight. Roll spot welding is an extension of RSEW.
(a) (b)

Examples of Seam Welding (a) and (b) Seam-welded cookware and muffler.
49

(a) Seam-welding process in which rotating rolls act as electrodes. (b) Overlapping spots in a seam weld. (c) Roll spot welds. (d) Resistance-welded gasoline tank.
50

High-Frequency Butt Welding (HFRW)

Similar to seam welding High frequency current (up to 450 kHz) is employed Types:
High frequency resistance welding (fig. a) High frequency induction welding (fig. b)

Resistance Projection Welding (RPW)

Embossing one or more projections on one of the surfaces to be welded to increase the electrical resistance

Schematic illustration of resistance projection welding

Two methods of high-frequency butt welding of tubes

51

Projection welding of nuts or threaded bosses and studs

52

13

Flash Welding (FW)

Heat generated from the arc as the ends of the two members begin to make contact and develop an electrical resistance at the joint Form a flash at the joint Used to repair broken band-saw blades

Stud Welding (SW)

Similar to flash welding Part to be joined serves as one of the electrodes while being joined to another component Disposable ceramic ring (ferrule) is placed around the joint to concentrate the heat generated, prevent oxidation and retain the metal in the weld zone

Flash-welding process for end-to-end welding of solid rods or tubular parts

53

The sequence of operations in stud welding, which is used for welding bars, threaded rods, and various fasteners onto metal plates
54

Explosion Welding (EXW)

Pressure applied by detonating a layer of explosives that has been placed over one of the components to be joined Cold pressure welding by plastic deformation
(a) (b)

(c)

(d)

(c) and (d) Cross-sections of explosion-welded joints

Schematic illustration of the explosion welding process: (a) constant interface clearance gap and (b) angular interface clearance gap
55 56

14

 Diffusion Bonding/Welding (DFW)

Process in which the strength of the joint results primarily from diffusion and secondarily from plastic deformation of the faying surfaces Ability to fabricate sheet-metal structures by combining diffusion bonding with superplastic forming
Eliminate use of mechanical fasteners High stiffness to weight ratio Good dimensional accuracy Low residual stresses

Standard Identification for Welds

57

58

Metallurgy of Welding
Weld Joint
Three distinct zones in a fusion-weld joint:
Base metal Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) Weld metal

Solidification of the Weld Metal

Formation of columnar grains (dendritic) Grain structure and size depends on the specific alloy, the specific welding process employed, and the specific filler metal

Characteristics of a typical fusion weld zone in oxy-fuel gas and arc welding

Grain structure in (a) a deep weld (b) a shallow weld. Note that the grains in the solidified weld metal are perpendicular to the surface of the base metal. In a good weld, the solidification line at the center in the deep weld shown in (a) has grain migration, which develops uniform strength in the weld bead
59 60

15

Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)

Properties and microstructure of HAZ depends on:
Rate of heat input and cooling Temperature to which the zone was raised

Corrosion at HAZ

Intergranular corrosion of a 310-stainless-steel welded tube after exposure to a caustic solution. The weld line is at the center of the photograph. Scanning electron micrograph at 20 X Schematic illustration of various regions in a fusion weld zone (and the corresponding phase diagram) for 0.30% carbon steel
61 62

Weld Quality
Porosity
Caused by,
Gases released during melting of the weld area Chemical reactions during welding Contaminants

Incomplete Fusion & Penetration

Incomplete fusion or lack of fusion produces poor weld beads. Incomplete penetration occurs when the depth of the welded joint is insufficient.

In the shape of spheres or of elongated pockets.

Slag Inclusions
Are compounds such as oxides, fluxes, and electrode coating material trapped in the weld.
63 64

16

Penetration can be improved by,

Increasing the heat input Reducing the travel speed during the welding Changing the joint design Ensuring that the surfaces to be joined fit properly

Weld Profile

Underfilling when the weld is not filled with proper amount of weld metal Undercutting melting away of the base metal & the consequent generation of a groove. Overlap surface discontinuity , usually caused by poor welding practice and by the selection of improper materials.
65 66

Cracks
Are classified as,
Hot cracks occur while the joint is still at elevated temperatures Cold Cracks develop after the weld metal has solidified.

Typical types of cracks are,

Longitudinal Transverse Crater Underbead Toe cracks
67

Types of cracks (in welded joints) caused by thermal stresses that develop during solidification and contraction of the weld bead and the surrounding structure. (a) Crater cracks. (b) Various types of cracks in butt and T joints.

68

17

 Surface Damage
Cause
Metal may spatter during welding & be deposited as small droplets on adjacent surfaces. Arc strikes at places other than the weld zone.

Distortions
Localized heating & cooling during welding causes residual stresses in the workpiece.

Affect
Poor surface appearance High surface roughness

Residual stresses developed during welding of a butt joint

69 70

Brazing & Soldering

Introduction
Are processes that do not rely on fusion or pressure at the interfaces; instead utilize filler material that requires some temperature rise in the joint. Temperatures for soldering are lower than those for brazing, and the strength of a soldered joint is much lower. Can be used to join dissimilar metals of intricate shapes and various thicknesses.
72

Distortion of parts after welding: (a) butt joints; (b) fillet welds. Distortion is caused by differential thermal expansion and contraction of different parts of the welded assembly.
71

18

 Brazing
Basic Steps in Brazing
Filler metal (low-melting-point nonferrous metal) is placed at or between the faying surfaces to be joined, and the temperature is raised enough to melt the filler metal but not the workpieces. Molten metal is allowed to fill closely fitting space by capillary action. Upon cooling and solidification of the filler metal, a strong joint is obtained.

(a) Brazing and (b) braze welding operations.

Main types of brazing processes

Ordinary Brazing Braze Welding in which filler metal is deposited at the joint with a technique similar to OFW.
73

Filler metal used for brazing melt above 4500C. Strength of the brazed joint depends on,
Joint design Adhesion at the interfaces between the workpiece and filler material
74

Surfaces to be brazed should be chemically or mechanically cleaned to ensure full capillary action Brazing Flux
Prevent oxidation and to remove oxide film from workpiece surfaces Use wetting agents, to improve both the wetting characteristics of the molten filler metal and the capillary action Made of borax, boric acid, borates, fluorides, & chlorides

Brazing Methods
Torch Brazing (TB) - Heat source is oxyfuel gas with a carburizing flame Furnace Brazing (FB) Brazing metal is preloaded in appropriate configuration before placing it in a furnace

An example of furnace brazing: (a) before, (b) after. Note that the filler metal is a shaped wire
75 76

19

Induction Brazing (IB) Source of heat is induction heating by high frequency AC current, where the parts with preloaded filler metal are placed near the induction coils for rapid heating
Schematic illustration of a continuous induction-brazing setup, for increased productivity

Dip Brazing (DB) Dipping the assemblies to be brazed into either a molten filler metal bath or a molten salt bath, at a temperature just above the melting point of the filler metal Infrared Brazing (IB) Diffusion Brazing (DFB) Etc.

Resistance Brazing (RB) Source of heat is the electrical resistance of the components to be brazed
77 78

Joint Design

Joint designs commonly used in brazing operations. The clearance between the two parts being brazed is an important factor in joint strength. If the clearance is too small, the molten braze metal will not fully penetrate the interface. If it is too large, there will be insufficient capillary action for the molten metal to fill the interface.
79

Examples of good and poor design for brazing

80

20

 Soldering
In soldering, the filler metal, called solder, melts at a relatively low temperature and as in brazing solder fills the joint by capillary action. Heat sources are usually soldering irons, ovens, or torches. Filler metal used for soldering melt below 4500C. Types of Solders and their Applications
Tin-lead Tin-zinc Lead-silver Cadmium-silver Zinc-aluminum Tin-silver Tin-bismuth General purpose Aluminum Strength at higher than room temperature Strength at high temperatures Aluminum; corrosion resistance Electronics Electronics
81

Types of Soldering Techniques

Torch Soldering (TS) Furnace Soldering (FS) Iron Soldering (INS) Induction Soldering (IS) Resistance Soldering (RS) Dip Soldering (DS) Infrared Soldering (IRS) Ultrasonic Soldering (US) Reflow Soldering (RS) Wave Soldering (WS)

Types of Fluxes
Inorganic acids or salts Resin based fluxes
82

Joint Design
Joint designs commonly used for soldering. Note that examples (e), (g), (i), and (j) are mechanically joined prior to being soldered, for improved strength.

Reference Texts
MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
Serope Kalpakjian, Steven R Schmid Addison Wesley Longman (Singapore) Pte. Ltd. Fourth Edition.

MATERIALS & PROCESSES IN MANUFACTURING

E Paul Degarmo, JT Black, Ronald A Kohser. Prentice-Hall India Ninth Edition.
83 84

21