PHYS.192 Manual

Physics for engineers PHYS192
Academic year 2011-20112
University of Qatar Math & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Contents
Page No. 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 7 8 8 8 10 10 11 11 11 13 13 14 15 17 17 17 19 List of Experiments Why Do We Make Experimental Measurements? The Physics Laboratory Lab Organization Laboratory Notebook Notes for Physics Lab Reporting 1. 2. Grading: Experimental Uncertainty and Data Analysis Types of Experimental Uncertainty Accuracy and Precision Significant Figures Computations with Measured Values Rounding Off Graphical Representation of Data Error Bars Straight-Line Graphs Linear Regression and Method of Least Squares The Goodness of the Fit: Data Analysis with Microsoft Excel 1. Tables with Excel 2. Plotting with Excel Safety in the Physics Lab Preparing Your Report Marking the Report Physics for engineers PHYS192 2 Academic year 20011/2012
University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
List of Experiments
Experiment (1) Experiment (2) Understanding of Motion using Motion Sensor Determination of the Acceleration of Gravity using the Free fall Experiment (3) Experiment (4) Experiment (5) Experiment (6) Experiment (7) Verification of Newtons Second Law Transforming Gravitational Potential Energy to Kinetic Energy Verification of Hooks Law Verification of (Work Kinetic energy) theorem Determination of the Acceleration of Gravity using the Simple Pendulum Experiment (8) Experiment (9) Determination of the Coefficient of Viscosity Determination of the speed of sound in air using a resonance tube Experiment (10) Experiment (11) Experiment (12) Determination of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat Static Equilibrium Determination of Specific Heat Capacity of a solid 47 54 57 64 41 44 27 30 32 36 39 Page No. 20 References...66 Physics for engineers PHYS192 3 Academic year 2008/2009
The Physics Laboratory

WHY DO WE MAKE EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS?
When you can measure what you are speaking about and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind. LORD KELVIN
The main purpose of laboratory experiments is to augment and supplement the learning and understanding of basic physical principles while introducing laboratory procedures, techniques, and equipment. Introductory physics laboratory in particular provide hands-on experiences of various physical principles. In so doing, one becomes familiar with laboratory equipment and procedures and with the scientific method. Lab organization Students usually work in pairs, but each student is expected to record his/her results as well as perform their analysis and drawings separately. However, discussion about the practical and theoretical aspects of each experiment is highly encouraged. Laboratory notebook A laboratory notebook record must be kept for all experimental work during the lab period. A formal laboratory report will then be required. This could be hand written or typeset, in English. Typed reports with data plotted using a computer are encouraged but are not compulsory. Organization of write-ups All notes, sketches, readings and data points must be recorded in a laboratory notebook. No loose pieces of paper are allowed. The notebook must be signed by the lab instructor, at the end of the lab. A copy of data may be stored on the computers available in the laboratory in a sub-directory with the STUDENT name under the LAB192 folder. Those computers may also be used for plotting or data analysis if there is sufficient time, a preliminary analysis must be discussed with the demonstrator. A mark is assigned to this. The final write up must be presented no later than the following week.
Notes for Physics Lab Reporting

The Laboratory Report 1. Preparing your Report The purpose of a laboratory report is to communicate the aim, process and outcome of an investigation to an outside audience. It is a record of your direct (hands-on) experience in the laboratory. In most cases, a scientific investigation is considered to be incomplete without a report. By putting together the Physics for engineers PHYS192 4 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------different aspects of your laboratory experience in a structured and coherent report, the essence of your investigation becomes clearer in your own mind. In the process, you develop your skills of reasoning and ability to communicate in writing. There are many acceptable ways of presenting a scientific/laboratory report, but, almost all reports will include the components outlined below. Components of a laboratory report Title page should include: Authors name (Partners name/s) Course details Experiment title Date The title must be short but factual and descriptive. It must summarize the major aspects to be dealt with in the report. The key words will often come from the laboratory task that has been set and you need to identify these. These words help clarify the requirements of the task and also alert the reader as to what the report is about. Introduction and aim: The introduction puts the report into perspective by giving the reader relevant background information about the phenomenon being investigated. This is in order to prepare the reader for what he or she is about to read. This background may include some historical information or developments, the theory or law governing the phenomenon being investigated. These introductory remarks must be kept brief to avoid obscuring the main point of the investigation. Your introduction must state the aim of your investigation. The integration of the aim into the introduction allows for the smooth transition from general information to the specific goal of the investigation. Apparatus and method: Present a clear, concise and step-by-step description of the apparatus, techniques and procedures used. List and name the apparatus with brief descriptions of the main parts as well as the functions thereof. A neatly sketched and labeled diagram is essential and can save you paragraphs of tedious written descriptions. Briefly describe the procedures that you followed in the investigation. Wherever appropriate, give a reason for each step you took in a procedure. Sometimes more than one section is required for this material. e.g. If two techniques were used i.e. Technique No.1, Technique No.2, etc. then a brief explanation of each of these techniques must be given. Do not omit any significant steps. A description of method helps you to recall the problems that were associated with experimental procedures such as precision of measurements, strengths and weaknesses of certain techniques, recording of observations etc. This will help you when you have to summarize your conclusions and recommendations at the end of your report. Physics for engineers PHYS192 5 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Data and results: The main parts of this section are your tables of results and graphs. You must have a consistent way of recording your observations and calculations. Data are normally summarized and displayed in tables and graphs. Each table and graph is usually referenced by a number and should be numbered in sequence e.g. Table 1, Table 2; Figure 1, Figure 2 etc. Each table is accompanied by a title and each graph by a caption, which describes the purpose for which it has been presented. (e.g. Table 1: Measurements of the width of the cylinder and Graph 3: To determine the viscosity of the sample of oil). Tables and figures Those must be referred to in the text e.g. The apparatus was arranged as shown in Figure 1; The data gathered were recorded as shown in Table 1 below or The data in Table 1 were used to plot the graphs in Figure 1, 2 and 3. These brief statements help to link the different parts of the report. This section does not contain your judgment of the data. It is a straightforward presentation of your readings or measurements. Analysis, interpretation and discussion: In this section examine and extract important aspects of the data and use these to explain various relationships or derive other useful quantities (such as means, standard deviations, uncertainties, etc.). For example, what is the shape of your graph and what does it suggest in terms of the relationship between the variables? If it is a straight line, what is the value of the slope? Remember to quote slopes, means or other derived quantities with the appropriate significant figures and the corresponding uncertainties. How do an expected value compare with your own and what reasons can you give for this? You may give tentative explanations for your data but be careful not to mix facts with opinions. Conclusion and recommendations: This is normally a section in which you say what the investigation has shown and to what extent the problem or claim stated in the introduction has been resolved. Remember that any conclusions must be supported by evidence from your data. Always quote any final results, together with their uncertainties in your conclusion. Avoid making vague statements such as This was a successful experiment. You may also need to discuss sources of systematic error and any improvements that could be made to the apparatus (and measurements). Again, avoid meaningless phrases such as it was caused by human error. Writing a report allows you to reflect critically on the whole experiment and check your understanding of the purpose of the investigation as well as produce an accurate record of it. Note that any physics practical is not a set of procedures designed to reproduce some correct answer. It is a problem that has been posed that requires an experimental solution, which may include making measurements, implementing different procedures and techniques and then the formulation of a suitable report. Whether you graduate and leave with a B.Sc. to work in industry or whether you carry on at a university to become a post-graduate student, you will find that report writing will remain as one of the most important activities in your career. Physics for engineers PHYS192 6 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Scientific Style Very often, in reports of this kind, writers prefer to use the passive construction or impersonal style to report procedures followed in conducting experiments. For example: Five measurements were taken, instead of: We took five measurements. However, both styles are acceptable, but passive style is encouraged. 2. Marking the report When marking your reports a lot of feedback will be given that is relevant to your individual report. More feedback of a general nature is given at a formal session to the whole class. All the feedback you get is intended to help you consider ways of improving your report. The assessment of reports is largely a subjective exercise on the part of the markers but criteria are used as guidelines for giving feedback and marks. Marks will be given for your data collection and processing (which includes your method, tables, graphs and calculations) as well as the overall coherence of the report as a piece of writing. The report should have nearly all of these elements present: 1. The aim of the report is clearly stated. 2. The relevant theory is competently discussed. 3. The results of the experiment are clearly discussed and interpreted In relation to aim of the report. 4. A definite conclusion, which is ideally supported by the final results, is stated and clearly related to the aim of the report. 5. The significance of the final results is thoroughly discussed. 6. Recommendations are made and clearly linked to the method of the experiment and/or the aim. 7. Sentences within and across sections are linked together effectively with the use of cohesive ties. 8. The reading process is uninterrupted as there is few grammar or spelling errors. 9. The report should be neat and well-structured, with appropriate headings. Grading: Final grades will be determined by the following components: Reports Efficiency in lab and preparation Midterm exam Final exam TOTAL 30% 5% 30% 35% 100% Physics for engineers PHYS192 7 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Experimental Uncertainty and Data Analysis No reading of a physical quantity is exact. All readings have some uncertainty. This uncertainty may be small, but it is never zero. It is important to be able to estimate how large the uncertainty is. This uncertainty has many causes resulting in several types. Types of experimental uncertainty: 1. Random errors Random errors (also called statistical or indeterminate errors) result from unknown and unpredictable variations that arise in all experimental measurement situations. The term indeterminate refers to the fact that there is no way to determine the magnitude or sign (+, too large; -, too small) of the error in any individual measurement. Conditions in which random errors can result include: a/ Unpredictable fluctuations in temperature or voltage b/ Mechanical vibrations of an experimental setup c/ Unbiased estimates of measurement readings by the observer Repeated measurements with random errors give slightly different values each time. The effect of random errors may be reduced and minimized by improving and refining experimental techniques. However, the key point is that random or statistical errors can be estimated by repeating a measurement several (perhaps many) times. In general, experimental result is of little or no use if the size of its uncertainty cannot be estimated. (One should not only report a result but also give some indication of its reliability. Here is a key point: Statistical errors can, in general, be estimated in only one way: by repeating the measurement several times. Therefore, in all your work in this lab, you must repeat measurements to determine the statistical error. 2. Systematic errors Systematic errors (also called determinate errors) are associated with particular measurement instruments or techniques, such as an improperly calibrated instrument or bias on the part of the observer. The term systematic implies that the same magnitude and sign of experimental uncertainty are obtained when the measurement is repeated several times. Determinate means that the magnitude and sign of the uncertainty can be determined if the error is identified. Conditions from which systematic errors can result include: Fig. 1 An improperly zeroed instrument gives rise to systematic error. 1. An improperly zeroed instrument, for example, an ammeter as shown in Fig. 1. 2. A faulty instrument, such as a thermometer that reads 101C when immersed in boiling water at standard atmospheric pressure. This thermometer is faulty because the reading should be 100C. Physics for engineers PHYS192 8 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. Personal error, such as using a wrong constant calculation or always taking a low reading of a scale division. Other examples of personal systematic errors are shown in Fig. 2. Reading a value from a scale generally involves lining up something, such as a mark at the scale. The alignment and hence the value of the reading can depend on the position of the eye (parallax). Avoiding systematic errors depends on the skill of the observer to recognize the sources of such errors and to prevent or correct them. Here is a key point: Statistical errors can, in general, be estimated in only one way: by repeating the measurement several times. Therefore, in all your work in this lab, you must repeat measurements to determine the statistical error. Temperature measurement Length measurement Fig. 2 Examples of personal error due to parallax in reading scales. Accuracy and Precision: Accuracy and precision are commonly used synonymously, but in experimental measurements there is an important distinction. The accuracy of a measurement signifies how close it comes to the true (or accepted) value, that is, how correct it is. Precision refers to the agreement among repeated measurements, that is, the spread of the measurements or how close they are together. The more precise a group of measurements, the closer together they are. However, a large degree of precision does not necessarily imply accuracy. Obtaining greater accuracy for an experimental value depends in general on minimizing systematic errors. Obtaining greater precision for an experimental value depends on minimizing random errors. Significant Figures: The significant figures (sometimes called significant digits) of an experimentally measured value include all the numbers that can be read directly from the instrument scale plus one doubtful or estimated number or fraction of the smallest division (Fig. 3). Physics for engineers PHYS1929 Fig.3 Significant figures. The edge of the object is reported to be at the 10.45cm position of the meter stick. This reading has four significant figures, with the last 5 being the estimated or Academic yeardoubtful (least significant) figure. 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Computations with measured values: Calculations are often performed with measured values, and error and uncertainty are propagated by the mathematical operations (that is, error is carried through to the results by the mathematical operations). The division of 374/29 = 13 is shown in Fig. 4 as done on a hand calculator. The result must be rounded off to two significant figures. (Why?) Reporting more figures would imply greater significance than given by the measurements, and a result cannot be made more significant by a mathematical operation. Rounding off The non-significant figures are dropped from a result if they are to the right of the decimal point or are replaced by zeros if they are to the left of the decimal point. The last significant figure retained should be rounded off. The procedure for doing this is as follows: Rules for Rounding Off Numbers Locate the first number to the right of the appropriate number of significant figures, which is the first digit of those to be removed. (For example, in rounding off 5.247 to two significant figures, this is the 4.) If this digit is Fig. 4 The calculator shows the result of the division operation 374/29. Since there are only two significant figures in the 29, the result can have no more than this number, and the calculator display value should be rounded off to 13. 1. less than 5, then the preceding digit remains the same (e.g., 5.247 rounds to 5.2), or 2. Equal to 5 or greater than the preceding digit is increased by 1 (e.g., 2.257 rounds to 2.3) For multiple operations, rounding off to the proper number of significant figures should not be done each step because rounding errors may accumulate. It is usually suggested that one or two extra insignificant figures be carried along, or if a calculator is being used, rounding off may be done only on the final result of the multiple calculations. Graphical Representation of Data It is often convenient to represent experimental data in graphical form, not only for reporting, but also to obtain information. Graphing Procedure Quantities are commonly plotted using rectangular Cartesian axes (X and Y). The horizontal axis (X) is called the abscissa, and the vertical axis (Y), the ordinate. The location of a point on the graph is defined by its coordinates x and y, written (x, y), referenced to the origin 0, the intersection of the X and Y axes. When plotting data, choose axis scales that are easy to plot and read. Physics for engineers PHYS192 10 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Graphs should have: 1. Each axis labeled with the quantity plotted. 2. The units of the quantities plotted. 3. The title of the graph on the graph paper (commonly listed as the y coordinate versus the x coordinate). As a general rule, it is convenient to choose the unit of the first major scale division to the right or above the origin or zero point as 1, 2, or 5 (or multiples or submultiples thereof, e.g., 10 or 0.1) so the minor (intermediate) scale divisions can be easily interpolated and read. The graph in figure 5 shows an example of graphs that are too small. Scales which are too small bunch up the data, making the graph too small, and the major horizontal scale values make it difficult to read intermediate values. Choose scales so that most of the graph paper is used. Figure 6 shows the data in table 1 plotted with more appropriate scales. Also note in figure 5 that scale units on the axes are not given. Scale units should always be included as shown in figure 6. Displacement (cm) 0.16 0.75 1.00 1.35 1.63 2.00 2.75 Force (N) 2.40 6.90 12.00 16.30 19.10 25.00 32.10 d 1.95 1.87 1.20 1.76 1.99 1.82 1.68 Physics for engineers PHYS192 11 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------80 60 40 20 0 0 2 4 6 8
Force
Displacement
Fig. 5 Poor graphing An example of an improperly labeled and plotted graph.
Error Bars You must account for the statistical error on your measured points by representing these uncertainties as error bars on your plots. In nearly every lab here, you are varying some quantity, X, and the measuring the impact on some quantity, Y. Measure the statistical error on Y. Then plot Y vs. X with error bars on Y that are statistical errors. This is what a physicist means by error bars. You must show such a plot in your lab report. A plot without error bars is just plain wrong. STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS Two quantities (x and Y) are often linearly related; that is, they have an algebraic relationship of the form y = mx + b, where m and b are constants. When the values of such quantities are plotted, the graph is a straight line. The m in the algebraic relationship is called the slope of the line and is equal to the ratio of the intervals y/x. Any set of intervals may be used to determine the slope of a straight-line graph. However, in practice, points should be chosen relatively far apart on the line. For best results, points corresponding to data points should not be chosen, even if they appear to lie on the line. The b in the algebraic relationship is called the y-intercept and is equal to the value of the Y coordinate where the graph line intercepts the Y axis. Notice from the relationship that Y = mx + b, so that when x = 0, then Y = b. If the intercept is at origin (0, 0), then b = 0. Physics for engineers PHYS192 12 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------50 40 30 Force (N) 20 10 0 0 1 2 Displacement (cm) 3 4
Fig.6 Proper graphing. An example of a properly labeled and plotted graph.
LINEAR REGRESSION AND METHOD OF LEAST SQUARES When the data points are plotted, draw a smooth line described by the points. Smooth means that the line does not have to pass exactly through each point but connects the general areas of significance of the data points, with an approximately equal number of points on each side of the line. This gives a "curve of best fit." The resulting equations and the procedure for determining the slope and intercept of the best fitting straight line can be computed automatically by some hand calculators and by computers with the appropriate software. The straight line of "best fit" for a set of data points on a graph can be determined by a statistical procedure called linear regression, using what is known as the method of least squares. This method determines the best-fitting straight line by means of differential calculus. In cases where several determinations of each experimental quantity are made, the average value is plotted and the mean deviation or the standard deviation may be plotted as error bars. For Physics for engineers PHYS192 13 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------example, the data in Table 1 are plotted in Fig. 6. A smooth line is drawn so as to pass within the error bars. (You may want to use a French curve at this point.) The goodness of the fit: Once you have done a best fit, however, you need to address the following question: is the best fit a good fit. In other words, does the model fit the data to within the uncertainties prescribed by the error bars? This is the critical question for the experimental physicist. Your goal is not to measure a number. Your goal is not even to measure the "right" number. Really, your goal is to determine if the physical model is supported by the data. In my opinion, if you take this notion to heart, you will understand the soul of experimental physics. To do this you must numerically answer the question: "Does the data fit the model to within the statistical uncertainties on the measurements?" In order that you answer the question: "is this a good fit?" numerically, you should calculate the chi-squared of the data relative to the model. No matter how you have done your fit, be sure to calculate the chi-square. By dividing the number of degrees of freedom (usually N-2 for a linear fit to N points) you end up with a number called the reduced chi-square. Be sure you understand the following:

The expected value for the reduced chi-square is 1 (unity) in the case that the data are described by the model with given statistical uncertainties. If you get a reduced chi-square near 1.0 this usually means that within your error bars you appear to have a good fit to the model. If, on the other hand, the reduced chi-square is significantly larger than 1.0, this indicates that either the model does not fit the data (new physics!) OR your estimates for your error bars are too small (this should not happen if you measured them by repeated measurements) OR there is some sort of systematic error that remains unaccounted for in your model. If, on the other hand you get a value that is significantly less than 1.0, then either you are very lucky (maybe too lucky) or (more likely) you have somehow overestimated the size of your statistical errors. Again, this should not happen if you estimate your errors from repeated measurements. The reduced chi-square is the experimentalist's universal criteria for comparing data with models. If you learn to use the chi-square, you will have gained a powerful tool for evaluating the meaning of nearly any new experimental result in any field. What is least squares Fitting? The following situation is common in experimental physics. You have taken some data on the way a quantity (y) varies with changes in another quantity (x). You now wish to plot the variation on a graph and extract the slope and the intercept of the "best fit" straight line. The data points have a small random uncertainty associated with them and so you draw a "best fit" straight line through the points. You decide on this line using good judgement. You then estimate the slope and intercept of the line to which you believe that your data conform. Aside from "good judgement", there are other ways of estimating the slope and intercept of the best fit straight line. These other techniques are useful because they are numerical, and don't involve drawing graphs. Because of this, the fitting of the data can be done by a computer, based on objective mathematical criteria, rather than the "good judgement" that you are used to using. Physics for engineers PHYS192Academic year 2008/200914
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------There are many possible criteria that may be used to decide which line gives the best fit to the data, but by far the most commonly used is the Least Squares criterion. This says that: The best fit line to some data is the one which minimises the sum of the squares of all the differences between the data points and the line. I think we need some pictures to see what this means. Here are some data points. In this case there are 9 of them: (X1,y1)(X2,y2)... (Xi,yi)... (X9,y9). The graph below shows three possible lines A, B and C, that could be fitted to the data. Some lines seem more appropriate than others. Using your innate good judgement of these matters, you will spot that line B is a better fit to the data than lines A or C. Each of the three lines has an equation of the form...
Y = mx + c
15 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------where m is the slope of the line, and c is the intercept on the y-axis. What we are looking for is an objective way of deciding which line best fits the data i.e. the choice of values for m and c that is in some sense "optimal". Notice that none of the lines pass through all the points. In fact, even the best fit line B goes through only one point. For each data point, the difference between the y-value, yi and what the fitted line would lead us to expect, is called a residual, i. Clearly we would like the residuals to be as small as possible. However adjusting the slope and intercept of the line to reduce one residual can cause another residual to be larger. However, if m and c are chosen So that the sum of the residuals is small, then m and c are likely to represent a line which is a "good fit" to the data. It is however, not quite that simple. This is because we do not mind whether a residual is positive or negative, we just want its magnitude to be as small as possible. Thus the Least Squares criterion chooses m and c such that the sum of the squares of the residuals is minimised. The square of a number, positive or negative, is always positive. Thus minimising the squares of the residuals, results in a line which minimises the sum of the "distances" between the data points and the line. More technically, if the residual from the ith data point is i then m and c are chosen such that the quantity Q given by is minimised. Q: Why does this technique minimise the sum of the squares of the residuals, and not the sum of the residuals themselves? We should next do some mathematics to see how to pick the values of m and c which satisfy the "Least Squares" criterion. Physics for engineers PHYS192 16 Academic year 2008/2009
Data analysis with Microsoft Excel 3. Tables with Excel

Initiate Excel by clicking on the Excel shortcut on the computers desktop. If you want to change the width and height of cells, highlight the cells and then use FORMAT, ROW, HEIGHT and FORMAT, COLUMN, WIDTH to change their sizes. To add headings (and units) to the columns click on the cell and type, as you would normally do. Unfortunately one cant produce superscripts and subscripts in Excel so one needs to use the ^ sign to indicate power of the unit. Your data is entered the same way just click on the cell and enter the value. If you want to get Excel to do a calculation just click on the cell where you want the answer to go, and type = followed by the required mathematical expression. For example, if the value in the particular cell is obtained by multiplying the value in cell C3 by that in D3 just type = C3*D3. (In fact you can just type = then click on cell C3 and hit the Enter key, type *, click on D3 and hit the enter again.) In Excel the * symbol is used to indicate multiply, the / symbol for divide and the ^ symbol for raise to the power. It is very easy to apply the same formula to the rest of the cells in the column, just select the cell with the formula in it, then click on the bottom right hand corner and drag it down the column. Remember to take care to display the correct number of significant figures in your data. Since Excel calculates the answer to as many places as can fit in the cell you often need to adjust the number of decimal places in columns to reflect the correct number of significant figures. Decreasing the number of decimal places in a number is easiest achieved using the button marked, increasing the number of decimal places by that marked. To add gridlines or borders to your table use the button marked.
4. Plotting with Excel

When you are ready for Excel to plot your data you need to highlight the two columns of data you wish to plot and use INSERT, CHART to call up the chart (plotting) procedure. Choose the XY (SCATTER) option and then select the chart sub-type option that allows you to plot the points without lines. Then click on NEXT, and NEXT again until you bring up the CHART OPTIONS window. You can use the TITLE option to write a title and label the X- and Y-axes, the GRIDLINE option to switch off the gridlines and the LEGEND option to switch off the show legend. Having done this click on FINISH. Move your plot into the desired position by clicking just inside the borders and dragging it to where you want it positioned. Expand it by pulling on the small black squares in the middle of the borders. To draw the best straight line through your points click somewhere inside your graph to select it, then click on CHART > ADD TRENDLINE and select the LINEAR option. If you need to know the slope and intercept of this straight line click on OPTIONS and check the DISPLAY EQUATION ON CHART box. Before plotting your graph it will probably be best to remove the grey background easiest done by clicking twice somewhere on the background and either choosing the color white, or choosing none. The final alteration you may wish to attempt is to change the origin of the plot so that your graph Physics for engineers PHYS192 17 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------covers most of the page. To change the scale on the x-axis, click on the axis to select it. Next click on FORMAT, SELECTED AXIS and choose the SCALE option to change the minimum for your x-axis. Repeat exercise for the y-axis if desired. Conclusion These procedures will lead you to a useable graph. It is then up to you how far you go with resizing the labels and general prettifying. Excel is astonishingly powerful but only if we tell it what to do using our vast experience does it become astonishingly useful.
10 Steps to making your Excel graphs look more professional

1. Create your chart as a separate chart rather than having it drawn over the top of your data. This makes it much easier to see the effects of changing font sizes, etc. 2. Double click on the axes and adjust the number format so that it makes sense often scientific notation with 2 decimal places. 3. Double click on the axes and adjust the scales so they are what you would choose rather than what Excel often bizarrely thinks you want. 4. When you have a trendline with an equation double click on the equation and set it so that there ARE both automatic borders and background of white. 5. Get your trendline to extrapolate along by inserting a row into your data and entering a value in the x-axis column which stretches the line. Note that you should NOT insert anything in the yaxis column. 6. Double click on the plot area and set the background to none. 7. Remove the legend (almost always!) 8. Insert text boxes by clicking on insert/picture/autoshapes at the top of the screen. Drag a box shape and use it to insert your conclusions. If necessary change the font size of the text. 9. Use a speech or thought bubble to point towards key features. Click on the text box and drag the yellow spot to move the point of the bubble. 10. Format superscripts and subscripts in your axis labels, etc. by selecting the text and clicking on format at the top of the screen. Note: You may import your excel graphs into your MS Word document if you are word processing your reports using MS Word. The same applies to tables. Physics for engineers PHYS192 18 Academic year 2008/2009
Safety in the Physics Lab

General lab practice:
Eating and drinking in the lab is not allowed. When you leave the lab, all apparatus must be returned to its original position and the lab left as it was. Please do not leave litter behind. All apparatus must be treated as delicate.
High voltage:
Safety is a priority. No student may open any equipment driven by mains voltage or high voltage.
Glass equipment:
Such as thermometers, mirrors, lenses, etc. should be handled with extra care as they represent fragile items; basic common sense and knowledge are required. In case of breakage please report to lab instructor immediately.
Mercury:
Mercury is used in thermometers and some pressure experiments; this is a poisonous material that must be handled with great caution.
Hot plates:
Hot plates are used in some experiments. Those get very hot and must not be touched by hand. Avoid letting paper and plastic stationary or bags touch them. Physics for engineers PHYS192 19 Academic year 2008/2009
Experiment (1) Understanding Motion (1): Position and Time (Motion Sensor)
INTRODUCTION
When describing the motion of an object, knowing where it is relative to a reference point, how fast and in what direction it is moving, and how it is accelerating (changing its rate of motion) is essential. A sonar ranging device such as the PASCO Motion Sensor uses pulses of ultrasound that reflect from an object to determine the position of the object. As the object moves, the change in its position is measured many times each second. The change in position from moment to moment is expressed as a velocity (meters per second). The change in velocity from moment to moment is expressed as acceleration (meters per second per second). The position of an object at a particular time can be plotted on a graph. You can also graph the velocity and acceleration of the object versus time. A graph is a mathematical picture of the motion of an object. For this reason, it is important to understand how to interpret a graph of position, velocity, or acceleration versus time. In this activity you will plot a graph of position in real-time, that is, as the motion is happening.
EQUIPMENT NEEDED
1-Motion sensor 2-Base and support Rod
For your Safety:
Follow all safety instructions. Keep the area clear where you will be walking.
What Do You Think?

What is the relationship between the motion of an object YOU and a graph of position and time for the moving object? Physics for engineers PHYS192 20 Academic year 2008/2009
For You to Do
This activity is easier to do if you have a partner to run the computer while you move. For this activity, you will be the object in motion. Use the Motion Sensor to measure your position as you move in a straight line at different speeds. Use DataStudio or ScienceWorkshop to plot your motion on a graph of position and time. The challenge in this activity is to move in such a way that a plot of your motion on the same graph will match the line that is already there.
1. Computer setup
1. Connect the ScienceWorkshop interface to the computer, turn on the interface, and turn on the computer. 2. Connect the stereo phone plugs of the Motion Sensor to Digital Channels 1 and 2 on the interface. Connect the yellow plug to Digital Channel 1 and the other plug to Digital Channel 2. 3. Open the file titled as shown: DataStudio --P01 Position and Time The DataStudio file has a Workbook display. Read the instructions in the Workbook. The ScienceWorkshop document has a Graph display of Position versus Time. The Graph shows Position and Time values that were entered into the Graph. Data recording is set to stop automatically at 10 seconds. In the DataStudio file there is a three-second countdown before data recording begins. Physics for engineers PHYS192 21 Academic year 2008/2009
2. Sensor Calibration and Equipment Setup
You do not need to calibrate the Motion Sensor.
1. Mount the Motion Sensor on a support rod so that it is aimed at your midsection when you are standing in front of the sensor. Make sure that you can move at least 2 meters away from the Motion Sensor. 2. Position the computer monitor so you can see the screen while you move away from the Motion Sensor.
You will be moving backwards for part of this activity. Clear the area behind you for at least 2 meters (about 6 feet). Physics for engineers PHYS192
3. Data Recording
1. 2. Enlarge the Graph display until it fills the monitor screen. Study the plot of Position versus Time in order to determine the following: How close should you be to the Motion Sensor at the beginning? How far away should you move? _______ (m) _______ (m) 3.
How long should your motion last? When you are ready, stand in front of the Motion Sensor. _______ (s)
WARNING: You will be moving backward, so be certain that the area behind you is free of obstacles.
4. When everything is ready, start recording data. In DataStudio, click Start. There is a three-second countdown before data recording begins. The cursor on the vertical axis of the Graph will move up and down as you move forward and backward relative to the sensor. Use the feedback from cursor to find your best starting position. In ScienceWorkshop, click REC. Data recording will begin almost immediately. The Motion Sensor will make a faint clicking noise. 5. Watch the plot of your motion on the Graph and try to move so the plot of your motion matches the Position versus Time plot already there. If the Motion Sensor is having difficulty picking up the echo, use a notebook as a reflector. Hold the notebook at the same height as the sensor. 6. Repeat the data recording process a second and a third time. Try to improve the match between the plot of your motion and the plot already on the Graph.
The Graph can show more than one run of data at the same time. 23 Academic year 2008/2009 Physics for engineers PHYS192
Analyzing the data

1. Determine the slope of the best-fit line for the middle section of your best position versus time plot. You may want to resize the graph to fit the data. The slope of this part of the position versus time plot is the velocity during the selected region of motion.
Questions
1. In the Graph, what is the slope of the line of best fit for the middle section of your plot? 2. What is the description of your motion? (Example: Constant speed for 2 seconds followed by no motion for 3 seconds, etc.) What would be the physical meaning of a steeper slope on the graph? What would be different about the motion if the slope were negative? 3. 4. Physics for engineers PHYS192 24 Academic year 2008/2009
Understanding Motion (2): Velocity and Time (Motion Sensor)

In this second experiment of motion, first and second parts are same as first section but the third part will be:
3. Data Recording
1. 2.

Enlarge the Graph until it fills the monitor screen. Study the Velocity versus Time plot in order to determine the following: Which direction (positive or negative) should you go at the beginning? What is the maximum speed (positive or negative) you must achieve? How long should your motion last? _______ _______ (m/s) _______ (s) 3.
When you are ready, stand in front of the motion sensor.

WARNING: You will be moving backward, so be certain that the area behind you is free of obstacles.
4. 5. 6.
When everything is ready, start recording data. Data recording will begin almost immediately. The motion sensor will make a faint clicking noise. Watch the plot of your motion on the Graph, and try to move so that the plot of your motion matches the Velocity versus Time plot that is already there. Repeat the data recording process a second and a third time. Try to improve the match between the plot of your motion and the plot that is already on the Graph. The Graph can show more than one run of data at the same time. Physics for engineers PHYS192 25 Academic year 2008/2009
Analyzing the data

1. Determine how well your best plot of velocity versus time matches the velocity versus time plot that was already on the Graph. You may want to resize the graph to fit the data. In DataStudio, check the Match Score calculation in a Digits display. Physics for engineers PHYS192 26 Academic year 2008/2009
Experiment (2) Free-Fall Acceleration

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT
To determine the free fall acceleration (g) due to the gravity.
INTRODUCTION
An object thrown upward and one thrown downward will both experience the same acceleration as an object released from rest. Once they are in free-fall, all objects have an acceleration downward, equal to the free-fall acceleration. Since positive Y is upward, the acceleration (g) is negative and given by: (-g). When object dropped, they fall toward the earth with nearly constant acceleration due to gravity and it is denoted by the sample: (g). The free-fall acceleration or the acceleration due to gravity (g) is directed downward the center of the earth. At the surface of the earth, the value of g is approximately 9.8 m/s or 980 cm/s or 32 ft/s.
EQUIPMENT NEEDED
Two photo-light sensors connected to digital timer, holder, small ball, battery or power supply (6 volts).
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit shown in fig (1). Take a distance (x) between the two sensors of about 80 cm. 2. Throw the small ball in a way that will pass the gap between the 2 sensors. When the ball passes throw the first sensor, its digital timer starts counting the time where the second sensor stops the timer when the ball passes from it. Physics for engineers PHYS192 27 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. Record the time (t) shown to you from the digital timer and record the distance (x) between 2 sensors. Repeat step 2 many times at this distance and take the average time. 4. Repeat steps 2, 3 for different distances and record your data in a table. 5. Plot the relationships between the time (t), along X-axis, and the velocity (x/t), along the Yaxis. Evaluate the slope from this relation. 6. From the slope, calculator the free-fall acceleration (g) as following. v = v0 + (1/2) g t Where v: the velocity at time t and v = x/t, v0: the velocity at time t = 0 at can be deduced from interception of the line with the Y-axis, g: the free-fall acceleration due to gravity t: time of fall.
Distance between sensors X (cm) Timer (1) (2) t(s) (3) Average Timer t (s) Velocity V=x/t (cm/s)
Ball Power Supply Digital Timer Holder Plastic Basket
Experiment (3) Application of Newton's Laws

To determine the acceleration and the force applied to the cart by hanging mass.
Introduction:
There's nothing obvious about the relationships governing the motion of objects. In fact, it took around 4,000 years of civilization and the genius of Isaac Newton to figure out the basic laws. Fortunately for the rest of us, hindsight is a powerful research tool. In this experiment you experimentally determine Newton's second law by examining the motion of cart under the influence of a constant force. The constant force will be supplied by the weight of a hanging mass that will be used to pull the cart (figure 1.).
EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
Photogate timer with Accessory Photogate (or two Photogate Timers) Pulley Track &cart Masses Physics for engineers PHYS192 30 Academic year 2008/2009
Procedure:
1. Set up the system as shown in the figure 1. 2. Determine the total mass of your cart and record it as m. 3. Place a mass of approximately 5-25 grams on the weight hanger. Record the total mass (hanger "5g" plus added mass) as ma. 4. Take a distance x between the two sensors of about 50 cm. 5. Set you Photogate timer to PULSE mode. 6. Choose a starting point xo for the cart, near the end of the track. Mark this point with pencil so that can always start the cart from this same point. 7. Press the RESET buttons. 8. Hold the cart steady at xo, and then release it. Measure and record t, the time it takes the cart to pass between the Photogates. Repeat this measurement three more times and record the average of these measurements as t in the table 1. 9. Vary the distance x , and repeat step 9. Try at least five different values for x . 10. Plot the relationships between the time t, along X-axis, and the velocity x t , along the Y-axis.
x = vo t + 1 2at x = vo + 1 2at t
11. Determine F, the force ( F = ma g = 980cm / s 2 ). applied to the cart by the hanging mass.
Table 1.
(cm) t1 t2 t3 tavg. (sec) / (cm/sec) Physics for engineers PHYS192 31 Academic year 2008/2009
Experiment (4) Transforming Gravitational Potential Energy to Kinetic Energy

To determine if energy is conserved, by measuring the gravitational potential energy lost by the falling mass and the kinetic energy gained by platter and falling mass.
INTRODUCTION
In this activity, a falling object applies a constant net torque to a rotating disk. As the object falls, its gravitational potential energy decreases and its translational kinetic energy increase. At the same time, the rotational kinetic energy of the disk increases. How does the decrease in gravitational potential energy compare to the increase in translational and rotational kinetic energy?
THEORY
The gravitational potential energy of an object depends on its weight and its vertical distance, h, relative to a reference point (usually the Earths surface). The gravitational potential energy is: GPE = mgh Where m is the mass of the object and g is the acceleration due to gravity. The kinetic energy of a rotating object depends on its rotational inertia, I, and its angular speed, . rotational kinetic energy is: RKE = . As the object falls, it has translational kinetic energy: KE = mv Where m is the mass of the object, and v is its speed. Physics for engineers PHYS192 32 Academic year 2008/2009
Note
For this activity you need to know the rotational inertia of the disk that is part of the Rotational Accessory.
Equipment Needed
Rotary Motion Sensor (CI-6538) Balance (SE-8723) Base and Support Rod (ME-9355)
Qty Equipment Needed

1 1 1 Mass and Hanger Set (ME-9348) Rotational Accessory (CI-6691) Thread (inc. w/ CI-6691)
Qty
1 1 1m
COMPUTER SETUP
1. Connect the ScienceWorkshop interface to the computer, turn on the interface, and turn on the computer. 2. Connect the Rotary Motion Sensors stereo phone plugs into Digital Channels 1 and 2 on the interface. 3. From the sensor list chose "Smart Pulley" : The Data studio file has a Workbook display, a Table display, and a Graph display. Physics for engineers PHYS192 33 Academic year 2008/2009
PROCEDURE
1. Mount the Rotary Motion Sensor on a support rod so the step pulley is on top. Use the bubble level to level the apparatus. Use a piece of thread about 10 cm longer than the distance from the Super Pulley to the ground. Tie one end of the thread to the edge of the medium groove on the step pulley on the Rotary Motion Sensor. Drape the thread over the Super Pulley. Attach the other end of the thread to a mass hanger. Adjust the angle of the Super Pulley so the thread is tangent to the step pulley and in the middle of the groove on the Super Pulley. Remove the thumbscrew from the step pulley on top of the Rotary Motion Sensor. Place the disk on the pulley and attach the disk with the thumbscrew. Measure r, the radius of the smallest spindle. Attach a piece of the thread to the step pulley and wind it up on the smallest of the three spindles. Attach the mass hanger to the thread, high enough on the thread so masses will not hit the floor at the lowest part of their fall. Add masses to the holder, so the total mass is approximately 160g. Record the total mass as m in the data table. Measure and record H = (h1 h2). Select GRAPH DATA from the main menu to move to the graphing program, and the VELOCITY VS TIME for a velocity-time graph. Examining the graph, you should note that there is a point of maximum velocity, corresponding to the point where the gravitational potential energy reached a minimum and the rotational kinetic energy reach a maximum. Press RETURN, and then choose DISPLAY TABLE OF DATA to see a table of the data. Determine the maximum velocity of the platter, given in m\sec. Record this value as (v max) in the table. Repeat your measurements at least three times, keeping h1 constant. Repeat more times if your data shows any inconsistencies between trials. Repeat steps 6-9, but change the mass to 170, 180, till 200g. Repeat the same steps for different spindles. Calculate ( platter max), (mgh), ( m falling v max). 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. The angular speed, , of the rotating disk is related to the linear speed, v, of the falling object: = v where r is the radius of the step pulley on the Rotary Motion Sensor. r Physics for engineers PHYS192 34 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11. Data

Run Mass (g) V max V max
max
=v/ r
GPE RKE KE RKE+ KE average

1 2 3
Rotational inertia, I, of the disk (9.2 x 10-3 kg m2 ) 12. Compare GPE and RKE+KE. Is energy conserved?
Questions
1. Is the rotational kinetic energy equal to the gravitational potential energy of the falling object? 2. How does the total kinetic energy compare to the gravitational potential energy of the falling object? Physics for engineers PHYS192 35 Academic year 2008/2009
Experiment (5) Study of Hooks Law and simple harmonic motion Using a helical spring
THEORY An elastic material tends to return to its original form or shape after being stretched. Hence, elasticity implies a restoring force that can give rise to vibrations or oscillations. For many elastic materials, the restoring force is proportional to the amount of deformation, if the deformation is not too great. This is best seen for a coil spring. The restoring force F exerted by a stretched (or compressed) spring is proportional to the stretching (compressing) distance x, or F x. In equation form, we have what is known as Hooks law
F = - kx
(1) Where x is the displacement of one end of the spring from its un-stretched (x = 0) position, k is a positive constant of proportionality, and the minus sign indicates that the displacement and force are in opposite directions. The constant k is called the spring constant and is a relative indication of the stiffness of the spring. When the motion of an object is repeated in regular time intervals or periods, it is called periodic motion. Examples include the oscillations of a pendulum. This motion is called simple harmonic motion (SHM) simple because the restoring force has the simplest form and harmonic because the motion can be described by harmonic functions (sines and cosines). A particle or object in motion under the influence of a linear restoring force such as that described by Hooks law undergoes simple harmonic motion (SHM). This periodic oscillatory motion is one of the common types found in nature. The period of oscillation of an object in simple harmonic motion is related to the constant of proportionality in Hooks law. T = 2 (2) m k In this experiment, Hooks law will be investigated along with the parameters and description of simple harmonic motion (i.e using static and dynamic methods). After performing this experiment and analyzing the data, you should be able to: 1. Tell how Hooks law is represented graphically, and cite an example of an elastic object that does not follow Hooks law. 2. Explain why simple harmonic motion (SHM) is simple and harmonic. Physics for engineers PHYS192 36 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. Better understand how the period of a weight oscillating on a spring varies with the weights mass and the spring constant. EQUIPMENT NEEDED Coil spring, supports, clamps, Slotted weights and weight hanger, Meter stick Stop watch EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 1/ Spring Elongation 1. Hang a coil spring on a support and suspend a weight hanger from it. 2. Add an appropriate weight to the weight hanger (e.g., 500-4000 g) 3. Record the total suspended weight (m1g) in a Table. [It is convenient to leave g the acceleration due to gravity in symbolic form, that is, if m1 = 500 g or 0.500 kg, then weight = m1g = (0.500 kg) g N.]. Note: Be careful not to confuse the symbol for the acceleration due to gravity, g, and the abbreviation for gram(s), g. 4. Fix a meter stick vertically alongside the weight hanger and note the position of the bottom of the weight hanger (or a pointer) on the meter stick. 5. Record this in the data table. 6. Add appropriate weights to the weight hanger one at a time (e.g., 500 g), and record the total suspended weight and the position of the bottom of the weight hanger on the meterstick after each elongation. 7. The weights should be small enough so that seven or eight weights can be added without overstretching the spring. Note: Choose appropriate mass increments for the spring stiffness. 8. Plot the total suspended weight force versus elongation position (F=mg versus x), and draw a straight line that best fits the data points. 9. Determine the slope of the line (the spring constant k) and record in the data table. 2/ Period of Oscillation 1. On the weight hanger suspended from the spring, place a mass just great enough to prevent the spring from oscillating too fast and to prevent the hanger from moving relative to the end of the spring during oscillations when it is pulled down (e.g., 5 to 10cm) and released. Record the total mass in a Table. 2. Using a stopwatch, release the spring weight hanger from the initial displacement and determine the time it takes for the mass to make a number (5 to 10) of complete oscillations or cycles. The number of cycles timed will depend on how quickly the system loses energy or is damped. Physics for engineers PHYS192 37 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. Make an effort to time enough cycles to get a good average period of oscillation. Record the total time and the number of oscillations in the data table. 4. Divide the total time by the number of oscillations to determine the average period. 5. Repeat procedure 2 for four more mass values, each of which is several times larger than the smallest mass, and record the results in the Data Table. 6. The initial displacement may be varied if necessary. (This should have no effect on the period. Why?) 7. Plot a graph of the average period squared (T2) versus the mass (m) and draw a straight line that best fits the data points. Determine the slope of the line and compute the spring constant k from Equation 2. Note that k is not simply equal to the slope 8. Compare this value of k with that determined from the slope of the spring elongation graph by computing the percent difference. Physics for engineers PHYS192 38 Academic year 2008/2009
Experiment (6) Work - Kinetic Energy Theorem

INTRODUCTION We know that energy is found in many different forms, such as chemical, thermal, electrical, solar, mechanical, etc. It is convenient to reduce these to only two forms: the energy of motion ( Kinetic energy, KE) and the energy of position (potential energy, PE).Chemical energy is thus due to the position of molecules in a material, while thermal energy can be thought as dependent upon the motion of the molecules in that material ( the kinetic energy ). Mechanical energy consists of both KE and PE. One of the most basic laws of physics states that energy is conserved in an isolated system. (An isolated system is one in which no work and no heat is added to the system). Within this isolated system, we can certainly have transformations or conversions of energy from one form to another, as from potential energy into kinetic energy, or from chemical energy into thermal energy. But energy does not appear from nowhere, or disappear, so that total energy remains the same. THEORY For an object with mass m that experiences a net force Fnet over a distance d that is parallel to the net force, the work done is: W = Fnet d If the work changes the objects vertical position, the objects gravitational potential energy changes. The work done on a rigid body by a net force changes the energy of the body. However, if the work changes only the objects speed, the objects kinetic energy changes as follows: W = = KE f KEi = 2 mv f 2 mvi
1 2 1 2
where W is the work, vf is the final speed of the object and vi is the initial speed of the object. So, The theorem can be defined as the change in the kinetic energy of a particle during a displacement is equal to the work done by the resultant force on the particle during this displacement. Physics for engineers PHYS192 39 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------In this experiment, we will investigate the conservation of mechanical energy in a system consisting of a ruler, a marble and steelier, and book (to give the ruler an incline on a table).
EQUIPMENT NEEDED
Long ruler. Marble balls with different sizes and masses. A book or a piece of wood (to give the ruler an incline on a table). Styrofoam cups.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1- Take the masses for the given marble balls 2- Place one of the glass marble on the end of ramp as shown. 3- From three different heights or positions, let the ball roll to the bottom on the ruler and then measure its velocity for a fixed distance on the table .(What type of energy does it have??). Determine if the mass of the ball and the height affects the time it takes the ball to get to the bottom. Discuss, what type of energy did the marble possess at the top of the ruler? What type of energy did the marble possess at the half way of the ruler? What type of energy did the marble possess at the bottom? 4- Using the Styrofoam cup with the small opening in it, let the marble roll down the ruler from 3 different positions and into the cup. 5- Measure how far the cup moves on the table. 6- Calculate the force applied to the cup. . 7- Then deduce the coefficient of friction (). Physics for engineers PHYS192 40 Academic year 2008/2009
Experiment (7) Determination of the Acceleration of Gravity Using the Simple Pendulum
THEORY A pendulum consists of a "bob" (a mass) attached to a string that is fastened so that the pendulum assembly can swing or oscillate in a plane (Fig. 1). For a simple or ideal pendulum, all the mass is considered to be concentrated at a point at the center (of mass) of the bob. Some of the physical properties or parameters of a simple pendulum are (1) the length L of the pendulum, (2) the mass m of the pendulum bob, (3) the angular displacement through which the pendulum swings, and (4) the period T of the pendulum, which is the time it takes for the pendulum to swing through one complete oscillation. From physical principles and advanced mathematics, the theoretical expression for the period of a simple pendulum oscillating in a plane is
T = 2
(1.1)
L g
( )
1 + 1 sin 2 +
64
sin 2 + ...422
where g is the acceleration due to gravity and the terms in parentheses are part of an infinite series. In calculating T for a given angular distance , the more terms of the series that are evaluated, the greater the accuracy of the theoretical result. For small angles ( 20o), the terms in the series are small compared to unity (i.e., 1), and in this case, to a good approximation, Fig. 1 The simple pendulum.
T = 2
L g
(1.2) (This is called the first-order approximation. If the second term in the series is retained, the approximation is to second order, and so on.) Notice that even without an approximation (Eq. 1.1), the period is theoretically independent of the mass of the pendulum bob. Also, within the limits of the small-angle approximation (Eq. 1.2), the period is independent of the displacement angle. Physics for engineers PHYS192 41 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------It is sometimes helpful to visualize a physical system as a "black box" with inputs and outputs. The black box is the relationship connecting the input and output parameters. The term parameter refers to anything in the physical system that can be measured. The input parameters are the physical variables that may control or influence the behavior of the output parameters (the physical quantities that are measured and that describe the resulting behavior of the system). The input parameters are often called independent variables because they can (and should) be varied independently of each other. The output parameters, on the other hand, may be called dependent variables because their values depend on the inputs. In any given system, some of the inputs may have little or no effect on the outputs. You may find drawing black box diagrams helpful in understanding the physical systems to be investigated in later experiments. EQUIPMENT NEEDED String, Meterstick, Three or more pendulum bobs of different masses, Laboratory timer or stopwatch, Pendulum clamp (if available), Protractor, graph paper EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 1. Set up a simple pendulum arrangement. Make sure that the string is secure and does not slip on the arm. 2. Measure and record the pendulum length. The length should be measured to the center of the pendulum bob. 3. Determine the pendulum period for the several lengths measured [Rather than timing only one oscillation, time several (e.g., four or five) and determine the average period. Timing is generally more accurate if you start the pendulum oscillating before the timing begins. Also, it is usually best to take the timing reference point as the lowest point of the swing.] 4. Experimentally investigate whether the period is independent of the mass of the pendulum bob. Using the three masses provided, determine the periods of a pendulum with each mass as the bob (keeping length L and the small angle of oscillation constant). Record your results in a Table and draw a conclusion from the data. 5. Experimentally investigate the relationship between the length and period of a pendulum. Using different lengths, determine the average period of a pendulum of each length (keeping mass and the small angle of oscillation constant). Record the data in a Table. 6. Compute the error in the experimental values of the period for each pendulum length and record in a Table. Draw conclusions about the validity or applicability of Eq. 1.2. 7. The object of the preceding experimental procedures was to determine the validity or applicability of Eq. 1.2, that is, whether the experimental results agree with the theoretical predictions as required by the scientific method. Once found acceptable, a theoretical expression can then be used to determine experimentally other quantities occurring in the expression. For example,Eq. 1.2 provides a means for experimentally determining g, the acceleration due to gravity, by measuring the pendulum parameters of length and period as was done previously. Physics for engineers PHYS192Academic year 2008/200942
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8. Squaring both sides of Eq. 1.2, we have
T = 2
L g
4 T2 = L g
This can be plotted as a straight line with the general form y = mx by letting T2 = y and x = L. The line will have a slope of m. 9. Plot T2 versus L from the experimental data, determine the slope of the best straight line that fits the data in the graph, and compute the experimental value of g. Record this in the Laboratory Report and compute the percent error of the result. 10. Show the error bars on the graph. Physics for engineers PHYS192 43 Academic year 2008/2009
Experiment (8) Determination of the Coefficient of Viscosity of engine oil by Stokes method
THEORY Viscosity is that property of a fluid that indicates its internal friction. The more viscous a fluid, the greater the force required to cause one layer of fluid to slide past another. Viscosity is what prevents objects from moving freely through a fluid or a fluid from flowing freely in a pipe. The viscosity of gases is less than that of liquids, and the viscosity of water and light oils is less than that of molasses and heavy oils. Your experience with liquids such as motor oils and syrups, tells you that viscosity increases with decreasing temperature. Thus, it is hard to restart a car engine in subzero weather when the oil is thick and flows slowly, but it is easy to start the same car on a hot summer day when the oil is warm and flows readily. An object moving through a fluid experiences a resistive force, or drag, that is proportional to the viscosity of the fluid. If the object is moving slowly enough, the drag force is proportional to its speed v. If the object is a sphere of radius r, the force is
F = 6
where is the coefficient of viscosity. Vo is the terminal velocity of fall of a spherical particle in a viscous medium r is the radius of the particle This equation is known as Stokes' law, after Sir George Stokes (1819-1903), who first conceived it in 1845. Stokes' law can be used to relate the speed of a sphere falling in a liquid to the viscosity of that liquid. Consider a solid sphere of radius r dropped into the top of a column of liquid (see figure). At the top of the column, the sphere accelerates downward under the influence of gravity. However there are two additional forces, both acting upward: the constant buoyant force and a speed dependant retarding force given by stokes law. When the sum of the upward forces is equal to the gravitational force, the sphere travels with a constant speed vt, called the terminal velocity. To determine this speed, we write the equation for the equilibrium of forces: Physics for engineers PHYS192 44 Academic year 2008/2009
vo r
Fgrav = Fbouyant + Fdrag

The gravitational force:
Fgrav = r 3 s g 3
The buoyant force is equal to the weight of the displaced liquid, which has a density L:
4 Fbuoyant = r 3 L g 3
Hence: 4 34
r s g = r 3 L g + 6 rvt 33 4 3 r g ( s L ) = 6 rvt 3 vt =
EQUIPMENT NEEDED 1m long glass tube of about 3cm diameter closed at the bottom and open at the top filled with vehicle engine oil. Micrometer Meter stick Thermometer Ball bearings of various diameters Magnet Stop watch Coloured sticky tape 2 ( s L ) g 2
(1) Physics for engineers PHYS192 45 Academic year 2008/2009
r 9
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 1. Using the sticky tape mark two points A an B on the glass tube. Mark A towards the top of the tube should be sufficiently well down the tube to ensure that the sphere acquires its terminal velocity before passing A. 2. Take the times of descent between marks A and B of several spheres of the same diameter and calculate their average velocity. 3. Use the micrometer to determine the diameter of the ball bearings. 4. Repeat the experiment for balls of different diameters. 5. Plot a graph o the squared radius as a function of terminal velocity. 6. Use equation (1) to determine the viscosity of the oil. Physics for engineers PHYS192 46 Academic year 2008/2009
Experiment (9) Determination of the speed of Sound in Air Using a resonance tube
THEORY Sound Waves
When the diaphragm of a speaker vibrates, a sound wave is produced that propagates through the air. The sound wave consists of small motions of the air molecules toward and away from the speaker. If you were able to look at a small volume of air near the speaker, you would find that the volume of air does not move far, but rather it vibrates toward and away from the speaker at the frequency of the speaker vibrations. This motion is very much analogous to waves propagating on a string. An important difference is that, if you watch a small portion of the string, its vibration motion is transverse to the direction of propagation of the wave on the string. The motion of a small volume of air in a sound wave is parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave. Because of this, the sound wave is called a longitudinal wave. Another way of conceptualizing a sound wave is as a series of compressions and rarefactions. When the diaphragm of a speaker moves outward, the air near the diaphragm is compressed, creating a small volume of relatively high air pressure, a compression. This small high pressure volume of air compresses the air adjacent to it, which in turn compresses the air adjacent to it, so the high pressure propagates away from the speaker. When the diaphragm of the speaker moves inward, a low pressure volume of air, a rarefaction, is created near the diaphragm. This rarefaction also propagates away from the speaker. In general, a sound wave propagates out in all directions from the source of the wave. However, the study of sound waves can be simplified by restricting the motion of propagation to one dimension, as is done with the Resonance Tube. Physics for engineers PHYS192 47 Academic year 2008/2009
Standing Waves in a Tube

Standing waves are created in a vibrating string when a wave is reflected from an end of the string so that the returning wave interferes with the original wave. Standing waves also occur when a sound wave is reflected from the end of a tube. A standing wave on a string has nodespoints where the string does not moveand antinodespoints where the string vibrates up and down with a maximum amplitude. Analogously, a standing sound wave has displacement nodespoints where the air does not vibrateand displacement antinodespoints where the amplitude of the air vibration is a maximum. Pressure nodes and antinodes also exist within the waveform. In fact, pressure nodes occur at displacement antinodes and pressure antinodes occur at displacement nodes. This can be understood by thinking of a pressure antinodes as being located between two displacement antinodes that vibrate 180 out of phase with each other. When the air of the two displacement antinodes are moving toward each other, the pressure of the pressure antinode is a maximum. When they are moving apart, the pressure goes to a minimum. Reflection of the sound wave occurs at both open and closed tube ends. If the end of the tube is closed, the air has nowhere to go, so a displacement node (a pressure antinode) must exist at a closed end. If the end of the tube is open, the pressure stays very nearly at room pressure, so a pressure node (a displacement antinode) exists at an open end of the tube.
Resonance
As described above, a standing wave occurs when a wave is reflected from the end of the tube
and the return wave interferes with the original wave. However, the sound wave will actually be reflected many times back and forth between the ends of the tube, and all these multiple reflections will interfere together. In general, the multiply reflected waves will not all be in phase, and the amplitude of the wave pattern will be small. However, at certain frequencies of oscillation, all the reflected waves are in phase, resulting in a very high amplitude standing wave. These frequencies are called resonant frequencies. Physics for engineers PHYS192 48 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------In Experiment 1, the relationship between the length of the tube and the frequencies at which resonance occurs is investigated. It is shown that the conditions for resonance are more easily understood in terms of the wavelength of the wave pattern, rather than in terms of the frequency. The resonance states also depend on whether the ends of the tube are open or closed. For an open tube (a tube open at both ends), resonance occurs when the wavelength of the wave (l) satisfies the condition: L = nl/2, n = 1, 2, 3, 4 where L = tube length. These wavelengths allow a standing wave pattern such that a pressure node (displacement antinode) of the wave pattern exists naturally at each end of the tube. Another way to characterize the resonance states is to say that an integral number of half wavelengths fits between the ends of the tube. For a closed tube (by convention, a closed tube is open at one end and closed at the other), resonance occurs when the wavelength of the wave (l) satisfies the condition: L = nl/4, n = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 These wavelengths allow a standing wave pattern such that a pressure node (displacement antinode) occurs naturally at the open end of the tube and a pressure antinode (displacement node) occurs naturally at the closed end of the tube. As for the open tube, each successive value of n describes a state in which one more half wavelength fits between the ends of the tube. NOTE: The first four resonance states for open and closed tubes are diagramed below. The first resonance state (n = 1) is called the fundamental. Successive resonance states are called overtones. The representation in each case is relative displacement. Physics for engineers PHYS192 49 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The formulas and diagrams shown above for resonance in a tube are only approximate, mainly because the behavior of the waves at the ends of the tube (especially at an open end) depends partially on factors such as the diameter of the tube and the frequency of the waves. The ends of the tubes are not exact nodes and antinodes. It can be a useful experiment to investigate the wave behavior at the ends of the tube using the microphone. The following empirical formulas give a somewhat more accurate description of the resonance requirements for standing waves in a tube. For an open tube: L + 0.8d = nl/2, n = 1, 2, 3, 4,. where L is the length of the tube and d is the diameter. Physics for engineers PHYS192 50 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------For a closed tube: L + 0.4d = nl/4, n = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9,. where L is the length of the tube and d is the diameter. NOTE: When using the microphone to investigate the waveform within the tube, be aware that the microphone is a pressure transducer. A maximum signal, therefore, indicates a pressure antinode (a displacement node) and a minimum signal indicates a pressure node (displacement antinode).
EQUIPMENT NEEDED
1- PASCO Resonance Tube
2- Function Generator 3- Frequency Counter (if your function generator does not accurately indicate frequency) 4- Oscilloscope (recommended, but not necessary)
Introduction
For any given tube length, there are a variety of resonant frequenciesfrequencies at which standing waves will be formed in the tube. Likewise, for a given frequency, there are a variety of tube lengths at which a standing wave will be formed. In this experiment you will examine the series of tube lengths which will resonate with a set frequency.
Procedure
1. Set up the Resonance Tube, oscilloscope, and function generator as shown in Figure 3.1.
Move the piston to a position very near the end of the tube. Set the signal generator to approximately 800 Hz and turn the amplitude up until the speaker is clearly heard. Record this frequency. If you use the oscilloscope, trigger on the speaker output. Physics for engineers PHYS192 51 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2. Slowly push the piston further into the tube, until you hear the sound from the speaker being amplified by the tube, indicating that you have produced a standing wave in the tube. Adjust the piston position carefully until you find the point which produces the loudest sound as well as the largest signal on the oscilloscope screen. Record this position. 3. Now continue moving the piston into the tube until you reach a new position where a standing wave is produced. Record this new position. Continue moving the piston until you have found all of the piston positions along the tube which produce standing waves. 4. Repeat the procedures above for as many different frequencies as your instructor directs. WARNING: You can damage the speaker by overdriving it. The sound from the speaker should be clearly audible, but not loud. Note also that many signal generators become more efficient and thus produce a larger output as the frequency increases, so if you increase the frequency, you may need to reduce the amplitude. Physics for engineers PHYS192 52 Academic year 2008/2009
SPEAKER INPUT.1 W MAX
Analysis
Use the data that you have recorded to sketch the wave activity along the length of your tube with the piston in the position furthest from the speaker. How do the successive piston positions that produced a standing wave relate to this sketch? Is the apparent spacings of nodes and antinodes consistent with the wavelength of your sound waves as calculated from V/,= where V = speed of sound? Table 3.1 Closed Tube Resonances Frequency:. n L (m) Frequency:. n L (m) Physics for engineers PHYS192 53 Academic year 2008/2009
Experiment (10) Determination of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

THEORY The Joule and calorie are both units of energy. However they are defined such a way that the relation between them can be established only experimentally. The simplest method to find this relation is to analyze energy which is delivered by an electric current to a resistor (this energy is called a Joule's heat) from electric and thermodynamic points of view. Energy E which is delivered by the source of current to the resistor R in a short time t is equal to
E = V I t = I2 R t = V2 t/R
(1) where V and I are the voltage and current on this resistor. If we deal with DC voltage, and consequently a constant current, then the energy E which is delivered in an arbitrary time t is given by (1). In our experiment the energy which is delivered from the source of current to the resistor heats the water and internal cup of calorimeter rising their temperature. Therefore the amount of heat Q which is delivered to the system can be expressed as follows
Q = cw mw (Tf - Ti) + cc mc (Tf - Ti)

(2) where cw, cc, mw, mc are specific heats and masses of water and calorimeter respectively. Ti and Tf are initial and final (after the time t) temperatures of the system. Of course E and Q represent the same energy expressed in joules of work and calories of heat. THEREFORE THE RATIO E/Q TELLS US HOW MANY CALORIES ARE EQUIVALENT TO 1 JOULE. This is known as the mechanical equivalent of heat. Physics for engineers PHYS192 54 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------EQUIPMENT NEEDED Calorimeter with heater, two digital multimeters, stop watch, thermometer, connecting wires, voltage supply 25 V DC, EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 1. WITHOUT PLUGGING THE VOLTAGE SUPPLY IN AND SWITCHING IT ON arrange the circuit shown in Fig. 1. Use the top bench multimeter as the ammeter with the range up to 10 A. Set the rheostat to about 15 V. Ask THE INSTRUCTOR TO CHECK THIS ARRANGEMENT. Physics for engineers PHYS192 55 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2. Prepare 190 - 200 g of water with temperature Ti in a cup. 3. Weigh the cup with water, put it into the calorimeter, and insert the heater and thermometer. 4. Switch the voltage supply on DC current and at the same time start the stop watch. 5. With the help of the rheostat slider (or potentiometer) set up the current as close to 1A. 6. Stir the water frequently to make sure its temperature is homogenous. 7. Read the voltage on the voltmeter. 8. Determine the time required for the temperature to raise 5C from the initial temperature. 9. Use equations 1, and 2 to calculate the mechanical equivalent of heat. Physics for engineers PHYS192 56 Academic year 2008/2009
Experiment (11) Static Equilibrium

INTRODUCTION
Static equilibrium refers to objects that are not moving. If an object is in static equilibrium, there are two very specific things the object is not doing that are important to understand. It is neither translating nor is it rotating. The first condition, no translation, requires that the net force (meaning the sum of all forces) acting on the object must be zero. The second condition, no rotation, requires that the net torque or moment also be zero: F=0 And =0 WHAT IS TORQUE Torque is a measure of how much a force acting on an object causes that object to rotate. The object rotates about an axis, which we will call the pivot point, and will label "O". We will call the force "F". The distance from the pivot point to the point where the force acts is called the moment arm, and is denoted by "r". Note that this distance, "r", is also a vector, and points from the axis of rotation to the point where the force acts. (Fig.1). Physics for engineers PHYS192 57 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Torque id defined as = " Lever Arm" times the " Force" =rxF = (Component of the Force perpendicular to Lever Arm) x ( Lever Arm- the distance between the pivotal axis and the point where the force is applied) = Fp The more exact definition is that the torque is that the torque is the cross product of the lever arm with applied force (see appendix). The torque's direction is perpendicular to both the direction of the lever arm and the direction of the force. The direction can be found using the right hand rule (see appendix). Imagine pushing a door to open it. The force of your push (F) causes the door to rotate about its hinges (the pivot point, O). How hard you need to push depends on the distance you are form the hinges (r) ( and several other thing, but let's ignore them now). The closer you are to the hinges ( i.e the smaller r is), the harder it is to push. This is what happens when you try to push open a door on the wrong side. The torque you created you created on the door is smaller than it would have been had you pushed the correct side ( away from its hinges). * Note that the force applied, F, and the moment arm, r, are independent of the object. Furthermore, a force applied at the pivot point will cause no torque since the moment arm would be zero (r=0) ( Fig. 2). F F F F
Fig. 2
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Let the force acting on an object be broken up into its tangential ( F tan) and radial ( F rad) components ( Fig. 3). ( Note that the tangential component is perpendicular to the moment arm, while the radial component is parallel to the moment arm). The radial component of the force has no contribution to the torque because it passes through the pivot. So, it is only the tangential component of the force which affects torque ( since it is perpendicular to the line between the point of action of the force and the pivot point).
F tan F rad Pivot Point
Fig. 3 Tangential and radial components of force F A given force F will produce the same torque on a system if it is applied anywhere along a straight line. Here the perpendicular distance lp between the line of action of the force and the center of rotation will be the same (Fig.4). = (Force) x (Lever Arm) x sin (angle between the two) = F l sin () Physics for engineers PHYS192 59 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Fp=F sin ( ) F Fp Axis of rotation lp l Fr Lp = l sin () Fig. 4 Note that Forces that lie along the same line have the same perpendicular lever arm lp (Fig. 5). F F F F lp Fig. 5 There may be more than one force acting on an object, and each of these forces may act on different point on the object. Then, each force will cause a torque. The net torque is the sum of the individual torques. Physics for engineers PHYS192 60 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Rotational Equilibrium is analogous to translational equilibrium, where the sum of the forces is equal to zero. In rotational equilibrium, the sum of the torques is equal to zero. In other words, there is no net torque on the object.
=0
Note that the SI unit of torque is a Newton-meter, which is also a way of expressing a Joule (the unit for energy). However, torque is not energy. So to avoid confusion, we will use the units N.m, and not J. The distinction arises because energy is a scalar quantity, whereas torque is a vector. Our experiment consists of one ruler of length L which can rotate around one axe from one end and fixed to a thread at the other end. One holder of mass can move along the ruler and its distance to the pivot point O is named x. The force of the thread is called T and the angle between the direction of force and the direction of the ruler is .
L
0
T
x
W
At static equilibrium, = 0 So Then - Mg x + T L sin = 0 T L sin = Mg x Mg x _______ L sin At last T= Physics for engineers PHYS192 61 Academic year 2008/2009
Apparatus:
- Stand - Ruler - Thread - Holder of mass and masses - Motion sensor - Computer
Experimental Procedure
1. Set the experiment as given by the instructor. 2. Fix the mass (m) so that the total mass M = m + mh where mh is the mass of the holder. 3. Vary the position (x) of the holder and take the tension (T) of the thread for each position using the motion sensor. 4. Plot the relation between T as y-axis and x as x-axis. 5. Calculate the slope of your graph and determine the angle () between the thread and the ruler. 6. Calculate the percentage of error.
Appendix Vector (or Cross) Product : x B

The magnitude of the cross product is equal to the area of a parallelogram formed using the vectors as the sides of parallelogram. A Area=A B sin B B The direction of the cross product is perpendicular to the plane formed by the two vectors and follows the right hand rule. Physics for engineers PHYS192 62 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------xB A Area= |AxB| B
Right hand rule

Using the right hand rule, we can find the direction of the torque vector. If we out our fingers in the direction of r, and curl them to the direction of F, then the thumb points in the direction of the torque vector (Fig.3) The torques direction is perpendicular to both directions (of the lever and the force). Right Hand Rule Physics for engineers PHYS192 63 Academic year 2008/2009
Experiment (12) Determination of Specific Heat Capacity of a solid

INTRODUCTION The specific heat capacity of a solid or liquid is defined as, the heat required to raise a unit mass of substance by one degree of temperature. The relationship between heat and temperature change is usually expressed in the form shown by the following equation:
Q = mc T
Where, Q= Heat supplied to substance, m= Mass of the substance, c= Specific heat capacity, T= Temperature rise. The relationship does not apply if a phase change is encountered, because the heat added or removed during a phase change does not change the temperature. Calorimeters are designed to be well-insulated, so no heat is gained from or lost to the surroundings. If no heating element is used to introduce heat in the system, the total heat transferred (Q) for the entire calorimeter system must equal zero. The total heat can be split into heats for each component in the system. THEORY Imagine an experiment in which hot balls are dropped into a calorimeter containing water at room temperature. The balls will lose heat, which will be absorbed by the calorimeter and water. Because no heat enters or leaves the system from the calorimeter, the heat balance for this experiment is Qballs = Qcalorimeter + Qwater The basic strategy in calorimeter is to use a temperature change and a heat capacity to determine a heat. In this experiment, all substances have the same final temperature (Tf), but not all substances have the same initial temperature. The balls are initially at temperature Tballs while the calorimeter and water are initially at temperature Ti. Physics for engineers PHYS192 64 Academic year 2008/2009
University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Qballs = mballs Cmetal (T f Tballs ) Qcalorimeter = mcalorimeter CCu (T f Ti ) Qwater = mwater Cwater (T f Ti ) The heat capacity of the calorimeter must be known. The specific heat capacity of water is also known (4.184 J oC-1), and the temperatures Tballs, Ti, and Tf can be measured experimentally. The masses of the balls and water (mballs and mwater) can also be measured experimentally. The only unknown property in the above equations is the specific heat capacity of the metal balls. Cmetal = (mwater Cwater + mcalorimeter CCu )(T f Ti ) mballs (T f Tballs ) (1) EQUIPMENT NEEDED Hotplate Boiler Balance Small metal balls Calorimeter Water or Oil Thermometers Balance EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Using the boiler, heat the balls up to water boiling point (100C). Determine the values for the masses of the calorimeter mcalorimeter and water mwater. Determine the initial temperature of the calorimeter and water Ti. Determine the initial temperature of the balls Tballs. Drop the balls into the water inside the calorimeter. Stir to obtain equilibrium then measure the final temperature of the system Tf. Perform the calculations necessary to determine the specific heat capacity of the balls material Cmetal according to equation (1). 8. You may repeat the experiment several times using different metal balls and various liquids to find the specific heat capacity of the material they are made of. Physics for engineers PHYS192 65 Academic year 2008/2009
References
1- Introductory Physics Laboratory Manual, Physics for Engineering students 1052192, Spring 2005, Dr.Ilham AL-Qaradawi. 2- Instruction Manual and Experiment Guide for the PASCO scientific, 1999 & 1988. 3- PHYSICS: For Scientists and Engineering, with Modern Physics by Serway. 4- http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~vawter/PhysicsNet/Topics/Work/WorkEngergyTheo rem.html. 5- Static equilibrium by Dr. Shokry Al-Ameen.

PHYS.192 Manual

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

PHYS.192 Manual

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Physics for engineers PHYS192

Academic year 2011-20112

University of Qatar Math & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The Physics Laboratory

Notes for Physics Lab Reporting

University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------80 60 40 20 0 0 2 4 6 8

Fig. 5 Poor graphing An example of an improperly labeled and plotted graph.

Fig.6 Proper graphing. An example of a properly labeled and plotted graph.

15 Academic year 2008/2009

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Data analysis with Microsoft Excel 3. Tables with Excel

4. Plotting with Excel

10 Steps to making your Excel graphs look more professional

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Safety in the Physics Lab

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

For your Safety:

What Do You Think?

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Sensor Calibration and Equipment Setup

You do not need to calibrate the Motion Sensor.

22 Academic year 2008/2009

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Analyzing the data

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Understanding Motion (2): Velocity and Time (Motion Sensor)

When you are ready, stand in front of the motion sensor.

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Analyzing the data

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Experiment (2) Free-Fall Acceleration

28 Academic year 2008/2009

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Ball Power Supply Digital Timer Holder Plastic Basket

Physics for engineers PHYS192

29 Academic year 2008/2009

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Experiment (3) Application of Newton's Laws

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Experiment (4) Transforming Gravitational Potential Energy to Kinetic Energy

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Qty Equipment Needed

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

University of QatarMath & Physics Department ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11. Data

GPE RKE KE RKE+ KE average

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Experiment (6) Work - Kinetic Energy Theorem

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Fgrav = Fbouyant + Fdrag

(1) Physics for engineers PHYS192 45 Academic year 2008/2009

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Standing Waves in a Tube

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

University of QatarMath & Physics Department -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------