Reino Plantae

Plantas vasculares

Plantas con semilla

Angiospermas
Morfología de Angiospermas
 Rama florífera
Reproductive shoot (flower)

Terminal bud
Yema terminal

Nudo
Node

Internode
Entrenudo

Terminal
Yema
bud terminal

Shoot
Sistema caulinar
system

Vegetative
Rama
shootvegetativa o vástago
Lámina
Hoja
Leaf Blade
Petiole
Pecíolo

Axillary
Yema auxiliar
bud

Tallo
Stem
Rama vegetativa

RaízTaproot
principal

Lateral roots
Raiz lateral
Root
system Sistema radicular

Figure 35.2
EMBRIÓN
Al formarse la plúmula y la radícula se establece
una bipolaridad que permanecerá determinando
el desarrollo posterior de la planta.

Al germinar la semilla se activan los meristema

apicales del tallo y la raíz de la plántula.

Los órganos comienzan a desarrollarse y a

partir de allí se irán destacando las estructuras
específicas de los órganos fundamentales
 Crecimiento primario del vástago

• Meristema apical del vástago

– Masa en forma de domo de células en estado de división en la
porción apical del tallo
– Forma entrenudos y nudos que portan hojas

Apical meristemapical
Meristema Leaf primordia
Primordio foliar

Developing
vascular
strand
Yemas múltiples

Colaterales Lineales
Yema apical y axilar en monocotiledónea

Primordio foliar Tallo

Tallo
Ápice del
vástago

Base foliar

Yema auxiliar
Macroblasto
crec. Indef.

Braquiblasto crec. Def.

 Yemas desnudas
Yemas escamosas.

Kalanchoe Yemas adventicias

En árboles caducifolios, los nudos quedan marcados por las cicatrices foliares
 Crecimiento primario del vástago

• Meristema apical del vástago

– Masa en forma de domo de células en estado de división en la
porción apical del tallo
– Forma entrenudos y nudos que portan hojas

Apical meristemapical
Meristema Leaf primordia
Primordio foliar

Developing
vascular
strand
RAMIFICACIÓN DEL VÁSTAGO

DICOTÓMICA LATERAL
 ISOTÓMICO las dos ramas tienen igual vigor
DICOTÓMICA ANISOTÓMICO cuando las dos ramas hijas tienen
distinto vigor

REGLAS
1. Las ramas se originan en la yema terminal
2. La presencia de ramas no está relacionada
con la posición de la hoja
 Ramificación lateral

Se forma por actividad de las yemas axilares.

Hoja axilante o tectriz: es la que lleva en su axila una rama

REGLAS
Las ramas se originan en yemas laterales
La posición de las ramas está estrechamente relacionadas con la de las hojas
1-Plantas policárpicas o perennes
perenne herbácea
perennes leñosas
2-Plantas monocárpicas

• Anuales
• bienales
• pluriennales
Plantas monocárpicas

•anuales (arveja, soja, tabaco,

zapallo, zapallito),
•bienales (zanahoria, cebolla,
lechuga, remolacha).
•pluriennalesAgave
spp. Phyllostachys bambusoide (120
años) o Fourcroya gigantea, Agavaceae
(400 años).
 SISTEMAS DE CRECIMIENTO

MONOPODIAL SIMPODIAL

Simpodial Simpodial

monopodial monocasio dicasio

SIMPODIAL SIMPODIAL SIMPODIAL
MONOCASIO DICASIO PLEOCASIO

Cuando las ramas provienen de

tres o más yemas laterales del
mismo nudo
 Las mejores soluciones del diseño industrial
ya las ha anticipado la Naturaleza

• Blossfeldt (1865-1932)
Hoja dicotiledónea
Hoja dicotiledónea
Tipos de nerviación
Hoja dicotiledónea
Hoja dicotiledónea
Hoja dicotiledónea
Hoja dicotiledónea:
Hoja dicotiledónea:
Sucesión foliar
Hoja monocotiledónea
 Hoja monocotiledónea

Cebolla

Sagitaria Camalote
 Hoja monocotiledónea

Palmera
Achira
Filotaxis Verticilada

Dispersa
REGLAS DE LA FILOTAXIS

EQUIDISTANCIA

ALTERNANCIA

Las hojas se ordenan a lo largo de la espiral

generatriz con un ángulo de divergencia
característico
Este ángulo es menor de 180° y se expresa como
fracciones de circunferencia

Fibonacci (Pisa, s. XII-XIII)

1/2, 1/3, 2/5, 3/8, 5/13... 180°, 120°, 144°, 135°, 138°...

La serie está constituida por elementos en los que tanto el numerador como el denominador son
iguales a la suma de los de los dos términos anteriores:

y converge hacia 137° 30' 28’’

Filotaxis
 Filotaxis

dística
 Filotaxis

espiralada
 Raíces
• funciones
– Anclaje
– Absorción
– Almacenamiento

Pelos radiculares

Figure 35.3
 RAÍCES ADVENTICIAS
no se originan a partir de la radícula embrionaria
 SISTEMAS RADICALES

SISTEMA ALORRIZO
•Sistema radical primario

•Constituido por la raíz principal y

sus ramificaciones laterales

•Dicotiledóneas y Gimnospermas

•Pueden formar raíces adventicias,

bajo condiciones especiales
 RAÍZ LATERAL DE 3ER ORDEN

RAÍZ LATERAL DE 2º ORDEN

RAÍZ LATERAL DE 1ER ORDEN

RAÍZ PRIMARIA
SISTEMA HOMORRIZO

•Constituido principalmente por raíces

adventicias

•Reemplazan totalmente o complementan

la función de absorción y sostén

•La raíz principal puede no crecer o

hacerlo en grado variable

•Común en Monocotiledóneas,
Pteridofitas, Dicotiledóneas herbáceas y
algunas leñosas
Zona de diferenciación celular

Zona de elongación celular

Zona de división celular

Cofia o caliptra
Cofia o
caliptra
Capa de mucílago
= Mucigel
Adaptaciones a la temperatura
Adaptaciones a la
temperatura Geófitas
Adaptaciones a la
temperatura Geófitas
Adaptaciones a la Geófitas
temperatura

tubérculo caulinar (papa)

Adaptaciones a la
temperatura Geófitas

zanahoria
remolacha azucareraremolacha
Adaptaciones a la
temperatura Geófitas

tubérculo radical

laterales
Adaptaciones a la
temperatura Geófitas
Adaptaciones a la
temperatura Geófitas
 Adaptaciones al agua

-Poikilohídrica Polypodium squalidum

-homoiohídricas: xerófitas, freatófitas,

 Xerófitas: adaptadas a sequía

Espinas
caulinar
es y
foliares
 Xerófitas: adaptadas a sequía
Tallos, ramas o pecíolos aplanados
 Xerófitas: adaptadas a sequía

aguijones
 Xerófitas: adaptadas a sequía

suculencia
Xerófitas: adaptadas a sequía
• Efímeras

• Boerhavia repens
• (Sahara, 10 días )
•Xerófitas: adaptadas a sequía

Otras adaptaciones:
? relación raiz/vástago
freatofitas
hojas pequeñas con ? relación
superficie/volúmen
hojas revolutas
hojas escuamiformes
limbo de perfil a la luz
Hidrófitas. Plantas acuáticas
Hidrófitas. Plantas acuáticas
Hidrófitas. Plantas acuáticas
Hidrófitas. Plantas acuáticas
Hidrófitas. Plantas acuáticas
Hidrófitas. Plantas acuáticas
Hidrófitas. Plantas acuáticas
Hidrófitas. Plantas acuáticas
 Adaptaciones al
aprovechamiento de la luz

Plantas
trepadoras
 Adaptaciones al
aprovechamiento de la luz

Zarcillos: caulinares
o foliares
 Adaptaciones al
aprovechamiento de la luz

Vitis
 Adaptaciones al
aprovechamiento de la luz
 Adaptaciones al
aprovechamiento de la luz

Pelos
escamosos en
Tilandsia hojas
 Condiciones anormales de
nutrición
holoparásita

Cuscuta
spp
 Condiciones anormales de
nutrición

Holoparásita
 Condiciones anormales de
nutrición
Hemiparásita

haustorio
Condiciones anormales de
nutrición

hemiparásitas
 Condiciones anormales de
nutrición

pneumatóforos
Condiciones anormales de
nutrición
 Adaptaciones del Cormo

1. Temperatura: geofitas
2. Escasez de agua (+ temperatura)
xerofitas
3. Exceso de agua: hidrofitas
4. Poca luz: trepadoras, epifitas
5. Nutrición deficiente: ej. carnívoras,
 The Three Tissue Systems:
Dermal, Vascular, and Ground
• Each plant organ
– Has dermal, vascular, and ground tissues

Dermal
tissue
Ground
tissue Vascular
Figure 35.8 tissue
• The dermal tissue system
– Consists of the epidermis and periderm
• The vascular tissue system
– Carries out long-distance transport of
materials between roots and shoots
– Consists of two tissues, xylem and phloem
• Xylem
– Conveys water and dissolved minerals upward
from roots into the shoots
• Phloem
– Transports organic nutrients from where they
are made to where they are needed
• Ground tissue
– Includes various cells specialized for functions
such as storage, photosynthesis, and support
 Common Types of Plant Cells
• Like any multicellular organism
– A plant is characterized by cellular
differentiation, the specialization of cells in
structure and function
• Some of the major types of plant cells
include
– Parenchyma
– Collenchyma
– Sclerenchyma
– Water-conducting cells of the xylem
– Sugar-conducting cells of the phloem
 • Parenchyma, collenchyma, and
sclerenchyma cells
PARENCHYMA CELLS
80 μm
COLLENCHYMA CELLS SCLERENCHYMA CELLS
5 μm
Cortical parenchyma cells

Sclereid cells
in pear
25 μm

Cell wall

Parenchyma cells 60 μm
Collenchyma cells
Fiber cells

Figure 35.9
 • Water-conducting cells of the xylem and
sugar-conducting cells of the phloem
WATER-CONDUCTING CELLS OF THE XYLEM SUGAR-CONDUCTING CELLS OF THE PHLOEM

Sieve-tube members:
longitudinal view
Vessel Tracheids 100 μm

Companion cell
Pits
Sieve-tube
member

Sieve
Tracheids and vessels plate

Vessel Nucleus
element
Vessel elements with 30 μm
partially perforated
15 μm
end walls Tracheids
Companion
Cytoplasm cell

Figure. 35.9
• Concept 35.2: Meristems generate cells for
new organs
• Apical meristems
– Are located at the tips of roots and in the buds
of shoots
– Elongate shoots and roots through primary
growth
• Lateral meristems
– Add thickness to woody plants through
secondary growth
 Primary growth in stems
Shoot apical
meristems
Epidermis
• An overview of primary and secondary
(in buds)

In woody plants,
Cortex
Primary phloem
growth
there are lateral
meristems that
add secondary Primary xylem
growth, increasing Vascular
the girth of cambium
Lateral
roots and stems. Pith
meristems
Cork
cambium

Apical meristems Secondary growth in stems

add primary growth, Periderm
or growth in length. Cork
Pith cambium
The cork
cambium adds
secondary
Primary dermal tissue.
xylem Cortex
Primary
phloem
Root apical Secondary The vascular
meristems xylem cambium adds
Secondary
secondary
phloem
Vascular cambium xylem and
phloem.
Figure. 35.10
• In woody plants
– Primary and secondary growth occur Terminal bud
Bud scale

simultaneously but in different locations Axillary buds

Leaf scar
Node
This year’s growth Stem
(one year old)
Internode

One-year-old side
branch formed
from axillary bud
near shoot apex

Leaf scar
Last year’s growth Scars left by terminal
(two years old) bud scales of previous
winters

Leaf scar
Growth of two
years ago (three
Figure 35.11 years old)
• Concept 35.3: Primary growth lengthens
roots and shoots
• Primary growth produces the primary plant
body, the parts of the root and shoot
systems produced by apical meristems
 Primary Growth of Roots
• The root tip is covered by a root cap,
which protects the delicate apical Epidermis
Cortex Vascular cylinder

meristem as the root pushes through soil

Key Zone of
maturation
Dermal Root hair

during primary growth

Ground
Vascular

Zone of
elongation

Apical
meristem
Zone of cell
division
Root cap

Figure 35.12 100 μm

• The primary growth of roots
– Produces the epidermis, ground tissue, and
vascular tissue
 Epidermis

Cortex

• Organization of primary tissues in young Vascular

cylinder

Endodermis

roots Pericycle

Core of
parenchyma
cells

Xylem

100 μm
(a) Transverse section of a typical root. In the
roots of typical gymnosperms and eudicots, as
well as some monocots, the stele is a vascular
cylinder consisting of a lobed core of xylem
with phloem between the lobes.
Phloem
100 μm
(b) Transverse section of a root with parenchyma
in the center. The stele of many monocot roots
is a vascular cylinder with a core of parenchyma
surrounded by a ring of alternating xylem and phloem.

Endodermis Key
Dermal
Pericycle
Ground
Vascular

Xylem

Phloem

Figure 35.13a, b
50 μm
• Lateral roots
– Arise from within the pericycle, the outermost
100 μm
Emerging
lateral

cell layer in the vascular cylinder

root

Cortex

Vascular
cylinder
1 2

Epidermis

Lateral root

Figure 35.14 3 4
 Tissue Organization of Stems
• In gymnosperms and most eudicots
– The vascular tissue consists of vascular
Phloem Xylem

bundles arranged in a ring

Sclerenchyma
(fiber cells)
Ground tissue
connecting
pith to cortex

Pith

Key

Epidermis Cortex Dermal

Vascular Ground
bundle
Vascular
1 mm

Figure 35.16a (a) A eudicot stem. A eudicot stem (sunflower), with

vascular bundles forming a ring. Ground tissue toward
the inside is called pith, and ground tissue toward the
outside is called cortex. (LM of transverse section)
• In most monocot stems
– The vascular bundles are scattered
Ground
tissue
throughout the ground tissue, rather than
forming a ring

Epidermis

Vascular
bundles

1 mm
Figure 35.16b (b) A monocot stem. A monocot stem (maize) with vascular
bundles scattered throughout the ground tissue. In such an
arrangement, ground tissue is not partitioned into pith and
cortex. (LM of transverse section)
 Tissue Organization of
• The epidermal barrier in leaves
– Is interrupted byLeaves
stomata, which allow CO2
exchange between the surrounding air and the
photosynthetic cells within a leaf
• The ground tissue in a leaf
– Is sandwiched between the upper and lower
epidermis
• The vascular tissue of each leaf
– Is continuous with the vascular tissue of the
stem
 Key Guard
to labels cells
Dermal
Ground Stomatal pore
Vascular Epidermal
• Leaf anatomy Sclerenchyma
cell

Cuticle fibers 50 µm
(b) Surface view of a spiderwort
Stoma
(Tradescantia) leaf (LM)

Upper
epidermis

Palisade
mesophyll
Bundle-
sheath
cell
Spongy
mesophyll

Lower
epidermis
Guard
cells Cuticle
Xylem Vein Vein Air spaces Guard cells
Phloem Guard Figure 35.17a–c
cells (c) Transverse section of a lilac 100 µm
(a) Cutaway drawing of leaf tissues
(Syringa) leaf (LM)
• Concept 35.4: Secondary growth adds girth
to stems and roots in woody plants
• Secondary growth
– Occurs in stems and roots of woody plants but
rarely in leaves
• The secondary plant body
– Consists of the tissues produced by the
vascular cambium and cork cambium
 The Vascular Cambium and
Secondary Vascular Tissue
• The vascular cambium
– Is a cylinder of meristematic cells one cell
thick
– Develops from parenchyma cells
 1 1 In the youngest part of the stem, you can see the primary
(a) Primary and secondary growth plant body, as formed by the apical meristem during primary
in a two-year-old stem growth. The vascular cambium is beginning to develop.

• Primary and secondary growth of a stem

Epidermis
Pith
Primary xylem
2 As primary growth continues to elongate the stem, the portion
of the stem formed earlier the same year has already started
its secondary growth. This portion increases in girth as fusiform
Cortex Vascular cambium initials of the vascular cambium form secondary xylem to the
Primary phloem inside and secondary phloem to the outside.
Primary
Cortex
phloem Epidermis
2 3 The ray initials of the vascular cambium give rise to the xylem
Vascular Phloem ray th and phloem rays.
3
cambium Gr o w
Xylem
Primary ray 4 As the diameter of the vascular cambium increases, the
xylem secondary phloem and other tissues external to the cambium
Pith cannot keep pace with the expansion because the cells no
longer divide. As a result, these tissues, including the
epidermis, rupture. A second lateral meristem, the cork
Primary
cambium, develops from parenchyma cells in the cortex. The
xylem
Secondary xylem cork cambium produces cork cells, which replace the epidermis.
Vascular cambium
Secondary phloem 5 In year 2 of secondary growth, the vascular cambium adds to
Primary phloem Cork the secondary xylem and phloem, and the cork cambium
Periderm 4 First cork cambium produces cork.
(mainly cork th 6
cambia Gr o w
6 As the diameter of the stem continues to increase, the
and cork)
outermost tissues exterior to the cork cambium rupture and
slough off from the stem.
Primary
phloem 7 Cork cambium re-forms in progressively deeper layers of the
cortex. When none of the original cortex is left, the cork
Secondary cambium develops from parenchyma cells in the
phloem Secondary secondary phloem.
Vascular xylem (two
cambium years of 8 Each cork cambium and the tissues it produces form a
Secondary production) layer of periderm.
xylem Vascular cambium
9 Bark 9 Bark consists of all tissues exterior to the vascular
Primary xylem Secondary phloem
cambium.
Pith 5 Most recent 7 Cork 8 Layers of
cork cambium periderm
Figure 35.18a
 Secondary phloem
Vascular cambium Cork
Secondary Late wood cambium Periderm
xylem Early wood Cork

(b) Transverse section

of a three-year-
old stem (LM)
Xylem ray
Bark

0.5 mm 0.5 mm
Figure 35.18b
• Viewed in transverse section, the vascular
cambium
– Appears as a ring, with interspersed regions Vascular
cambium
of dividing cells called
CC X
fusiform
C
initials and ray
C P
initials
(a) Types of cell division. An initial can divide
transversely to form two cambial initials (C)
or radially to form an initial and either a XX
xylem (X) or phloem (P) cell. X C
X P
C P
X P
C
X P
C
C

(b) Accumulation of secondary growth. Although shown here

as alternately adding xylem and phloem, a cambial initial usually
Figure 35.19a, b produces much more xylem.
• As a tree or woody shrub ages
– The older layers of secondary xylem, the
heartwood, no longer transport water and
minerals
• The outer layers, known as sapwood
– Still transport materials through the xylem
 Growth ring

Vascular
ray

Heartwood
Secondary
xylem
Sapwood

Vascular cambium

Secondary phloem
Bark
Layers of periderm

Figure 35.20
 Cork Cambia and the
Production of Periderm
• The cork cambium
– Gives rise to the secondary plant body’s
protective covering, or periderm
• Periderm
– Consists of the cork cambium plus the layers of
cork cells it produces
• Bark
– Consists of all the tissues external to the
vascular cambium, including secondary phloem
and periderm
• Concept 35.5: Growth, morphogenesis, and
differentiation produce the plant body
• The three developmental processes of
growth, morphogenesis, and cellular
differentiation
– Act in concert to transform the fertilized egg into
a plant
 Molecular Biology:
Revolutionizing the Study of
Plants
• New techniques and model systems
– Are catalyzing explosive progress in our
understanding of plants
• Arabidopsis
– Is the first plant to have its entire genome
Cell organization and biogenesis (1.7%)
DNA metabolism (1.8%)
sequenced Carbohydrate metabolism (2.4%)
Signal transduction (2.6%)
Unknown
(36.6%) Protein biosynthesis (2.7%)

Electron transport
(3%)
Protein
modification (3.7%)
Protein
metabolism (5.7%)
Transcription (6.1%)

Other metabolism (6.6%)

Other biological
processes (18.6%)
Figure 35.21 Transport (8.5%)
 Growth: Cell Division and Cell
Expansion
• By increasing cell number
– Cell division in meristems increases the
potential for growth
• Cell expansion
– Accounts for the actual increase in plant size
 The Plane and Symmetry of
Cell Division
• The plane (direction) and symmetry of cell
division
– Are immensely important in determining plant
form
• If the planes of division of cells are parallel
to the plane of the first division
– ADivision
single
in file of cells will be Single
produced
file of cells forms
same plane
Plane of
cell division

Division in Cube forms

three planes

Nucleus

(a) Cell divisions in the same plane produce a single file of cells, whereas cell divisions in three planes give rise to a cube.

Figure 35.22a
 • If the planes of division vary randomly
– Asymmetrical cell division occurs

Developing
Asymmetrical guard cells

cell division

Unspecialized
epidermal cell Unspecialized Guard cell Unspecialized
epidermal cell “mother cell” epidermal cell
(b) An asymmetrical cell division precedes the development of epidermal guard cells, the cells that border
stomata (see Figure 35.17).

Figure 35.22b
• The plane in which a cell divides
– Is determined during late interphase
• Microtubules in the cytoplasm
– Become concentrated into a ring called the
preprophase band
 Preprophase bands 10 µm
of microtubules

Nuclei

Cell plates

Figure 35.23
 Orientation of Cell Expansion
• Plant cells
– Rarely expand equally in all directions
• The orientation of the cytoskeleton
– Affects the direction of cell elongation by
controlling the orientation
Cellulose
of cellulose
microfibrils within the cell wall
microfibrils

Vacuoles
Nucleus
5 µm

Figure 35.24
 Microtubules and Plant Growth
• Studies of fass mutants of Arabidopsis
– Have confirmed the importance of
cytoplasmic microtubules in cell division and
expansion

(b) fass seedling

Figure 35.25a–c (a) Wild-type seedling (c) Mature fass mutant

 Morphogenesis and Pattern
Formation
• Pattern formation
– Is the development of specific structures in
specific locations
– Is determined by positional information in the
form of signals that indicate to each cell its
location
• Polarity
– Is one type of positional information
• In the gnom mutant of Arabidopsis
– The establishment of polarity is defective

Figure 35.26
• Morphogenesis in plants, as in other
multicellular organisms
– Is often under the control of homeotic genes

Figure 35.27
 Gene Expression and Control of
Cellular Differentiation
• In cellular differentiation
– Cells of a developing organism synthesize
different proteins and diverge in structure and
function even though they have a common
genome
• Cellular differentiation
– To a large extent depends on positional
information When epidermal cells border a single cortical
cell, the homeotic gene GLABRA-2 is selectively

– Is affected by homeotic genes

expressed, and these cells will remain hairless.
(The blue color in this light micrograph indi-
cates cells in which GLABRA-2 is expressed.)
Here an epidermal cell borders two
cortical cells. GLABRA-2 is not expressed,
and the cell will develop a root hair.

Cortical
cells

20 µm

The ring of cells external to the epi-

dermal layer is composed of root
cap cells that will be sloughed off as
Figure 35.28 the root hairs start to differentiate.
 Location and a Cell’s
Developmental Fate
• A cell’s position in a developing organ
– Determines its pathway of differentiation
 Shifts in Development: Phase
Changes
• Plants pass through developmental
phases, called phase changes
– Developing from a juvenile phase to an adult
vegetative phase to an adult reproductive
phase
• The most obvious morphological changes
– Typically occur in leaf size and shape

Leaves produced
by adult phase
of apical meristem

Leaves produced
by juvenile phase
of apical meristem
Figure 35.29
 Genetic Control of Flowering
• Flower formation
– Involves a phase change from vegetative
growth to reproductive growth
– Is triggered by a combination of
environmental cues and internal signals
• The transition from vegetative growth to
flowering
– Is associated with the switching-on of floral
meristem identity genes
• Plant biologists have identified several
organ identity genes
Pe
– That regulate the development of floral Ca
St
Se
pattern Pe

Se

(a) Normal Arabidopsis flower. Arabidopsis Pe

normally has four whorls of flower parts: sepals
(Se), petals (Pe), stamens (St), and carpels (Ca). Pe

(b) Abnormal Arabidopsis flower. Reseachers have

identified several mutations of organ identity
genes that cause abnormal flowers to develop. Se
This flower has an extra set of petals in place of
stamens and an internal flower where normal
Figure 35.30a, b plants have carpels.
• The ABC model of flower formation
– Identifies how floral organ identity genes
direct the formation of the four types of floral
Sepals
Petals (a) A schematic diagram of the ABC
Stamens hypothesis. Studies of plant mutations
organs A
B
Carpels
reveal that three classes of organ identity
genes are responsible for the spatial pattern
C of floral parts. These genes are designated A,
B, and C in this schematic diagram of a floral
meristem in transverse view. These genes
regulate expression of other genes
responsible for development of sepals,
petals, stamens, and carpels. Sepals develop
C gene from the meristematic region where only A
activity genes are active. Petals develop where both
A+B B+C
gene gene A and B genes are expressed. Stamens arise
activity activity where B and C genes are active. Carpels arise
where only C genes are expressed.
A gene
Figure 35.31a activity
 • An understanding of mutants of the organ
identity genes
– Depicts how this model accounts for floral
Active BB B B BB BB AA AA

phenotypes
genes:
Whorls:
A ACCCC AA CCCCCCCC A ACCCCA A ABBAABBA

Carpel
Stamen Petal

Sepal
Wild type Mutant lacking A Mutant lacking B Mutant lacking C

(b) Side view of organ identity mutant flowers. Combining the model missing, the other activity spreads through all four whorls, we can explain the
shown in part (a) with the rule that if A gene or C gene activity is phenotypes of mutants lacking a functional A, B, or C organ identity gene.

Figure 35.31b
 Capa de mucílago = Mucigel
z Se deposita por fuera de la cofia
z Es secretada por las células del ápice de la raíz.
z Está formada por polisacáridos, principalmente el ác. poligalacturónico.

Funciones posibles:
1)Evitar la deshidratación del ápice de la raíz.
2) Proteger del estrés mecánico que representa penetrar en un suelo compacto, lubrificando el paso de
la raíz a través de del interior del suelo.
3) Proteger de la punta de la raíz contra metales tóxicos ya que el poligalacturano tiene carga negativa
y puede captar los cationes tóxicos.
4) 5) Los ácidos grasos y esteroles en el mucigel pueden ayudar al establecimiento de simbiosis
benéficiosas con microorganismos del suelo.
Figure 35.4a–e
pneumatóforos