C.

Refraction
1. Snell's Law

Key Concepts

Refraction is the bending of light that takes place at a boundary between two materials having different
indices of refraction. Refraction is due to a change in the speed of light as it passes from one medium to
another.

The boundary is the region where one medium meets another medium .

At a boundary, an incident ray can undergo partial reflection or, in certain situations, total internal
reflection.

No bending of the incident ray occurs if it strikes the boundary along the normal.

The incident ray is the ray approaching the boundary. It strikes the boundary at the point of incidence. The
refracted ray is the ray leaving the boundary through the second medium.

The reflected ray is the ray undergoing partial (or total) reflection at the boundary. The normal is a
construction line drawn perpendicular to the boundary at the point of incidence.

The angle of incidence (i) is the angle between the incident ray and the normal. The angle of reflection (r)
is the angle between the normal and the reflected ray.

The angle of refraction (R) is the angle between the normal and the refracted ray.

Both Reflection and Refraction occur when the light is incident on a more refractive medium.

Some texts use the symbol r for the angle of refraction. The use of the same symbol to represent both the
angle of reflection and the angle of refraction can be very confusing and should be avoided.

Laws of Refraction:

1. The ratio of sines of the angles of incidence and refraction is a constant. (Snell's Law) (The ratio is
constant for a particular wavelength and a particular set of materials.)
2. The incident and refracted rays are on opposite sides of the normal at the point of incidence.
3. The incident ray, the normal, and the refracted ray are coplanar.
Snell's Law: where n is a constant.

the constant is the ratio of the speeds of light in the two media.)

General form:

or, n1sin 1 = n2sin 2

(The absolute index of refraction for a given medium is defined as: n = c/v where c is the speed of light in a
vacuum and v is the speed of light in the medium. Also, the ratio n2/n1 is called the relative index of
refraction.)

Subscript 1 is customarily used to represent the incident medium. Subscript 2 epresents the refractive
medium. The equation is valid regardless of the direction in which light is travelling through the two media.
(i.e., The Principle of Reversibility applies).

If light is travelling from a less refractive medium to a more refractive medium (i.e., n2 > n1), the refracted
ray will be bent towards the normal.

The term optical density, as is sometimes used, is misleading and should be avoided. There is no
relationship between the mass density of a medium and its optical density. For example, benzene and corn
oil, which both float on water, have higher refractive indices than water. Optical density refers to the
transparency of the medium and has nothing to do with its refractive index.

Newton's experiments illustrated the dispersion of sunlight into a spectrum (and recombination into
white light). Sunlight consists of amixture of light with different wavelengths. A dispersive medium is one
in which different wavelengths of light have slightly different indices of refraction. For example, crown
glass is a dispersive medium since the index of refraction for violet light in crown glass is higher than for
red light. This is responsible for chromatic aberration. (Manufacturers of optical glass customarily specify
the refractive index of a material for yellow sodium light, the D line.)

Light passing through a rectangular prism can experience lateral displacement. In a prism with non-
parallel sides, the displacement is described by the angle of deviation between the ray incident to the prism
and the ray emerging from it.

Many examples found in commonly observed phenomena and practical applications illustrate refraction
and total internal reflection. (Several should be described and discussed or researched independently by
students.)
Learning Outcomes

Students will increase their abilities to:

1. Define the following terms: refraction, boundary, partial reflection, point of incidence, refracted ray,
angle of refraction, spectrum, dispersion, dispersive medium, chromatic aberration, lateral
displacement, angle of deviation.
2. Explain why refraction occurs.
3. Explain that no bending of the incident ray occurs if it strikes the boundary while travelling along
the normal.
4. Draw and label a diagram which illustrates the way in which light behaves when it undergoes
refraction.
5. State the three laws of refraction.
6. Apply Snell's Law to solve problems relating to refraction.
7. Recognize the direction that a refracted light ray will bend, depending on the relative index of
refraction for the two media.
8. Explain what causes chromatic aberration.
9. Solve problems relating to the refraction of light.
10. Identify several applications or examples from common experience which illustrate the refraction of
light .

Teaching Suggestions, Activities and Demonstrations

1. Perform an activity to investigate the refraction of light.

2. Illustrate experimentally that when sunlight enters a dispersive medium, such as a prism, dispersion
occurs.
3. Explain or demonstrate the experimental techniques that Newton used to investigate the dispersion
and subsequent recombination of sunlight by a prism.
4. Perform an activity to investigate the lateral displacement of light through a rectangular prism.
5. Using a glass equilateral prism, or some other apparatus, determine the index of refraction for one
type of glass, or some other medium.
6. Design an experiment to determine the index of refraction of a variety of transparent solid or liquid
substances. Some students may be able to build small transparent plexiglass cubes and prisms that
can be filled with different types of transparent fluids to investigate refraction.
7. Design an experiment to investigate the concentration of a sugar solution and its index of refraction.
8. Slowly pour water containing a colloidal suspension over a layer of sugar crystals in the bottom of
an aquarium, trying not to allow too much turbulence to develop in the water. Allow a concentration
gradient to form in the sugar solution. Predict what will happen when a beam of light shines through
the solution. Shine a beam through the solution. Account for the curved path that the beam follows
in the liquid.
 9. A laser beam provides an excellent source of light for various optics demonstrations. Modern
technology has reduced both the size and the cost of this light source. Consider purchasing one for
the science lab, if one is not currently available.

B. Reflection
3. Curved Mirrors

Key Concepts

A curved mirror can be thought of as consisting of a very large number of small plane mirrors oriented at
slightly different angles. The laws of reflection always apply, regardless of the shape or smoothness of the
surface.

A spherical mirror consists of a portion of a spherical surface.

A cylindrical mirror has the shape of a portion of a cylinder.

A converging mirror has a concave reflecting surface. A diverging mirror has a convex reflecting
surface.

The geometric centre of the mirror is called the vertex (V). The centre of a spherical reflecting surface is
called the centre of curvature (C).

The principal axis is a construction line drawn on a ray diagram. The principal axis passes through the
vertex and the centre of curvature, and is perpendicular to the focal plane.

The radius of curvature (R) is the distance from the centre of curvature to the mirror.

The distance between the principal focus (F) and the vertex is called the focal length (f)

The relationship between the focal length and the radius of curvature is:

R = 2f

The principal focus (F) is a point on the principal axis on which incident rays parallel to the principal axis
either converge towards, or appear to be diverging from.

The principal focus can either be real or virtual.

An axial point is a point lying on the principal axis.

Paraxial rays are rays which make very small angles with the principal axis and lie close to the axis
throughout the distance between object and image.

Spherical and cylindrical mirrors do not permit all incident rays parallel to the principal axis to converge
towards (or appear to have originated from) the principal focus. This is due to spherical aberration.

An aberration is an optical defect which causes a degradation in image quality.

(Theoretically, there are an infinite number of optical aberrations. Some of the more common ones are
spherical and chromatic aberration, astigmatism, and coma.)

To correct for spherical aberration in mirrors, parabolic reflectors can be used. A parabolic reflector has
the shape of a parabola. (Kellner-Schmidt systems or mangin mirrors also correct for spherical aberration.)

All aberrations can not be totally removed from an optical system, although optical systems can be
designed to eliminate one or several types of aberrations.

The design of optical systems involves minimizing aberrations to maximize image quality.

Rules for drawing ray diagrams for converging and diverging mirrors:
(Parenthetical remarks refer specifically to diverging mirrors. Rules 1 and 2 apply to parabolic mirrors
only.)

1. An incident ray that is parallel to the principal axis is reflected such that it passes through the
principal focus (or appears to have originated at the principal focus).
2. An incident ray passing through (or heading toward) the principal focus is reflected such that it
travels parallel to the principal axis.
3. An incident ray passing through (or heading toward) the centre of curvature reflects back along the
same path.

Rules 1 and 2 combined, and rule 3 by itself illustrate thePrinciple of Reversibility. If a light ray follows a
particular path through an optical system, then it will follow an identical path if it travels in the opposite
direction.

The rules for drawing ray diagrams can be used to determine the characteristics of an image formed by a
curved mirror.

The object, represented by an arrow, is drawn to scale parallel to the mirror with its base touching the
principal axis.

Important rays are drawn from the tip of the object, reflecting from the mirror according to the rules for
drawing ray diagrams for curved mirrors.
The rays represent reflected light from the object, or light produced by the object.

The apparent, or real, point of convergence of the rays represents the corresponding tip of the image in the
optical system.

These two points, the tip of the object and the tip of the image, form a pair of conjugate points. If the
object could be placed at the location of the image, then its image would be located at the original position
of the object.

Only two of the three critical rays are needed to determine the location of the image. The third ray serves
as an important method of verification.

This method is called the parallel-ray method. (Oblique ray methods are not covered in this course.)

The parallel-ray method applies only to images formed by paraxial rays.

A diverging mirror always produces an erect, diminished (m< +1), virtual image, located between the
vertex and the principal focus (except if the object is placed on the surface of the mirror).

The position of the object determines the exact location of the image in a diverging mirror. An object
located near infinity forms an image at the principal focus, or on the focal plane. This holds true as well for
converging mirrors.

The image characteristics found in a converging mirror depend on the location of the object. The table
below summarizes the characteristics of images found in a converging mirror based on the location of the
object:

Image Characteristics

near infinity
beyond C
at C
between F and C
between F and V
at Fundefined(These characteristics should be developed experimentally, and verified with the use of ray
diagrams and equations. Rote memorization should be discouraged and avoided.)

Mirror equations

Gaussian form

Symbols used: Ho is the height of the object, Hi is the height of the image, m is the magnification, do (or p)
is the distance between the object and the vertex (or the distance between the object and the lens), di (or q)
is the distance between the image and the vertex (or the distance between the image and the lens), f is the
focal length.

linear magnification:

power of mirrors and lenses (in dioptres):

,where f (metre) is the focal length.

(Some texts use D for the power)

curved mirror and lens equation:

, since

(The equations apply for mirrors and lenses. The derivation of the equations using similar triangles is
optional.)

Newtonian form

Symbols used: So is the distance between the object and the principal focus, Si is the distance between the
image and the principal focus.

(The derivations are optional.)

Either the Gaussian or Newtonian forms of the equations may be used to accommodate different approved
resources, but the two systems should not be used interchangeably. The Gaussian form is preferred, but the
use of reciprocals may make this form too difficult for some students to apply. Fractions can be converted
to decimal form immediately to simplify calculations. So = do - f, and Si = di - f may be used, if desired, to
show the equivalence between the two forms of the equations.

Sign conventions for the use of the lens equations:

1. The focal length (f) is positive for converging mirrors and lenses, and negative for diverging ones.
2. The object distance (do) is positive. (The distance is negative for a virtual object.)
3. The image distance (di) is positive for all real images and negative for virtual images.
4. Heights (Ho and Hi) are positive if measured upward from the principal axis and negative if
measured downward.
5. Magnification (m) is positive if the image is erect and negative when inverted.

These sign conventions are necessary to get correct answers when using the mirror equations. They are
needed because of the different types of image characteristics found in curved mirrors under different
conditions.

The use of equations, ray diagrams, and experimental techniques are complementary methods used to
determine image characteristics in optical systems.

Learning Outcomes

Students will increase their abilities to:

1. Define the following terms: converging mirror, concave surface, diverging mirror, convex surface,
vertex, principal axis, focal plane, centre of curvature, radius of curvature, focal length, paraxial
rays, axial point, principal focus, spherical mirror, cylindrical mirror, aberration, spherical
aberration, parabolic mirror, conjugate points.
2. Explain the Principle of Reversibility.
3. Distinguish between a concave and a convex surface.
4. Draw diagrams of converging and diverging mirrors, showing the principal axis and important
points located on the principal axis for each.
5. Explain the difference between a focal point and a focal plane.
6. Explain one way that spherical aberration can be corrected in a curved mirror.
7. Express the relationship between the focal length and the radius of curvature of a curved mirror.
8. Apply the relationship between the focal length and the radius of curvature of a curved mirror in
solving problems.
9. Use the rules for drawing ray diagrams for converging and diverging mirrors (parallel-ray method)
to position an object on the principal axis and locate the position and other characteristics of the
image.
10. Interpret the characteristics of an image from a ray diagram.
11. Demonstrate an understanding of the importance and use of a procedure of verification when using
ray diagrams and equations.
 12. Observe and explain that the image position in either a converging or a diverging mirror depends on
the location of the object.
13. Observe and explain that except for the image position, all other characteristics of an image formed
in a diverging mirror are independent of the object position.
14. Observe and explain that the characteristics of an image formed in a converging mirror depend on
the object position.
15. Apply mirror equations to solving problems.
16. Apply the sign conventions for mirror equations correctly when solving problems.
17. Recognize that ray tracing and the use of equations are techniques that developed from
experimentation.

Images formed
by a converging
spherical mirror
Ra) Distant object
e
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m
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Real
b) Object beyond Inverted
C Smaller
Between C and F
Real
Inverted
c) Object at C
Same size as object
At C
Vd) Object between F and V
ir
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B
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r
No image
e) Object at F Reflected rays
are parallel
Images formed by a diverging spherical mirror
Characteristics of the image
regardless of object postion
Virtual
e) Object at F
Erect
Smaller than object
Behind mirror between F and V

Teaching Suggestions, Activities and Demonstrations

1. Perform an activity to investigate image formation in converging and diverging mirrors.

 Set up a concave mirror on the end of an optical bench. Find the image positions of an illuminated
object placed at different distances from the mirror. Describe the image characteristics for all
possible cases. Develop ray diagrams for each specific case.

Determine the focal length of the mirror. (The light source will have to be placed slightly off-axis if
the image is between the mirror and the illuminated object, otherwise the screen used to locate the
image will block the light travelling from the object to the mirror. Another way to overcome this is
to use a screen with a hole in the centre, over which is placed a sheet of clear wrap, or a fine
screen.)

Repeat with a convex mirror, describing the image characteristics, and comparing the results to
those obtained with the concave mirror.

2. Develop experimentally, and verify with the use of ray diagrams or equations, the characteristics of
an image formed in a converging mirror.

An optical bench can be used to develop lens equations. This provides an excellent opportunity to
reinforce practical applications of graphical and numerical analysis.

3. Explain the need for using sign conventions when solving problems using lens equations.
4. Reciprocals can be avoided when using the Gaussian form of lens and mirror equations by using the
following:

For enrichment, better students could be challenged to derive these.

C. Refraction
2). Total Internal Reflection
Key Concepts

An incident ray striking a boundary from a more refractive medium to a less refractive medium at an angle
greater than the critical angle experiences total internal reflection.

Total internal reflection is only possible if light is travelling from a more refractive medium to a less
refractive medium.
(i.e., n2 < n1)

As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction approaches 90o.

The critical angle is the angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90o. At this angle the
refracted ray glances parallel to the boundary.

The incident ray undergoes total internal reflection at any angle greater than the critical angle.

If the incident angle is less than or equal to the critical angle, the refracted ray will be bent away from the
normal (provided that n2 < n1).

A high relative index of refraction (the ratio n2/n1) will result in a smaller critical angle.

The critical angle (ic) can be determined from the general form of Snell's Law. At the critical angle, <R =
90o, so sinR = 1, and

sin 90 o = 1

so,

Learning Outcomes

Students will increase their abilities to:

1. Define the following terms: total internal reflection, critical angle.

2. Solve problems involving the refraction of light.
3. Recognize situations in which total internal reflection could occur.
4. Determine the critical angle for light travelling from any medium into some other medium.
5. Recognize that the critical angle depends on the relative index of refraction between two media.
6. Explain how an incident ray, travelling towards a medium with a lower index of refraction, would
behave if the angle of incidence were smaller than the critical angle, the same size as the critical
angle, or larger than the critical angle.
Teaching Suggestions, Activities and Demonstrations

1. Demonstrate total internal reflection. Some students may not be aware that they have likely seen it
occurring before.
2. Working individually or in groups, students can research the use of fibre optics in communication
systems.

A. Heat and Temperature

Key Concepts

The kinetic molecular theory is useful in describing thermal energy, heat, and temperature.

Some theories are based on supporting postulates. A postulate is a statement which is agreed on by
consensus among scientists.

The following are important postulates of the kinetic molecular theory:

• All matter consists of atoms.

• Atoms may join together to form molecules.
• Solids usually maintain both their shape and their volume.
• Liquids maintain their volume, but not their shape.
• Gases do not maintain shape or volume. They will expand to fill a container of any size.
• Molecular motion is random.
• Molecular motion is greatest in gases, less in liquids, and least in solids.
• Collisions between atoms and molecules transfers energy between them.
• Molecules in motion possess kinetic energy.
• Molecules in gases do not exert large forces on one another, unless they are colliding.

As information is acquired in science, new theories can develop, or existing theories can be further
supported, modified, or rejected.

Many observable phenomena give support to the kinetic molecular theory.

A theory is a system of ideas or a sphere of abstract knowledge which attempts to explain why certain
phenomena occur, whereas a law is a statement of specific conditions or relationships that exist in nature.

Models are useful in science to illustrate abstract or complicated concepts.

Thermal energy is the average of the potential and kinetic energies possessed by atoms and molecules
experiencing random motion.
Heat is transferred by convection, conduction, or radiation.

Heat is the thermal energy transferred from one object to another due to differences in temperature. (Some
texts do not make a distinction between heat and thermal energy. The distinction between heat and thermal
energy need not be emphasized to the same extent as that between heat and temperature.)

Heat energy is measured in joules.

There is no direct method used to measure heat. Indirect methods must be used.

Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance.

Temperature can be measured with a thermometer.

One way a thermometer can be calibrated is by the amount of thermal expansion and contraction that
occurs within a given type of substance.

Thermometers are limited by the physical properties of the substance from which they are made. (i.e., An
alcohol thermometer is of little use above the boiling point of alcohol, and a mercury thermometer will not
be of any use below the freezing point of mercury.)

The Celsius scale is commonly used to measure temperature. Its scale has been calibrated to the physical
properties of pure water. The normal freezing point of water was arbitrarily set as 0 °C and the normal
boiling point of water was arbitrarily set at 100 °C. Arithmetic gradations represent uniform temperature
changes on the scale.

The Kelvin scale, also called the Absolute scale, sets 0 K as absolute zero. (-273.15 °C) Temperature
increases on the scale are the same as on the Celsius scale (1 K = 1 C°).

To convert from Celsius to Kelvin:

K = °C + 273

Substances vary in their amount of thermal expansion.

The linear expansion of a solid depends on its initial length, temperature change, and the type of material
it is made from.

For most solids, their linear expansion is directly proportional to the change in temperature T
The change in length L is also proportional to the original length (Lo):
is called the coefficient of linear expansion, measured in °C-1 or K-1.

The coefficient of linear expansion is different for different materials. (For a given material, the values of à
for different temperature ranges vary so little that they can be considered constant, unless extreme precision
is required.)

The thermal expansion of materials must be considered in the design of certain kinds of structures.

Volume expansion is extremely important in gases. (It is extremely important to recognize any potentially
hazardous situations which could result in an increase in pressure in closed containers.)

Learning Outcomes

Students will increase their abilities to:

1. Define the following terms: thermal energy, heat, temperature, convection, conduction, radiation,
thermal expansion, linear expansion, coefficient of linear expansion.
2. Identify some important postulates of the kinetic molecular theory.
3. State what is meant by a theory.
4. Explain that, as new information accumulates, a theory could be supported, modified, or rejected in
favour of new theories which better help to explain the evidence.
5. Describe the difference between a theory and a law.
6. Give an example of an observable phenomenon which lends support to the kinetic molecular theory.
7. Explain the difference between heat and temperature.
8. State the correct units used to measure heat energy and temperature.
9. Explain that heat can not be measured directly whereas temperature can.
10. State that a thermometer, like any other measuring instrument, must be calibrated in some way.
11. Recognize the limitations of certain materials that are used in making thermometers.
12. Explain the reference points that were used to calibrate the Celsius temperature scale.
13. Compare the Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales.
14. Convert a temperature reading from degrees Celsius to Kelvin and vice versa.
15. State that substances vary in their amount of thermal expansion.
16. State three important factors which determine the linear expansion of a material.
17. State the correct units for the coefficient of linear expansion.
18. Recognize that the coefficient of linear expansion is based on the unique physical properties of
different substances.
19. Suggest some applications in which an understanding of thermal expansion would be extremely
useful.
 20. Recognize any potentially hazardous situations that could arise from the thermal expansion of
materials, especially those involving an increase in pressure from the expansion of gases in closed
containers.
21. Solve problems involving heat and temperature, and thermal expansion.

Teaching Suggestions, Activities and Demonstrations

1. Qualitatively examine the mechanical equivalent of heat. Place a measured quantity of water into a
plastic ice cream bucket, or some similar large container. Using an electric beater, beat the water for
some given period of time. Record the final temperature of the water.

This activity can also be used in Physics 30 in the section on energy transformations. Calculate the
energy input to the beater. Calculate the energy transferred to the water. Determine the efficiency of
this system for heating water. Try using a milk shake beater in a calorimeter to see if there is any
difference in the efficiency of the system. The students may also find a "boat race" challenge project
of interest, in which teams try to design an apparatus to raise the temperature of a specified amount
of water from room temperature to some predetermined final temperature in the shortest amount of
time, by supplying only mechanical energy to the system.

2. Place some steel shot into a cardboard cylinder. Seal off both ends. Shake the tube vigorously for
several minutes. Remove the shot and pour it into water. Measure the change in water temperature.
Energy transformations, specific heat capacity, and the laws of thermodynamics can all be
developed through this activity.
3. Investigate various designs for active and passive solar heated homes.
4. Perform an activity using a model (or models) to investigate several postulates of the kinetic
molecular theory.
5. Explain that a thermometer takes advantage of some important physical properties of the substance
from which it is made.
6. Give some examples of how models are used to illustrate abstract ideas in a concrete form.
7. Investigate the insulation values and costs of different types of commercially available insulation
materials. Compare the cost of insulating a given area to some desired RSI value using different
insulating materials.
8. Students could research the importance of thermal expansion in specific applications.
9. Place a thin capillary tube and a thermometer into a two-holed stopper. Seal the stopper. Place it on
an Erlenmeyer flask which is filled with coloured water. Gently heat the liquid. (Caution: Do not
bring it to a boil. Pressure will build up inside the flask.) Record the height of the column of liquid
as a function of temperature. Calculate the coefficient of volume expansion of the liquid.
10. Design an amplification device which would allow a small expansion of solids or liquids with a
change in temperature to be measured. (One way to do this is to support an iron rod at one end, and
have the other end supported on a roller. Along the axle of the roller is a long pointer, or a mirror on
which a light beam reflects to a distant scale, as in a mirror galvanometer.)
 11. A Crookes radiometer is a very inexpensive device which illustrates the transformation of light into
heat. The radiant energy causes the vanes within the vacuum of the tube to rotate.
12. Examine some ways in which roads, buildings, and other structures are designed to take into
account volume expansion and contraction that occurs in the application for which they have been
designed.
13. Take two similar metal cans with screw-on lids. Drill a hole on top of each one, so that a
thermometer will fit inside through a rubber stopper. Spray paint one of the cans black, and leave
the other one shiny. Place both containers in a sunny place and record temperature changes over
time. As a variation, place a given amount of water in each container, making sure that they are both
at the same starting temperature. Then place them in a sunny place and record temperature changes
over time. Alternatively, fill each with hot water and compare the cooling of the shiny can to that of
the "black body radiator."
14. Compare the heats of combustion of various types of oils using "uncandles" -- small plastic rings
and a wick which float on oil. Heat a pre-weighed sample of water using a known amount of oil.
Based on the temperature change of the water, determine the heat of combustion of the oil.
15. Probe a Bunsen burner flame with a small thermocouple connected to a sensitive ammeter. Interpret
the results. The temperature of the flame varies at different places within the flame.

The flame can be probed with wooden splints placed horizontally in the flame at different heights.
The scorch patterns on the splints give an indication of the different temperature zones present in
the flame. Put a safety match in the flame. At some places in the flame, the match will begin to burn
before the head of the match ignites, indicating that some regions of the flame are hotter than others.

B. Specific Heat Capacity and Latent Heat

Key Concept

Specific heat capacity is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit of mass of a
substance by a unit change in temperature.

or, Q = mc T

where Q is the change in heat content in Joules, m is the mass in kg, c is the specific heat capacity in
J/(kg°C), and T is the change in temperature in °C or K.

The derived unit for c, the specific heat capacity, is J/(kg°C)

The specific heat capacity of a substance depends on its molecular structure and on its phase.
The specific latent heat of a substance is the quantity of heat energy required to change the state of a unit
mass of a substance.

EL= ml where EL is the heat transferred, in joules, m is the mass, in kilograms, and l is the latent heat in
joules per kilogram.

The SI unit for specific latent heat is J/kg.

The specific latent heat of fusion is the quantity of heat energy released when 1 kg of a substance
solidifies (i.e. fuses) without changing its temperature.

The specific latent heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat energy needed to vaporize 1 kg of a
substance without changing its temperature.

Water has one of the largest specific latent heats of fusion of all substances.

Water exhibits anomalous behaviour. From 0 °C to 4 °C it contracts as heated. It also expands when it
freezes. The expansion results in a decrease in density, allowing ice to float on water. Also, water has a high
specific heat capacity compared to other liquids.

The unique physical characteristics of water lead to many interesting and important applications. (Several
should be discussed. Wherever possible, suggest some of the environmental implications of these
characteristics of water.)

Learning Outcomes

Students will increase their abilities to:

1. Define the following terms: specific heat capacity, specific latent heat, specific latent heat of fusion,
specific latent heat of vaporization.
2. Solve problems involving specific heat capacity and specific latent heat.
3. Distinguish between specific heat capacity and specific latent heat.
4. Use the correct units for specific heat capacity and specific latent heat.
5. Identify several unique physical properties of water.
6. Suggest some environmental implications leading from the physical properties of water.

Teaching Suggestions, Activities and Demonstrations

1. Perform an activity to determine the specific heat capacity of a substance. See the next activity for
an example of how this could be done.
2. Place a measured volume of cold water into a calorimeter. Measure its initial temperature. Heat a
metal object of known mass in a beaker of boiling water long enough so that the metal object
 reaches a temperature of the boiling point of water. (When the metal object is first placed into
boiling water, the water may stop boiling. Wait until the water has reached the boiling point once
again.) Transfer the hot metal object into the calorimeter. Record the final temperature of the water
in the calorimeter after heat transfer has taken place. Determine the specific heat capacity of the
metal. Repeat using different types of metal. (Before transferring the metal to the calorimeter, attach
thread to it. Transferring the metal using cold metal tongs acts as a heat sink.) Based on the
experimental results, qualitatively develop the Principle of Heat Exchange, for section C on
thermodynamics.
3. Perform an activity to investigate the specific latent heat of fusion (or the specific latent heat of
vaporization, or both) for a given substance.

Repeat the above experiment with ice to find the specific latent heat of ice.

4. Give students some examples of the unique physical characteristics of water and how they have
made it possible for life to exist on this planet. For example, brainstorm to establish what kinds of
things might happen if water in a large lake froze solid in the winter, or if water froze at lower
temperatures.
5. During a short break between classes, suppose a person wants to drink a cup of coffee. Design an
experiment to determine if it is better to add milk (or cream) and then wait five minutes before
drinking it, or to allow the black coffee to cool for five minutes and then add the milk (or cream). In
which situation would the coffee be the coldest after the five minute interval?

Other variables, such as the type of container the coffee is poured into, or the initial temperature of
the coffee, and the type of coffee used (percolated, drip, or instant), etc., should all be fully
controlled.

6. Using three different metal samples having the same mass, heat them all in water until each one
reaches the boiling point of water. Carefully remove each one and place it on a sheet of paraffin
wax. Allow them all to cool. Observe how far each sample has been imbedded into the wax. The
metal with the highest specific heat capacity will have been able to melt away the most wax and
imbed itself the deepest into the wax. This is a very simple but effective demonstration or student
group activity which reinforces this concept.
7. Using brainstorming, suggest some of the ways in which the unique physical characteristics of
water lead to a number of interesting and practical applications.
8. Waste heat from industrial processes sometimes causes thermal pollution. Research ways in which
waste heat is being put to better use than by releasing it into the environment. Use webbing to link
this activity with Science 10 or Biology 20.
9. Design a passive solar water heater. Design it to optimize the amount of heat energy that can be
absorbed by a given quantity of water. Compare the efficiency of the designs developed by different
groups.

C. Thermodynamics
Key Concepts

(Note: Material in this section on thermodynamics should be treated descriptively. A rigorous mathematical
treatment of the topic is not intended.)

A transfer of heat energy occurs when substances having different temperatures are allowed to mix.

In any transformation of energy, the total amount of energy remains constant. This is called the Law of
Conservation of Energy.

Whenever two substances at different temperatures are allowed to mix, heat travels from the hotter
substance to the colder one. The quantity of heat given off by the hotter substance is equal to the quantity of
heat energy gained by the cooler object, provided that heat energy does not escape to the surroundings. The
transfer of energy will continue in this way until both substances reach the same temperature. The is called
the Principle of Heat Exchange.

heat energy lost = heat energy gained

EH (lost) = E H (gained)

To investigate heat exchange, an experiment must be designed under controlled conditions, to prevent heat
from escaping into the surroundings.

A calorimeter is an insulated container used to make precise measurements of heat exchange.

Carefully controlling variables and experimental conditions, precision in measurement, and quantitative
analysis of data are some important experimental techniques used in physics.

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of experimental data both have important roles in scientific
investigations.

Two systems, in thermal equilibrium with a third, are in thermal equilibrium with each other. (Zeroth Law
of Thermodynamics)

The quantity of heat transferred to a system is equal to the work done by the system plus the change in the
internal energy of the system. (First

Law of Thermodynamics, or Law of Conservation of Energy)

A heat engine, such as a steam turbine, is a device which converts heat energy into mechanical work.

The natural direction of heat flow is from a hot object to a colder one. (Second Law of Thermodynamics)
When energy is converted from one form to another the ability to do work can only be lost, and never
gained. That is, no device transfers its heat energy completely into work. For that reason, it is impossible to
build a perfect heat engine. (A heat pump requires an application of work to transfer heat energy from a
low temperature to a higher temperature. Thus, the Second Law of Thermodynamics sets limits on how
efficiently heat energy can be converted into work.

The entropy of a pure, perfectly crystalline substance is zero at absolute zero temperature. (Third Law of
Thermodynamics)

Both on theoretical and experimental considerations, absolute zero can never be reached. (Some physics
texts give this as the Third Law of Thermodynamics)

As one attempts to reach absolute zero, it becomes progressively more difficult to get any closer to it, such
that it becomes impossible to ever attain it.

By definition, absolute zero is the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases. But quantum
mechanics (Heisenburg Uncertainty) states that even at absolute zero some energy must be present. If there
is still some energy present, it is not, by definition, at absolute zero. The condition of zero energy cannot
ever be met, so absolute zero cannot ever be reached.

Learning Outcomes

Students will increase their abilities to:

1. Define the following terms: calorimeter, heat engine, heat pump.

2. State the Law of Conservation of Energy.
3. Give a practical example which illustrates the Law of Conservation of Energy.
4. State the Principle of Heat Exchange.
5. Give a practical example which illustrates the Principle of Heat Exchange.
6. State the Zeroth, First, Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics.
7. Give examples to illustrate the Laws of Thermodynamics.
8. Explain that it is impossible to build a perfect heat engine.
9. Explain that as one attempts to reach absolute zero, it becomes progressively more difficult to reach
it, such that it becomes impossible to actually ever attain it.

Teaching Suggestions, Activities and Demonstrations

Put water into a Franklin flask and bring it to a boil. Remove the flask from heat. Using oven mitts,
place a thermometer in a one-holed stopper on the flask. Invert and support the flask.

Place ice on the bottom of the flask. As soon as the ice is added, the water begins to boil again. Temperature
readings on the thermometer will confirm that the water is no longer at its normal boiling point.
(Caution: Using an ordinary Florence flask for this demonstration may be dangerous. There may be stressed
areas on the flask which will break and cause an implosion. Use the special thick-glass Franklin flasks that
are available from science supply distributors. Safety glasses and an explosion shield are recommended for
this activity.)

Perform an activity which illustrates the Law of Conservation of Energy.

Perform an activity to investigate the Principle of Heat Exchange.
Investigate or research the history of the steam engine, and show how this technological innovation
may have caused radical social changes.

A. Characteristics of Light
2. The Speed of Light

Key Concepts

Galileo's attempts to measure the speed of light were unsuccessful. The experimental design and
technological restraints did not permit measurements of short time intervals to be made accurately.

Roemer's method, involving the careful observation of the eclipses of a moon of Jupiter (Io) at different
times of the year, showed discrepancies in the duration of time prior to the start of the eclipse. Huygens
interpreted these discrepancies as being due to the difference in the distance that light had to travel to reach
the earth. He obtained a reasonable estimate for the speed of light. (Actually, Huygens' interpretation was
not correct. It has also been suggested that he did not have the average diameter of the Earth's orbit around
the sun to base his calculations on. The apparent differences in the time for the commencement of the
eclipse is due to the relativistic motion between the Earth and Jupiter, depending on whether the Earth is
moving towards or away from Jupiter in different parts of the Earth's orbit. Some physics texts oversimplify
and misinterpret the explanation. However, the correct explanation goes beyond the scope of the course.)

Fizeau, Foucault, and Michelson were among the first to make reasonably accurate measurements of the
speed of light using terrestrial methods.

Michelson's method involved a rotating octagonal mirror reflecting light to a concave mirror located about
35 km away. The light reflecting back from the concave mirror struck another face of the octagonal mirror,
and could only be seen by an observer if the octagonal mirror was rotating at certain speeds. (To allow the
mirror to make the minimum one-eighth rotation in the time it took the light to make the return trip required
the octagonal mirror to make slightly more than 32 000 revolutions per minute.) From the round trip
distance the light travelled, and the period of rotation of the octagonal mirror, the speed of light was
determined.
Other recent experiments using more advanced technology have been used to measure the speed of light
more accurately. The current accepted value for the speed of light can be approximated as 3.00 x 108 m/s.
(Where greater accuracy is required, c = 2.997 924 58 m/s.)

The speed of light in liquids and solids is significantly less than in a vacuum.

The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a given material is called the absolute
index of refraction n) of the material.

There are no units associated with the index of refraction.

The index of refraction in air is about 1.000 3. Light travels slightly slower in air than in a vacuum.
Usually this discrepancy can be neglected, and the index of refraction of a material can be determined
without having to take this into account.

The higher the index of refraction for a given material, the slower light travels through it.

The ratio of the absolute indices of refraction for light travelling from any medium to another is called the
relative index of refraction.

One light year is the distance travelled by light in one year.

The astronomical unit, (A.U.), is the length of the semimajor axis of the Earth's orbit.

1 A.U. = 1.50 x 1011 m.

The parsec, or parallax second, is the distance from the sun to a star such that it would have a parallax angle
of one second of arc as viewed from the Earth.

1 parsec 3.09 x 1016 m, or 3.26 light years.

The astronomical unit and the parsec are non-SI units.

1 light year 9.44 x 1015 m

Learning Outcomes

Students will increase their abilities to:

 1. Define the following terms: speed, absolute index of refraction, index of refraction, relative index of
refraction, light year.
2. Describe the methods used by Galileo, Roemer, and Michelson to measure the speed of light.
3. Explain why the speed of light is difficult to measure.
4. State the value of the speed of light in a vacuum to three significant figures.
5. Explain that the speed of light is fastest in a vacuum and slower in other materials.
6. Recognize that the index of refraction for a particular medium can be used to determine the speed of
light in that medium.
7. Apply the definition of the absolute index of refraction (or the definition of the index of refraction)
to solve problems.
8. Explain that light travels slightly slower in air than in a vacuum, but in many situations this
difference is negligible.
9. Recognize that the higher the value of the index of refraction for a particular medium the slower
light will travel through that medium.
10. Solve problems to determine the relative index of refraction between any two given media.
11. Calculate the distance, in metres, that light travels in one light year, based on its speed in metres per
second.
12. Explain why the light year is used to measure astronomical distances.

Teaching Suggestions, Activities and Demonstrations

1. Perform an activity, or use examples from common experience, to compare qualitatively the speeds
of sound and light.
2. Explain why there are no units associated with an index of refraction. Show that if you tried to use
units in the equation for the index of refraction, they would cancel out.
3. Apply the definition of a light year to convert distances from metres to light years (or vice versa)