SRI BHAGAWAN MAHAVEER JAIN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Jakkasandra Post, Kanakapura Main Road, Bangalore 562 112 Department

of Mechanical Engineering

V SEMESTER Subject: Machine shop Subject Code: MEL - 57

LAB MANUAL
Machining processes used to produce round shapes: Introduction: The machining processes with capability of producing parts that are basically round in shape. Typical products made include parts as small as miniature screw for eyeglass-frame hinges and as large as rolls for rolling mills, cylinders, gun barrels, and turbine shafts for hydroelectric power plants. These processes are generally performed by turning the work piece on a lathe. Turning means that the part is rotating while it is being machined. The starting material is usually a work piece that has been made by other processes, such as casting, forging, extrusion, or drawing. Turning processes, which are outlined, are very versatile. The following processes are capable of producing a wide variety of shapes: Turning to produce straight, conical, curved or grooved work pieces such as shafts, spindles, and pins. Facing to produce a flat surface at the end of the part which is useful for parts that are attached to other components, or face grooving to produce grooves for O-ring seats. Parting also called cutting off, to cut a piece from the end of a part, as is done in the production of slugs or blanks for additional processing into discrete products. Threading to produce external or internal threads. Knurling to produce a regularly shaped roughness on cylindrical surfaces, as in making knobs.

Turning parameters: The majority of turning operations involve the use of simple singlepoint cutting tools. The geometry of a typical right-hand cutting tool for turning operations.

Tool geometry: The various angles in a single-point cutting tool have important functions in machining operations. Rake angles are important is controlling both the direction of chip flow and the strength of the tool tip. The positive rake angle improves the cutting operation by reducing forces and temperatures. However positive angles results in a small included angle of the tool tip. Depending on the toughness of the tool material, this may cause premature tool chipping and failure. The Side rake angle is more important than back rake angle, although the latter usually controls the direction of the chip flow. Relief angles control interference and rubbing at the tool-work piece inter face. If the relief angles is too large, the tool tip may chip off; if it is too small flank wear may be excessive. Cutting edge angles affect chip formation, tool strength, and cutting forces to various degrees. The nose radius affects surface finish and tool-tip strength. The smaller the nose radius (sharp tool) the rougher the surface finish of the work piece and the lower the strength of the tool. However, large nose radii can lead t tool chatter. Forces in turning operations: The three forces acting on a cutting tool These forces are important in the design of machine tools, as well as in the deflection of tools and work pieces for precision machining operations. The cutting forces acts downward on the tool tip (and therefore tends to deflect the tool downward). This is the force that the energy required for the cutting operation. The thrust force, acts in the longitudinal direction. This force is also called the feed force because it is in feed direction. The radial force acts in the radial direction and tends to push the tool away from the work piece. Roughing and finishing operations: In machining, the usually procedure is to (a) perform one or more roughing cuts at high feed rates and large depths of cut (b) ( and therefore high metal removal rates but little consideration of dimensional tolerance and surface roughness) (b) follow it with a finishing cut at a lower feed and depth of cut for a good surface finish. LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS: The lathes are equipped with a variety of components and accessories. The Engine lathe basic components are described below: Bed: The bed supports all major components of the lathe. Beds have a large mass and are rigidly built. Usually from gray or nodular cast iron materials for machine-tool structures. The top portion of the bed has two ways. With various cross-sections, that are hardened and machined for wear resistance and dimensional accuracy during use. Carriage: The carriage or carriage assembly, slides along with the ways and consists of tool post, cross-slide, and apron. The cutting tool is mounted on the tool post. Usually with a compound rest that swivels for tool positioning and adjustment. The cross-slide moves radially in and out, controlling the radial position of the cutting tool in operations such as facing (Fig. 2.2 le). The apron is equipped with mechanisms for both manual and mechanized movement of the carriage and the cross-slide by means of the lead screw. Headstock: The headstock is fixed to the bed and is equipped with motors, pulleys, and V-belts that supply power to the spindle at various rotational speeds. The speeds can be

set through manually- controlled selectors. Most headstocks are equipped with set of gears, and some have various drives to provide a continually variable speed range to the spindle. Head stocks have a hallow spindle to which work holding devices, such as chucks and collets (section 22.33), are attached and long bars or tubing can be fed through for various turning operations. Tailstock: The tailstock, which can slide along the ways and be clamped at any position, supports the other end of the work piece. It is equipped with a center that may be fixed (dead center) or may be free to rotate with the work piece (live center). Drills and reamers can be mounted on the tailstock quill (a hallow) cylindrical part with a tapered hole) a drill axial holes in the work piece. Feed Rod and Lead screw: The feed rod is powered by a set of gears from the headstock. It rotates during the operation of the lathe and provides movement to the carriage and the cross-slide by means of gears, a friction clutch, and a keyway along the length of the rod. Closing a split nut around the lead screw engages it with the carriage. It is also used for cutting threads accurately (as described in section 22.5)

Lathe specification: 1. Its swing, that maximum diameter of the work piece that can be machined. 2. Maximum distance between the head stock tail stock centers. 3. The length of bed for eg. Lathe may have the following size 360mm, swing by 760mm between center by 1830mm length of bed. Work holding devices and Accessories: work holding devices particularly important machine tools and machining operations. In a lathe, one end of the work piece is clamped to the spindle by a chuck, collet, face plate or mandrill. A chuck is usually equipped with 3 or 4 jaws. 3 jaws chucks generally have geared scroll design that makes jaws self centering. They are used or round work piece Four jaw (Independent) chucks have jars that can be moved and adjusted independently of each other; they can be used for square rectangular, or odd shaped work pieces because they are more raggedly constructed than three jaw chucks, they are used for heavy work pieces or for work requiring multiple chucking where concentricity is important. The jaws in some types of chucks can be reversed to permit clamping of the work pieces either on outside surfaces or on the inside surfaces of hollow work pieces such as pipes and tubing. Also available are jaws that are made of low- carbon steel (soft jaws) which can be machined into desired shapes; because of their low strength and hardness, they conform to small irregularities on work pieces and therefore result in better clamping. Chucks can be power actuated or actuated manually. Using a chuck-wrench. Because they take longer to operate, manually actuated chucks are generally used only for toolroom and limited production runs. Chucks are available in various designs and sizes. Their selection depends on the type and speed of operation, work piece size. Production and accuracy requirements and the jaw forces required. By controlling the magnitude of jaw forces, an operator can ensure that the part does not slip in the chuck during machining. High spindle speeds can reduce jaw (clamping) forces significantly due to the effect of centrifugal forces; this effect is particularly important in precision tube turning. Modern jaw-actuating mechanisms permit higher clamping force for roughing and lower force for finishing operations.

By controlling the magnitude of jaw forces, an operator can ensure that the part does not slip in the chuck during machining. High spindle speeds can reduce jaw (clamping) forces significantly due to the effect of centrifugal forces; this effect is particularly important to precision tube turning. Modern jaw- actuating mechanisms permit higher champing force for roughing and lower forces for finishing operations. Cutting tools for Lathe: Lathe Cutting Tools: Most lathe operations are done using single-point cutting tools, such as those illustrated in Fig 23-26. On right-hand turning and facing tools, the cutting takes place on the side of the tool; therefore, the side rake angle is of primary importance, particularly when deep cuts are being made. On the round-nose turning tools, finishing tools, and some threading tools, cutting takes place on or near the end of the tool, and the back rake is therefore of importance. Such tools are used with relatively light depths of cut. Because tool materials are expensive, it is desirable to use as little as possible. At the same time, it is essential that the cutting tool be supported in a strong, rigid manner to minimize deflection and possible vibration. Consequently lathe tools are supported in various types of heavy, forged steel tool holders, as shown in Fig 23-27. The high-speed steel (HSS) tool bit should be clamped in the tool holder with minimum overhang. Other wise tool chatter and a poor surface finish may result. In the use of carbide, carbide, ceramic or coated carbides for mass production work, throw-away inserts are used that can be purchased in a great variety of shapes, geometrics (nose radius, tool angle, and groove geometry) and sizes (See Fig 23-28 for some examples). When several different operations on a lathe are performed repeatedly in sequence, the time required for changing and setting tools may constitute as much as 50% of the total cycle time. Quick change tool holders (Fig 23-29) are used to reduce manual tool changing time. The individual tools, preset in their holders, can be interchanged in the special tool post in a few seconds. With some systems a second tool may be set in the tool post while a cut is being made with the first tool and can then be brought into proper position by rotating the post. In lathe work the nose of the tool should be set exactly at the same height as the axis of rotation of the work. However became any setting below the axis causes the work to tend to Climb up on the tool, most machinists set their tools a few thousandths of an inch above the axis, expect for cutoff, threading, and some facing operations. Form Tools In Fig 23-18, the use of form tools are shown. Form tools are made by grinding the inverse of the desired work contour into a block of HSS or tool steel. A threading tool is often a foam tool. Although form tools are relatively expensive to manufacture, they make it possible to machine a fairly complex surface with a single inward feeding of one too. For mass-production work, adjustable form tools of either flat or rotary types (Fig 23-30) are used. These of course are expensive to make initially but can be resharpened merely by grinding a small amount off the face and then raising or rotating the cutting edge to the correct position. The use of form tools is limited by the difficulty of grinding adequate rake-angles for all points along the cutting edge. A rigid setup is needed to resist the large cutting forces that develop with these tools. Tool Failure and Tool Life: In metal cutting, the failure of the cutting tool can be classified into two head categories according to the failure mechanisms that caused the tool to die ( or fail )

1. Slow death mechanisms: Gradual tool wear on the flank of the tool or on the rake face of tool (called crater wear) or both. 2. Sudden-death mechanisms: Rapid, usually unpredictable and often catastrophic failures resulting from abrupt, premature death of a tool. MILLING Introduction: Milling is a basic machining process by which a surface is generated by progressive chip removal. The workpiece is fed into a rotating cutting tool. Sometimes the workpiece remains stationary, and the cutter is fed to the work. In nearly all cases, a multiple tools cutter is used so that the material removal rate is high. Often the desired surface is obtained in a single pass of the cutter or work, and because very good surface finish can be obtained, milling is particularly well suited and widely used for massproduction work. Many types of milling machines are used, ranging form relatively simple and versatile machines that are used for general-purpose machining in job shops and tool and die work to highly specialized machines for mass production. Unquestionably, more flat surfaces are produced by milling than by any other machining process. The cutting tool used in milling is known as a milling cutter. Equally spaced peripheral teeth will intermittently engage and machine the workpiece. This is called interrupted cutting Fundamentals of Milling Processes Milling operations can be classified into two broad categories called puerperal milling and face milling. Each has man variations. In peripheral milling the surface is generated by teeth located on the periphery of the cutter body (fig 25-1). The surface is parallel with the axis of ration of the cutter. Both flat and formed surfaces can be produced by this method, the cross section on the resulting surface corresponding to the axial contour of the cutter. This process, often called slab milling, is usually performed on horizontal-spindle milling machines. In slab milling, the tool rotates (mills) at some rpm value (N) while the work feeds past the tool at a table feed rate fm in inches per minute. As in the other processes, the cutting speed V and feed per tooth are selected by the engineer or the machine tool operator. As before, these variables depends on the work material, the tool material, and the specific process. The cutting velocity is that which occurs at the cutting edges of the teeth in the milling center. The rpm of the spindle is the determined from the surface cutting speed. Where D is the cutter of diameter in inches according to The depth of cut, called t in fig 25-1,is simply the distance between the old and new machined surfaces. The width of cut us the width if the cutter of the work, in inches and is given the symbol W. The length of the cut L, is the length of the work plus some allowances, L A, for approach and overtravel. The feed rate of the table fm, in inches per minute is related to the amount of metal each tooth removes during a revolution (this is called the feed per tooth), f t, according to fm =ft Nn Where n is the number of teeth in the cutter (teeth/rev). The cutting time

CT =
Where

L + LA Min fm

Length of approach =

Values for ft are given in Table 25-1 along with recommended cutting speeds in feet per minute. In face milling and end milling, the surface generated is at right angles to the cutter axis (fig 25-2).Most of the cutting is done by the peripheral portions of the teeth, with the face portions providing some finishing section. Face milling is done horizontal and verticalspindle machines. The tool rotates (face mills) at some rpm rate (N) while the work feeds past the tool. The rpm value is related to the surface cutting speed, where the cutting diameter is D, according to equation (25-1). The depth of cut is t in inches, as shown in Figure 25-3. The width of cut is W in inches and may be the width of the workpiece or the width of the cutter, depending on the setup. The length of cut is the length of the workpiece L, plus an allowance for approach, LA and overtravel Lo in inches. The feed rate of the table, fm in inches per minute is related of the amount of metal each tooth removes during a pass over the work, and this is called the feed per tooth, ft where fm =ftNn. The number of teeth in the cutter is n. The cutting time

(Ignore Lo and LA). The length of approach is usually equal to the length of overtravel, which usually equals D/2 inches. For a setup where the tool does not completely pass over the workpiece.

For either slab or face mailing, surface can be generated by two distinctly different methods (Fig 25-4).Up milling is the traditional way to mill and is called conventional milling. The cutter rotates against the direction of feed rate or the workpiece. In climb or down milling, the cutter rotation is in the same direction as the feed rate. The method of chip formation is completely different in the two cases.

MILLING CUTTERS: Milling cutters can be classified according to the way the cutter is mounted in the machine tool. Arbor cutters have a center hole so that they can be mounted on an effort. Shank cutters have either a tapered or a straight integral shank. Those with tapered shanks can be mounted directly in the milling machine spindle, whereas straight-shank cutters are held in a chunk. Facing cutters usually are bolted to the end of a stub arbor. Common types of milling cutters classified in this manner are as follows:

Another method of classification applies only to face and endmill cutters and relates to the direction of rotation. A right-hand cutter must rotate counterclockwise when viewed from the front end of the machine spindle. Similarly a lefthand cutter must rotate clockwise. All other cutters can be reversed on the arbor to change them from one hand to the other. Positive rake angles are used on general-purpose HSS milling cutters. Negative rake angles are commonly used on carbide-and ceramic tipped cutters employed in mass production milling to obtain the greater strength and cooling capacity which they provide TIN coating of these tools is quite common, resulting in significant increase in tool life. Types of Milling Cutters: Plain milling cutters used for plain or straight or helical teeth on the peripheral and are used for milling flat surfaces. Helical mills (Fig 25-8) engage the work gradually, and usually more than one tooth cuts at a given time. This reduces shock and chattering tendencies and promotes a smoother surface. Consequently, this type of cutter usually is preferred over one with straight teeth. Side milling cutters are similar to plain milling cutters except that the teeth extend radially partway across one or both ends of the cylinder toward the center. See Fig 25-6 for an example. The teeth may be either straight or helical. Frequency, these cutters are relatively narrow, being disklike in shape. Two or more side milling cutters often are spaced on an arbor to straddle the workpiece (called straddle milling) and two parallel surfaces are machined at once. Interlocking slotting cutters consist of two cutters similar to side mills but made to operate as a unit for milling slots. The two cutters are adjusted to the desired width by inserting shims between them. Staggered-tooth milling cutters are narrow cylindrical cutters having staggered teeth and with alternative teeth having opposite helix angles. They are ground to cut only on the periphery, but each tooth also has chip clearance ground on the protruding side. These cutters have a free cutting action that makes them particularly effective in milling deep slots (Fig 25-6 and 25-9) Slitting saws are thin, plain milling cutters, usually form 1/32 to 3/16 in, thick which have their sides slightly dished to provide clearance and prevent binding. They usually have more teeth per unit of diameter than ordinary plain milling cutters and are used for milling deep narrow slots and cutting-off operations Angle milling cutters are made in two types; single and double angle. Angle cutters are used for milling slots of various angles or for milling the edges of workpieces to a desired angle. Single angle cutters have teeth on the conical surface, usually at an angle of 45 to 60 to the plane face. Double angle cutters have V shaped teeth, with both conical surfaces at an angle to the end faces but not necessary at the same angle. The V angle usually in 45, 60 or 90

Arbor Cutters Plain Side Staggered Tooth Slitting saws Angle Inserted Tooth Form Fly

Shank Cutters End mills Solids Insert tooth Shell Hollow T-slot Woodruff key seat Fly

Form milling cutters have the teeth ground to a special shape-usually an irregular contourto produce a surface have a desired transverse contour. They must be sharpened by grinding only the tooth face, thereby retaining the original contour as long as the plane of the face remains unchanged with respect to the axis of rotation. Convex, concave cornerrounding, and gear-tooth cutters are common example (Fig 25-9) Larger milling cutters are of the insert-tooth type. The cutter body is made of steel, with the teeth made of high-speed steel, carbides, or TiN carbides, fastened to the body by various methods. An insert tooth cutter using indexable carbide or ceramic inserts is shown in figure 25-10. End mill are shank cutters having teeth on the circumferential surface and one end. They thus can be used for facing, profiling, and End milling. The teeth may be either straight or helical, but the latter is more common. Small end mills have straight shanks, whereas taper shanks are used on larger sizes GEAR MANUFACTRUING: Introduction: Gears transmit power or motion mechanically between parallel, intersecting, or non-intersecting shafts. Although usually hidden from sight, gears are one of the most important mechanical elements in our civilization, possibly even surpassing the wheel ,since most wheel would not be turning were power not being applied to them through gears. They operate at almost unlimited speeds under a wide variety of conditions. Gear theory and Terminology: Basically, gears are modifications of wheels, with gear teeth added to prevent slipping and to assure that their relative motions are constant. However it should be noted that the relative surface velocities of the wheels (and shafts) are determined by the diameters of the wheels. For two gears to operate properly, their pitch circles must be tangential to each other. The point at which the two pitch circles are tangent, at which they intersect the centerline connecting their centers of rotation, is called pitch point. The common normal at the point of contact of mating teeth must pass through the pitch point. This condition is illustrated in figure 31-2.To provide uniform pressure and motion and to minimize friction and wear, gears are designed to have rolling motion between mating teeth rather than sliding motion. To achieve this condition, most gears utilize a tooth form that is based on an involute curve. This is the curve that is generated by a point on a straight line when the line rolls around a base circle. Figure 31.3.

The important tooth elements can be specified in terms of the diametral pitch or the module and are as follows:

1. Addendum: The radial distance from the pitch circle to the outside diameter.
2. Dedendum: The radial distance from the pitch circle to the root circle. It is equal to the addendum plus the clearance, which is provided to prevent the outer corner of a tooth from touching against the bottom of the tooth space. 3. Circular pitch: The distance between corresponding points of adjacent teeth, measured along the pitch circle. 4. Tooth thickness: the thinkness of a tooth, measured along the pitch circle. When tooth thickness and the corresponding tooth space are equal, no backlash exists in a pair of mating gears. 5. Face Width: the length of the gear teeth in an axial plane. 6. Tooth face: the mating surface between the pitch circle and the addendum circle 7. Tooth flank: the mating surface between the pitch circle and the root circle 8. Pressure angle: the angle between a tangent to the tooth profile and a line perpendicular to the pitch surface Four shapes of in volute gear teeth are used in the United States: 1. 2. 3. 4. 14 pressure angle, full depth (used most frequently) 14 Pressure angle, composite (seldom used) 20 pressure angle full depth (seldom used) 20 pressure angle, stub both (second most common)

In the 14 full depth system, the tooth profile outside the base circle is an involute curve. Inward from the base circle the profile is a straight radial line that is joined with the bottom land by a small fillet. With this system, the teeth of the basic rack have straight sides. The 14 composite systems and the 20 full depth systems provide somewhat stronger teeth. However with the 20 full depth system, considerable undercutting occurs in the duodenum area; therefore stub teeth often are used. The addendum is shortened by 20% thus permitting the duodenum to be shortened a similar amount. This results in very strong teeth without undercutting. Table 31-1 gives the formulas for computing the dimensions of gear teeth in the 14 full depth and 20 stub-tooth systems. Physical Requirement of Gears: A consideration of gear theory leads to five requirements that must be met in order for gears to operate satisfactorily: 1. The actual tooth profile must be the same as the theoretical profile. 2. Tooth spacing must be uniform and correct. 3. The actual and theoretical pitch circles must be coincident and be concentric with the axis Of rotation of the gear. 4. The face and flank surfaces must be smooth and sufficiently hard to resist wear and prevent noisy operations. 5. Adequate shafts and bearings must be provided so that desired center-to-center distances are retained under operational loads.

The first four of these requirements are determined by the material selections and manufacturing process. The various methods of manufacture that are used represent attempts to meet these requirements to varying degrees with minimum cost, and their effectiveness must be measured in terms of the extent to which the resulting gears embody these requirements. Before looking at the ways to manufacture gears, lets look at some example of gears. Gear types: The more common types of gears are shown in Fig 31-4; spur gears have straight teeth and are used to connect parallel shafts. They are the most easily made and the cheaper of all types. The teeth on helical gears lie along a helix, the angle of the helix being the angle between the helix and a pitch cylinder element parallel with the gear shaft. Helical gears can connect either parallel of nonparallel nonintersecting shafts. Such gears are stronger and quieter than spur gears because the contact between mating teeth increase more gradually and more teeth are in contact at a given time. Although they usually are slightly more expensive to make than spur gears, they can be manufactured in several ways and are produced in large numbers. Helical gears have one disadvantage. When they are in use, a side thrust is created that must be adsorbed in the bearings. Herringbone gears neutralize this sid3 thrust by having in effect two helical-gear halves, one have a right hand and the other a left hand helix. The continuous herringbone type is rather difficult to machine but is very strong. A modified herringbone type is made by machining a groove, or gap, around the gear blank where the two sets of teeth would come together. This provides a runout space for the cutting tool in making each set of teeth. A rack is a gear with infinite radius, having teeth that lie on a straight line on a plane. The teeth may be normal to the axis of the rack or helical so as to mate with spur or helical respectively. A worm is similar to a screw. It may have one or more threads, the multiple thread type being very common. Worms usually are used in conjunction with a warm gear. High gear ratios are easily obtainable with this combination. The axes of the worm and worm gear are nonintersecting and usually are at right angles. If the worm has a small helix angle. It cannot be driven by the mating worm gear. This principle frequently is employed to obtain nonreversible drives. Worm gears usually are made with the top land concave to permit greater area of contact between the worm and the gear. A similar effect can be achieved by using a conical worm, in which the helical teeth are cut on a double conical blank, this producing a worm that has an hourglass shape. Bevel gears, teeth on a cone, are used to transmit motion between intersecting shafts. The teeth are cut on the surface of truncated cone. Several types of bevel gears are made, the types varying as to whether the teeth are straight or curved and whether the axes of the mating gears intersect. On straight tooth bevel gears the teeth are straight, and if extended all would pass through a common apex. Spiraltooth bevel gears have teeth the are segments of spirals. Like helical gears, this design provides tooth overlap so that more teeth are engaged at a given time and the engagement is progressive. Hypoid bevel gears also have curved tooth shape but are designed to operate with nonintersecting axes. RearDrive automobiles used hypoid gears in the rear axle so that the drive shaft axis can be below the axis of the axle and thus permit a lower floor height. Zerol bevel gears have teeth that are circular arcs, providing somewhat stronger teeth that can be obtained in a

comparable straight-tooth gear. They are not used extensively. When a pair of bevel gears are the same size and have their shafts at right angles, they are termed miter gears. A crown gear is a special form of bevel gear having a 180 cone apex angle. In effect, it is a disk with the teeth on the side of the disk. It also may be thought of as a rack that has been bent into a circle so that its teeth lie in a plane. The teeth may be straight of curved. On straight-tooth crown gears the teeth are radial. Crown gears seldom are used, but they have the important quality that they will mesh properly with a bevel gear of any cone angle, provided that the bevel gear has the same tooth form and diametric pitch. This important principle is incorporated in the design and operation of two very important types of geargenerating machines that will be discussed later. Most gears are of the external type, the teeth forming the outer periphery of the gear. Internal gears have the teeth on the inside of a solid ring, pointing toward the center of the gear. Gear Manufacturing Whether produced in large or small quantities, in cells, or job shop batches, the sequence of processes for gear manufacturing requires four sets of operations, 1. 2. 3. 4. Blanking Gear cutting Heat treatment Grinding

Blanking refers to the initial forming or machining operations that produce a semi finished part ready for gear cutting, starting from a piece of raw material. Turning on checkers or lathes, face and centering of shafts, milling and sometimes grinding, fall into this category of operations. Good-quality blanks are essential in precision gear manufacturing. Hobbing, shaping and shaving machines are the most frequently used machines for gear cutting, producing gears for automotive, truck, agricultural, and construction equipment. Other processes used in industrial gear production include broaching, rolling, grinding milling and shaving. The process selected depends on finding a cost-effective operations based on quality specification production volumes and economic conditions. The gear cutting or machining operations can be divided into operations executed prior to heat treatment, when the material is still soft and easily machinable and after heat treatment, performed on parts that have acquired high hardness and strength. Heat treatment gives the material the strength and durability to withstand high loads and wear but results in a dimensional and geometrical accuracy. The metallurgical transformation in the gears. Therefore, precision grinding operations are used on external and internal bearing diameters, critical length dimensions, and fine surface finishes after heat treatment. Cylindrical grinders, angle-head grinders, internal grinders, and surface grinders are commonly used. Gears are made in very large numbers by cold-roll forming, and in additional, significant operations are made by extrusion, by blanking by casting and some by powder metallurgy and by a forging process. However it is only by machining that all types of gears can be made in all sizes, and although roll-formed gears can be made with accuracy sufficient for most applications, even for automobiles transmissions, machining still is unsurpassed for gears that must have very high accuracy. Also roll forming can be used only on ductile metals.

Machining of Gears Form cutting or form milling is illustrated in Fig 31-5. The cutter has the same form as the space between adjacent teeth. Usually, a multiple tooth form cutter (Fig 31-6) is used, as shown in Fig 31-5. The tool is fed radially toward the center of the gear blank to the desired tooth depth, then across the tooth face to obtain the required tooth width. When one tooth space has been completed, the tool is withdrawn, the gear blank is indexed using a dividing head, and the next tooth space is cut. Basically form cutting is a simple and flexiable method of machining gears. The equipment and cutters required and relatively simple, and standard machine tools (milling machines) often are used. However in most cases the procedure is quite slow, and considerable care is required on the part of the operator; therefore, it usually is employed where only one or a few gears are to be made. In machining gears by the form-cutting process, the form cutter is mounted on the machine spindle, and the gear blank is mounted on a mandrel held between the centers of some type of indexing device. Fig 31-7 shows the arrangement that is employed when as is often the case, the work is done on a universal milling machine; the cutter is mounted on an arbor, and a dividing head is used to index the gear blank. When a helical gear is to be dividing head is geared to the longitudinal feed screw of the table so that the gear blank will rotate as it moves longitudinally. Standard cutters usually are employed in form-cutting gears. In the United States, these come in eight sizes for each diametrical pitch and will cut gears having the number of teeth indicated in Table 31-2. A single cutter will not produce a theoretically perfect tooth profile for all sizes of gears in the range for which it is intended. However, the change in tooth profile over the range covered by each cutter is very slight, and most of the time, satisfactory results can be achieved. When greater accuracy is required, half-number cutters (such as 3 ) can be obtained. Typical cutters are shown in Fig 31-6, 31-7 and 31-8. Cutters are available for all common diametric pitches and 14 and 20 pressure angles. If the amount of metal that must be removed to form a tooth space is large, roughing cuts may be taken with a stocking cutter. The stepped sides of the stocking cutter remove most of the metal and leave only a small amount to be removed subsequently by the regular form cutter in a finish cut. Straight-tooth bevel gears can be form cut on a milling machine, but this is seldom done. Because the tooth profile in bevel gears varies from one end of the tooth to the other, after one cut is taken to form the correct tooth profile at the smaller end, the relationship between the cutter and the blank must be altered. Shaving cuts then are takes on the side of each tooth to form the correct profile throughout the entire tooth length. Cutter Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Gear tooth Range (teeth to rack) 135 55-134 35-54 26-34 21-25 17-20 14-16 12-13

Although the form cutting of gears on a milling machine is a flexiable process and is suitable for gears that are not to be operated at high speeds or that need not operated with extreme quietness, the process is slow and requires skilled labour. Semiautomatic machines are

available for making gears by the cutting process. Such a machine is shown in Fig 31-8. The procedure utilized is essentially the same as on a milling machine, except that after setup, the various operations are completed automatically. Gears made on such machines are no more accurate than those produced on a milling machine, but the possibility of error is less, and they are much cheaper because of reduced labor requirements. For large quantities, however form cutting is not used. Shaping Machine The process of shaping and planning are among the oldest single-point machining processes. They have largely been replaced by milling and broaching as production processes. From a consideration of the relative motions between the tool and the workpiece, shaping and planning use a straight-line cutting motion with a single-point cutting tool to generate a flat surface. In shaping the workpiece is fed at right angles to the cutting motion between successive storkes of the tool, as shown in Fig 26-30, where f c is the feed per storke. V is the cutting speed, and t is the DOC, the planning discussed nest, the workpiece is reciprocated and the tool is fed at right angles to the cutting motion ) For either shaping or planing the tool is held in a clapper box which presents the cutting edge from being damaged on the return stroke of the tool. In addition to plain flat surfaces the shapes most commonly produced on the shaper and planer are those illustrated in Fig 26-31. Relatively skilled workers are required to operate shapers and planers, and most of the shapes that can be produced on them also can be made by much more productive processes, such as milling, broaching, or grinding. Consequently except for certain special types, planers that will do only planing have become obsolete, and shapers are used mainly in tool-and-die work, in very low volume production or in the manufacture of gear teeth (see chapter 31) In shaping the cutting tool is held in the tool post located in the ram, which reciprocates over the work with a forward stoke, cutting at velocity V and a quick return stroke at velocity Vg . The rpm rate of the drive crank (Ns) drives the ram and determines the velocity of the operation (Fig 26-32). The stroke ratio

The tool is advancing 55% of the time. The number of strokes per minute is N s determined by the rpm rate of the drive crank. Feed f,, is in inches per stroke and is at fight angles to the cutting direction. The length if stroke l, must be greater than the length of the workpiece (or length of cut), L, since velocity is position variant. Let l =twice the length of the block being cut, or 2L. The cutting velocity V is assumed to be twice the average forward velocity. V, of the ram. The general relationship between cutting speed and rpm is

Workholding Devices for shapers On horizontal push-cut shapers, the work is usually held in a heavy vice mounted on then top side of the table. Shaper vises have a very heavy movable jaw, because the vise must often be turned so that the cutting forces are directed against this jaw. In clamping the workpiece in a shaper vise, care must be exercised to make sure that it rests solidly against the bottom of the vise(on parallel bars) so that it will not be deflected by the cutting force and that it is held securely yet not distorted by the clamping pressure.

Fig 20-34 illustrates the use of parallel bars for raising work to the proper height in the vise jaws and also several methods of clamping rough and irregularly shaped work. The latter procedures prevent the clamping action from tilting the work in the vise. Work that cannot be held conveniently in the vise can be clamped directly to the top or sides of the table, using T-slots in the table.

Most shaping is done with simple high-speed-steel or carbide-tipped cutting tool bits held in a heavy, forged tool holder, as shown in Fig 26-30c. Although shapers are versatile tools, the precision of the work done of them is greatly dependant on the operator. Feed dials on shapers nearly always are graduated in 0.0001-in divisions, and work is seldom done to greater precision than this. A tolerance of 0.0002 to 0.0003 in is desirable on parts that are to be machined on a shaper, because this gives some provision for variations due to clamping, possible looseness or deflection of the table, and deflection of the tool and ram during cutting. SURFACE GRINDING MACHINE: Surface grinding machines are used primarily to grind flat surfaces. There are four basic types of surface grinding machines. Differing in the movement of their tables and orientation of the grinding wheel spindles: 1. Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table. 2. Vertical spindle and reciprocating table. 3. Horizontal spindle and rotary table 4. Vertical spindle and rotary table. The most common type of surface grinding machine has a reciprocating table and horizontal spindle. The table can be reciprocated longitudinally either by hand wheel or by hydraulic power. The wheel head is given transverse (cross feed) motion at the of each table motion. Both longitudinally and transverse motion can be controlled by limit switches. In feed and down feed can such grinder is controlled by hand wheels or automatically. The size of such machines is designed by the size of the surface that can be ground. In using such machines, the wheel should overtravel the work at both ends of the table reciprocation, so as to prevent the wheel from grinding in one spot while the table is being reversed. The transverse or crossfeed motion should be one-forth to three-fourths of the wheel width between each stroke. Vertical-spindle reciprocating-table surface grinders differ basically from those with horizontal spindles only in that their spindles are vertical and that the wheel diameter must exceed the width of the surface to be ground. Usually no traverse motion of either the table or the wheelhead is provided. Such machines can produce very flat surfaces. Rotary-table surface grinders can have either vertical or horizontal spindle, but those with horizontal spindles are limited in the type of work they will accommodate and therefore are

not used to a great extent. Vertical-spindle rotary-table surface grinders are primarily production-type machines. They frequently have two or more grinding heads, and therefore both rough grinding and finish grinding are accomplished in one rotation of the workpiece. The work can be held either on a magnetic chuck or in special-fixtures attached to the table. By using special rotary feeding mechanisms, machines of this type often are made automatic. Parts are dumped on the rotary feeding table and fed automatically onto workholding devices and moved past the grinding wheels. After they pass the last grinding head, they are automatically unloaded. Tool and Cutter Grinders Simple, single-point tools often are sharpened by hand-on bench or pedestal grinders (off hand grinding). More complex tools such as milling cutters, reamers, hobs and single point tools for production-type operations, require more sophisticated grinding machines, commonly called universal tool and cutter grinders. These machines are similar to small universal cylindrical center-type grinders, but they differ in four important respects:

1. The headstock is not motorized

2. The headstock can be swiveled about a horizontal as well as vertical axis 3. The wheelhead can be raised and lowered and can be swiveled through at 360 rotation about a vertical axis. 4. All table motions are manual. No power feeds being provided Specific rake and clearance angles must be created, often repeatedly, on a given tool or on duplicate tools. Tools and cutter grinders have a high degree of flexibility built into them so that the required relationships between the tool and the grinding wheel can be established for almost any type of tool. Although setting up such a grinder is quite complicated and requires a highly skilled worker, after the setup is made for a particular job, the actual grinding is accomplished rather easily. Fig 27-23 shows several typical setups on a tool and cutter grinder. Hand-ground cutting tools are not accurate enough for automated machining processes. Many NC machine tools have been sold on the premise that they can position work to very close tolerances- within 0.0001 to 0.0002 in only to have the initial workpieces produces by those machines out of tolerance by as much as 0.015 to 0.020 in. In must instances the culprit was poorly ground tool. For example a twist drill with a point ground 0.005 in, off center can walk as much as 0.015 in, thus causing poor hole locations. Many companies are turning to CNC grinders to handle the regrinding of their cutting tools. A six-axis CNC grinder is capable the proper tool angles (rake and clearance), concentricity, cutting edges, and dimensional size.

Engineering Enterprise

Sri Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain College of Engineering

MACHINE SHOP LABORATORY MANUAL

MEL -57 V Semester B.E. Course
As per Vishwesharaih Technological University Syllabus

NAME: BRANCH: USN:

Department of Mechanical Engineering SRI BHAGAWAN MAHAVEER JAIN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Jakkasandra Post, Kanakapura Main Road, Bangalore 562 112

List of Experiments I. Lathe Machine 1. Plain Turning, Step Turning, & Facing Operation 2. Taper Turning & Knurling Operation 3. Thread Cutting and Undercutting Operation 4. Eccentric Turning Operation II. Shaping Machine
5. V Groove Cutting Operation

6. Dovetail Cutting Operation

7. 8.

Rectangular Groove Cutting Operation Square Groove Cutting Operation

III. Milling Machine 9.

Gear Teeth Cutting using Dividing head and Indexing Method.

10. 11. IV.

Bevel Gear Teeth Cutting Helical Gear Teeth Cutting

Surface Grinding Machine

12. Demonstration of Surface Grinding Practice.

Laboratory Instructions

1. Students should bring laboratory manual, observation book, calculator for practical class. 2. Laboratory attendance will form part of the internal assessment marks

3. The exercise model complexion and calculation should be got chucked by the faculty. 4. If the student fails to get required models evaluated in same class, the students lose
internal assessment marks for that model.

5. Students should take responsibility for the machines and hand tools issued to them. 6. Machine shop Lab internal test wiil be conducted at the end of the practical class. 7. The students should wear prescribed uniform during the machine shop practical class.
8. Students should maintain strict discipline conduction of practical classes and safety precautions during the

Department of Mechanical Engineering

LABORATORY INTERNAL ASSESSMENT SCHEME The Machine shop internal Assessment is carried out for a Total Internal Marks of 250 averaged to 25 Marks. The distribution of the 25 Marks is as per the following scheme:

Scheme of Internal Marks Distribution Machine shop Total Internal Assessment Marks -250 Total No. of Models Assignments Internal Lab Test Total Marks 12 02 01 Marks Marks Marks 15 10 50 180 20 50 250

Total Marks for each Model -15 Record Book Marks -05
Correct writing and Tidiness 03

Observation Book Marks -10

Model write up: (a) Formulate with explanation of process flow chart and its measurements and units. Performance of the model: (a) Set up and Measurement: (b) Model prepared as per drawing dimension Viva voce

04

Submission on time and neat maintenance

02

04

02 10

Total Marks

05

Total Marks