Applied Ocean Research 24 (2002) 299307 www.elsevier.

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A hydrodynamic model of Green Water incidents

T. Schnberg*, R.C.T. Rainey
Atkins Process, Euston Tower, 286 Euston Road, London NW1 3AT, UK

Abstract A new design tool has been developed for the calculation of water velocities on the deck of a ship as a result of Green Water incidents. This tool models the ow by simulating a shelf submerging into a pool of water. The results from this new design procedure are compared with the results from the standard procedure, which indicates that the standard approach is conservative. The ow of water is modelled using a numerical method, which applies potential ow theory and uses a desingularised boundary integral equation method combined with an implicit time-stepping procedure. q 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Green Water; Floating production storage and ofoading facilities for oil production; Desingularised boundary integral equation method

1. Introduction A Green Water incident occurs when water immerses the deck of a ship as a result of the ship submerging into a wave or due to a large wave hitting the side or the bow of the ship. The velocities and volume of the water which covers the deck of the ship can be signicant and can damage deck equipment as well as posing a risk to personnel. Green Water can also affect the overall stability of the whole vessel. Fig. 1 shows a Green Water incident, where a wave is swept over the deck of the Selkirk Settler in mid Atlantic in February 1987. The bow of the ship is visible in the top right corner of the photo. Two other ships sank in the same storm and signicant wave heights of 12.2 and 15.5 m were reported. The Green Water problem is of increasing concern as the number of permanently moored oating production storage and ofoading facilities for oil production (FPSOs) is on the increase. These facilities stay at their position during a storm and can therefore be subjected to very large waves. Leonhardsen et al. [13] have summarized the Green Water incidents reported in Norwegian waters on FPSOs and conclude that the frequency of Green Water incidents is high and that it is an important factor in the risk analysis of an FPSO. Another overview of the most important incidents is given by Ersdal and Kvitrud [8]. The present work is
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 44-20-7121-2000; fax: 44-20-71212200. E-mail addresses: teit.schoenberg@atkinsglobal.com (T. Schnberg), Rod.Rainey@atkinsglobal.com (R.C.T. Rainey).

mainly concerned with Green Water on ship-shaped FPSOs. Signicant numerical and experimental investigations into this problem have already been undertaken. Buchner [2] used experiments to study the inuence of wave height, wave period and current velocity and then did a study [3] on the effects of bow shape on Green Water. More recently Greco et al. [9,10] have studied the two-dimensional problem of Green Water experimentally as well as numerically. This includes the study of slamming of Green Water with deck structures and the plunging of waves onto the deck. 1.1. Present design procedure The usual design procedure for Green Water load consists of two steps (see Ref.[4]). First the height of the free-board exceedance is determined. The free-board exceedance is a very important parameter in Green Water design and is dened as the height of the water level above the deck at the side of the ship. The free-board exceedance is determined by applying a linear wave-diffraction calculation combined with experimental results to account for the non-linear effects of the waves. Once the size of the freeboard exceedance is found, the velocities of the water ow onto the deck of the ship need to be determined. Researchers into the Green Water problem, among others Buchner [2], have shown how this ow of water bears a striking resemblance to the ow from a dam-break. This is the reason for the standard approach for calculating the velocities from a Green Water incident is to use

0141-1187/02/$ - see front matter q 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0141-1187(03)00004-X

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Nomenclature H x; z t U dV F dV W u; v n sj A h O g dV dV S water level above deck space co-ordinates time horizontal uid velocity of water on deck free-surface boundary wall boundary water velocity vector normal vector source strengths equation system matrix height parameter origin of coordinate system acceleration of gravity boundary of uid domain moving shelf boundary

f N Uw X; Z B Ld z Dt IWL T Ds f Tsub Hfree zdeck

velocity potential number of collocation points velocity of moving boundary position of source singularities equation system vector desingularisation distance dummy variable time step initial water level period of the shelf motion distance between collocation points dummy function period of submergence free-board exceedance vertical position of the deck

the dam-break equation, Eq. (1), [14]. In this equation the water level above the deck, H Hx; y; is 8 p x >h for , 2 gh > > t > > > < 1  p x 2 p p x H 2 gh 2 for 2 gh , , 2 gh : 1 > 9g t t > > > > p x > :0 for . 2 gh t x is the horizontal distance from the initial position of the dam, g is the acceleration of gravity, h is the initial water level up-stream of the dam and t is the time after the break, which is larger than zero. In deriving Eq. (1) it is assumed

that vertical accelerations are negligible compared with horizontal accelerations. The horizontal velocity, U Ux; t; from the dam-break is   p p 2 x p x gh for 2 gh , , 2 gh: 2 U 3 t t The momentum ux from the dam-break ow represents the damage potential and is calculated by     4 x p 2 p x 2 2 U H gh 2 gh 2 81g t t 3 p p x for 2 gh , , 2 gh: t

Fig. 1. Green Water incident at the side of the Selkirk Settler. Photograph by Captain G. A. Ianiev (courtesy of Prof. Douglas Faulkner).

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Fig. 2. Surface elevation, H, from dam-break equation, h 1; g 9:81; t ,0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 and 3. The direction of the ow is indicated with an arrow.

It can be shown that the p momentum ux has a global maximum for x=t 1=2 gh; and that the maximum momentum ux will be U 2 Hmax 1 2 gh 4 4

Fig. 2 shows H as a function of x for different values of t. The position of the ships side and the initial location of the dam is at x 0: When using Eq. (1) the height of the free-board exceedance is put equal to 4h=9 as this value is constant at x 0: This approach also seems to agree with experimental results. 1.2. The moving shelf design procedure Using the dam-break equation is simple but very inaccurate and does not take a number of effects into account. These effects are listed below. First and foremost the problem is not two-dimensional but three-dimensional. Especially at the bow of the ship three-dimensional effects are very important as the ow can come from all sides of the ship. Three-dimensional

effects may not be as important for a Green Water incident at the side of the ship where the ow is coming from one direction only. By using the dam-break equation an unlimited amount of water will ow onto the deck. This is not the case for a real Green Water incident, in which the ow is being cut-off after a nite time interval. The ow will be cut-off due to the heave motion (vertical motion) of the ship, or the periodic motion of the waves and some parts of the deck may not even get wet. By using the dam-break equation complicated ow effects such as viscosity, turbulence and wave plunging are ignored. These effects are also neglected in the present work. Focus will be put on the second effect in improving the design procedure as this is considered to be the main contributor to the inaccuracy of the present design approach and relatively easy to account for. For including this effect a two-dimensional moving shelf model is constructed where a at shelf is moved vertically into water initially at rest. The principle of this model is sketched in Fig. 3 and it is supposed to represent a ship submerging into a wave or

Fig. 3. Sketch of the moving shelf model. (a) Maximum vertical position of shelf. (b) Minimum vertical position of shelf. Water enters the deck. The vertical arrow indicates the direction of the shelf acceleration and the horizontal arrow indicates the direction of the ow.

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a wave hitting the side of a ship. The vertical movement of the shelf is periodical, as the surface elevation of a wave and the heave motion of a ship. When the shelf is submerged the water will ow onto the shelf but this ow will be cut-off as the shelf moves back up again. The three-dimensional effects are neglected so only Green Water incidents at the side of the vessel are considered. Assuming that the water initially is at rest before the shelf is submerged is a crude approximation, but the initial velocities onto the deck from a Green Water incident, taking place at the side of the ship, may not be as large. This is due to FPSOs being moored by a turret at the bow of the vessel. This way the FPSO will turn to face the incoming waves and the velocities from the waves onto the deck will be small. The assumption that the water is initially at rest could also be justied by looking at the problem in different moving frames of reference.

Fig. 4. Denition sketch, computational domain and denition of boundaries.

This velocity potential must satisfy the Laplace equation 2. The numerical method The numerical method used for modelling the moving shelf applies potential ow theory, and is performed in the time-domain. At each time step the Laplace equation is solved and the solution is used for stepping the position and the value of the velocity potential on the free-surface forward in time. The Laplace equation is solved by a desingularised boundary integral equation method (DBIEM) and for stepping the solution forward in time the fully non-linear free-surface boundary conditions are used. An implicit time-stepping procedure was applied, which combined with the DBIEM turned out to be very stable, i.e. there was no need for articial removal of numerical instabilities. Instabilities are a common problem when modelling highly non-linear free-surface ows. The results from this numerical method have previously been compared successfully with experimental results and results from other numerical models [15]. Further validation of the results from the model has been done by energy and mass conservation as well as convergence tests. The uid domain V in Fig. 4 is sketched just after the shelf has submerged below the initial water level (IWL). The uid domain is bounded by a contour dV which consists of three smooth parts: the free-surface boundary dVF ; the moving shelf wall dVS and the bounding wall dVW : As mentioned above the numerical method applies potential ow theory for which a velocity potential, f, as a function of x; z and t is dened. From the velocity potential the horizontal, u, and vertical, v, uid velocities can be determined by f u ; 5a x and

2 f 2 f 0; x 2 y 2

in all of the uid domain V. As indicated in Fig. 4, collocation points (N of them, symbolised by X) are distributed over the boundary of the domain. It is not necessary to segment the bottom horizontal wall and the right vertical wall as they are represented by symmetry boundary conditions. The computational domain is dened with respect to a right-handed Cartesian coordinate system (x, z) with its origin located at the IWL, and directly above the side of the moving shelf. The unit normal vector in the direction into the uid from a solid surface is denoted n. The water depth and the horizontal distance from the moving shelf to the right vertical wall are so large that the problem is not inuenced by these aspects. The boundary conditions to be satised are the usual fully non-linear ones at the free-surface and the zero-ux one on the solid surfaces. 2.1. The free-surface boundary conditions In integrating the solution through each time step the positions of the collocation points x are updated using the kinematic free-surface boundary conditions dx f dt x and dz f on VF dt y 7b 7a

f : v z

5b

The value of the velocity potential on the free-surface is updated using the dynamic free-surface boundary condition (Bernoullis equation expressed using the Lagrangian

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derivative), df 1 u2 v2 2 z on VF : 2 dt

2.2. The wall boundary conditions On the wall boundaries the zero-ux boundary condition has to be satised,

f  n Uw  on VS ; n

9
Fig. 5. Sketch showing positions of sources (W) relative to collocation points (X).

Uw being the velocity and n the normal vector of the wall. While the free-surface boundary conditions are used for stepping the solution forward in time, the wall boundary conditions are used as Neumann boundary condition when solving the Laplace equation using the DBIEM. The wall of the moving shelf was modelled by discretising its surface using pairs of collocation points and singularities. In this approach a small velocity normal to the moving shelf wall would be present. This velocity, even though small, would eventually lead to the contact collocation point, between the free-surface and the moving shelf, drifting away from the moving shelf boundary. For this reason it was necessary to put any small velocity, normal to the moving shelf boundary, equal to zero at each time step to ensure that the contact point remained on the wall. No other numerical intervention was necessary. 2.3. The desingularised boundary integral equation method In the traditional boundary integral equation method the solution of the problem is expressed in terms of an integral of singularities usually using Greens second identity. These singularities are placed on the boundary of the domain, making the integrand of the boundary integral singular. This must then be in part evaluated analytically. In the DBIEM the singularities are moved outside the domain so that the integral can be evaluated directly. The desingularisation has the disadvantage that the equation system, which expresses the solution of the discretized boundary integral equation, can be poorly conditioned. This will be discussed in greater detail later [12,17,18]. In this method a distribution of singularities with unknown strengths is used to formulate the solution, and a boundary integral equation is formulated for the singularity strengths [5,12,17]. Other notable work using the DBIEM has among others been carried out by Webster [18] who modelled the ow about arbitrary three-dimensional bodies using patches of singularity sheets. Webster concluded that up to a certain limit the submergence of the singularity sheet seemed to improve the accuracy. Cao et al. [6] proposed a simple relation between the size of the desingularisation distance and the mesh size. Later Cao et al. [5] used the direct DBIEM for modelling a two-dimensional solitary wave generated by

a moving disturbance. Three-dimensional applications have been reported by Celebi et al., Kim et al., Lalli and Schullen [7,11,12,16]. Celebi et al. [7] made a three-dimensional numerical wave tank for modelling of non-linear wave interaction with a vertical cylinder. Schullen [16] used the DBIEM for modelling the steady three-dimensional freesurface ow of a spheroid moving with constant speed, and concluded that positioning the singularities at a constant distance along a normal to the domain boundaries was the most advantageous scheme with respect to accuracy of solution and conditioning of equation system. This is the method adopted here. The sources are positioned such that the ith source is placed adjacent to the ith collocation point at an offset Ld normal to the boundary contour as sketched in Fig. 5. The velocity potential f at an arbitrary point is the sum of contributions from the N sources, q  N X fx; z sj ln Xj 2 x2 Zj 2 z2 ; 10
j1

(Xj, Zj) being the position and sj the strength of the jth source. As part of the integration procedure in each time step the strengths s of all the sources have to be determined from a Dirichlet or Neumann boundary condition, for the free-surface and the solid boundaries, respectively, applied at each collocation point. The resulting linear system can be reduced to the form As B 11

where in the N by N matrix A, the element Ai,j represents the inuence of the jth source at the ith collocation point, q Ai;j ln Xj 2 xi 2 Zj 2 zi 2 for xi ; zi on dVF q ln Xj 2 xi 2 Zj 2 zi 2 for xi ; zi on dVS : Ai;j n 12 Bi is either equal to the value of f if (xi, zi) is a free-surface collocation point or equal to zero if (xi, zi) is a stationary wall collocation point.

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Table 1 Comparison of results from the moving shelf model with results from the dam-break equation Tsub (s) Hfree (m) 1.4 m from edge U (m/s) 0.6 1.5 2.9 3.5 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.3 19.5 8.2 4.4 3.7 H (m) 0.4 0.7 0.9 1.1 4.1 m from edge U (m/s) 34.1 13.5 6.0 4.9 H (m) 0.2 0.3 0.7 0.8 6.9 m from edge U (m/s) 15.8 7.3 5.9 H (m) 0.2 0.5 0.6 9.6 m from edge U (m/s) 16.6 8.3 6.8 H (m) 0.2 0.4 0.4 7.6 7.8 7.8 7.9 Udam-break H 1 m (m/s)

By positioning the sources as shown in Fig. 5, the matrix A will get a built in diagonal dominance as long as the desingularisation distance is not too large. But if the distance is too small there is a danger that large gridscale variations in f will appear. Cao et al. [6] carried out a study of the choice of the desingularisation distance for three-dimensional problems and proposed Ld d Dsa ; 13

2.4. Time integration Integrating the free-surface boundary conditions in time was carried out by means of an implicit multi-point method. Assuming that x and f on VF are known at t 0 (the water is assumed at rest), the problem can be expressed as an initial value problem,

for the relationship between the grid size Ds and the desingularisation distance Ld. In the present case we used d 1 and a 3=4 as these values gave good results for a large range of mesh densities. Even though Eq. (13) was derived for three-dimensional cases it has also been used for two-dimensional cases by Cao et al. [5]. It implies that as the number of collocation points and singularities is increased, the grid size and thereby the desingularisation distance will tend towards zero. This means that in the limit of an innite number of collocation and singularity points the discretized and desingularised models will tend towards the exact formulation.

z f z; t; t

zt0 z0 ;

14

where z represents one of the free-surface parameters x, z or f and f is one of the free-surface boundary conditions Eq. (7) or (8). The fourth order multi-point method from Ref. [1] was used in an iterative implicit procedure for integrating Eq. (14) in time:

zn1

1 24f zn1 ;tn1 Dt96zn 272zn21 32zn22 26zn23 : 50 15

For the rst three time steps, a fourth order Runge Kutta method was used.

Fig. 6. Results from the moving shelf model compared with the dam-break equation in terms of the momentum ux, at four different locations. The black line is the maximum momentum for the dam-break equation.

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Fig. 7. Evolution of free-surface prole. Solid line is free-surface prole and dashed line is the moving shelf. (a) Initial position of shelf. (b) t 1:2 s; shelf just submerged below initial free-surface position. (c) t 1:8 s: (d) t 2:5 s; position of maximum submergence. (e) t 3:5 s: (f) t 4:6 s; immediately before computations breaks down. The maximum free-board exceedance is 1.7 m, the amplitude of the motion is 6 m and the period of submergence is 3.2 s.

3. Results In this section the results from the dam-break equation will be compared to the results from the moving shelf model. A case is modelled in which the shelf is moved vertically in a sinusoidal motion such that the vertical position of the deck, zdeck, above the IWL is described by

the equation,    9 2p t : zdeck l 1 2 sin 7 T

16

T is the period of the sinusoidal motion and l is a length scale, which is put equal to 14 m. In this case the shelf is submerged 4 m below IWL at its lowest position. The time

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in which the shelf is submerged below IWL is denoted Tsub, which is calculated by    T 2 21 7 1 2 sin Tsub : 17 2 p 9 The initial water depth is 42 m and the distance from the shelf to the right bounding wall dVW is 56 m. Sensitivity checks were made on these parameters and it was found that these distances are large enough not to inuence the results signicantly. The water depth is not as important a parameter as the distance to the right bounding wall. The edge of the shelf was smoothed by giving it a circular shape using a radius of 1.4 m. Hundred and sixty collocation points are used on the free-surface and the same density is used on the wall boundaries. This case is tested for four different periods of shelf submergence and the velocities of the ow are extracted at four different locations on the deck; 1.4, 4.1, 6.9 and 9.6 m from the edge of the deck. The velocities are extracted at z 0; but they do not vary signicantly across the depth of the ow. Table 1 shows the uid velocities, U, and the corresponding water depths, H. The uid velocities are extracted at the time where the momentum ux, U 2H, is maximum, which represents the damage potential imposed by the Green Water. Hfree is free-board exceedance, i.e. the maximum height of the free-surface over the deck measured directly above the vertical side of the shelf. Udam-break is found using Eqs. (1) and (2). If a velocity is omitted from Table 1 it is because the depth of the ow, H, does not get any larger than 10 cm. No signicant damage is expected from a ow with such small water depths and viscous effects will also play an increasingly important role, which will work to slow down the ow. By including viscous effects the results will be made less conservative. Table 1 shows that for the very small period of submergence Tsub 0:6 the water velocities become very large. This is partly due to the very steep wall of water at the edge of the ship, but mainly because the shelf moves back up again very fast. The latter generates high velocities due to the much increased relative gravity, which in this case is 8g. On the other hand not much water gets onto the shelf. This period of submergence is so small though that this case only has little practical relevance. The water depth on the deck increases with the period of submergence as the water will have more time to ow onto the deck. The water depth will decrease away from the edge of the deck as the free-surface will atten out after the water ow has been cut-off. The increased gravity on the water due to the upward acceleration of the shelf will not be as large on a real vessel as on the moving shelf. In the moving shelf model only the shelf is moved up and down, whereas on a real vessel the free-board exceedance is a result of both the ships

motion as well as the wave motion. The relative gravity on a real vessel will therefore not be as large, and as a result the uid velocities will be smaller. Ideally the ooding of the shelf should be caused by a rise in the water level combined with the heave motion of the shelf, which is considered for future improvements of the model. In Fig. 6 the results from Table 1 are plotted as a function of the period of submergence, Tsub, in terms of the momentum ux. It is clear from this diagram that the damage potential is smaller for the moving shelf model than for the dam-break equation for Tsub greater than 1.5 s. This is due to the cut-off of the Green Water ow as well as the gradual submergence of the shelf into the water. For Tsub 0:6 s the much increased gravity from the shelf will create a momentum ux much larger than the one from the dam-break ow. Fig. 7 shows the evolution of the free-surface prole for another case. In Fig. 7b the free-surface prole becomes close to vertical as the shelf moves below the IWL and Fig. 7f shows the cut-off after the shelf moves above the IWL. Fig. 7 also shows how only a small part of the area above the deck and below the free-board exceedance will actually become ooded. According to the dam-break equation all of the area below the free-board exceedance will become ooded. The ow on Fig. 7 looks very similar to the ow from the dam-break but using the dam-break equation for design against Green Water is a very crude approximation. No investigation into the inuence of the free-board exceedance has been made but this parameter is usually well dened by the wave-diffraction analysis, contrary to the period of submergence.

4. Conclusion The standard design approach for modelling the ow from a Green Water incident is to use the dam-break equation. This approach neglects a number of effects, one is that the source of water from a real Green Water incident will be cut-off after a short time-interval. For taking this effect into account the two-dimensional moving shelf model is used to model the ow of water onto the deck of a ship from a Green Water incident. In this model a shelf is moved into water in a periodic motion copying the heave motion of a ship into a wave or a wave hitting the side of a ship. It is assumed that the Green Water incident takes place at the side of the ship, which partly justies neglecting three-dimensional effects. This assumption also partly justies that the water is dened as being at rest when the shelf is initially submerged into it. For the numerical modelling, potential ow theory is used and the solution is made combining a DBIEM with an implicit time-stepping procedure. This combination has turned out to be efcient for modelling highly non-linear

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ows and shows no sign of saw-tooth instabilities, which is a common problem. Reductions in the damage potential of the Green Water ow across the deck can be expected if the moving shelf model is used instead of the dam-break model. The damage potential is very much dependent on the period of time in which the shelf is submerged in the water and the tests were made for a range of periods. The model can also be used to give a more realistic picture of the ow than provided by the dam-break model. Some parts of the deck equipment will not be hit by Green water at all, even though they are on a level below the free-board exceedance. Future improvements to this design procedure could be to include three-dimensional effects and initial velocities in the water due to the wave motion. Further validation of the model by comparison to experimental results would also be important. A signicant disadvantage of the moving shelf model is that the Green Water ow is a result of only the shelf moving below the water. A real Green Water incident would be a result of both the shelf moving downwards as well as the water moving upwards. When only the shelf is moved an excessive relative gravity will be imposed on the water due to the motion of the shelf, which results in large uid velocities.

Acknowledgements The numerical model used in this work has been developed in cooperation with Professor John R. Chaplin from Southampton University, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering.

References
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