N Etudiant : 27001513

UNIVERSIT DE LA REUNION

Plurilinguisme
Master 2 Recherche Spcialit Monde Anglophone

The linguistic situation in New Caledonia

Julien Dervillier N tudiant : 27001513 Promo 2011-2012

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N Etudiant : 27001513

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Introduction New Caledonia is an archipelago located in the Western Pacific Ocean, 1,500 kilometers east of Australia and about 20,000 kilometers from France. The archipelago includes Grande Terre, the Loyalty Islands, the Belep archipelago, the Isle of Pines and a few remote islets. New Caledonia is a sui generis collectivity (Latin expression meaning of its own kind); a status that gives her unique characteristics different from the French overseas collectivities (COM) like French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna or Saint Pierre et Miquelon. To put it simple, New Caledonia is a special collectivity whose political power is granted to its original population, the Kanaks by the Nouma Accord of 1998

until the territory decides whether to remain within the French Republic or become an independent state in a coming referendum (to be held between 2014 and 2019). Its capital is Nouma, the only sizeable city.

For a better understanding of the linguistic situation in New Caledonia I decided to divide my expos in two main parts. In a first part I would give us a general overview of the country. Then I shall emphasize the difficult situation New Caledonia is facing concerning linguistic issue. I/ General overview Europeans first sighted New Caledonia on September 4, 1774, during the second voyage in the Pacific Ocean of Captain James Cook. He named the territory New Caledonia, as the north-east of the island reminded him of Scotland. The west coast of Grande Terre was approached by Jean-Franois de Galaup, count of Laprouse in 1788, shortly before his disappearance, and the Loyalty Islands were first visited in 1796. Contacts became more frequent after 1840, because of the interest in sandalwood from New Caledonia and later with the Blackbirding, a euphemism for enslaving people from New Caledonia, the Loyalty Islands, New Hebrides, New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands to work in sugar cane
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plantations in Fiji and Queensland. In the 20th century the trade ceased and the victims were called Kanakas like all the Oceanian people, the Hawaiian word for man. On September 24 1853, under orders from Napoleon III, Admiral Febvrier Despointes took formal possession of New Caledonia as a penal colony and founded Port-de-France later known as Nouma. From the 1860s until the end of the transportations in 1897, about 22,000 criminals and political prisoners were sent to New Caledonia.

The indigenous population was excluded from the French economy, even as workers in the mines, and they were ultimately confined to reservations. The Kanak population declined from around 60,000 in 1878 to 27,100 in 1921. During the Second World War, New Caledonia supported the Free French government. In 1946 New Caledonia became an overseas territory and by 1953 all New Caledonians were granted French citizenship. The European and Polynesian populations gradually increased in the years leading to the nickel boom of 196972, and the Melanesians became a minority, though they were still the largest single ethnic group. Between 1976 and 1988, New Caledonia has adopted five different statutes, which each time proved to be a source of discontent and at times grave disorders, culminating in 1988 with a bloody hostage taking in Ouva.

The Nouma Accord signed May 5, 1998, set the groundwork for a 20-year transitional period that will gradually transfer competences to the local government. As I point it out in my introduction, New Caledonia is a sui generis collectivity that has been gradually transferred certain powers from France. It is governed by a 54-member Territorial Congress, a legislative body composed of members of three provincial assemblies. The French State and the Government of New Caledonia are both represented in the territory. These two figures in the government show the unique status of this collectivity being an independent country and a regular overseas collectivity.

On the one hand, a Congress and a government have been established, and devolution from powers is organized by the 1998 Nouma Accord. Key areas such as taxation, labor law,
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health and hygiene and foreign trade are already in the hands of the Congress. Further competence will supposedly be given to the Congress in the near future. Moreover a New Caledonian "citizenship" has also been introduced: only New Caledonian "citizens" have the right to vote in the local elections. This measure has been criticized, because it creates a second-class status for French citizens living in New Caledonia who do not possess New Caledonian "citizenship" (because they settled in the territory recently). New Caledonia is also allowed to engage in international cooperation with independent countries of the Pacific Ocean. Finally, the territorial Congress is allowed to pass statutes that are derogatory to French law in a certain number of areas.

On the other hand, New Caledonia remains an integral part of the French Republic. Inhabitants of New Caledonia are French citizens and carry French passports. They take part in the legislative and presidential French elections. New Caledonia sends two representatives to the French National Assembly and one senator to the French Senate. The representative of the French central state in New Caledonia is the High Commissioner of the Republic (HautCommissaire de la Rpublique, locally known as "haussaire"), who is the head of civil services, and who sits in the government of the territory. From October 2010, Albert Dupuy is the High Commissioner of the Republic.

The current president of the government elected by the Congress is Harold Martin, from the loyalist Future Together party (lAvenir Ensemble). For the little story, in May the "Future Together" party toppled the long-time ruling Rally for Caledonia in the Republic (RPCR) and was seen as a sign that the society of New Caledonia is undergoing changes. "Future together", as the name implies, is opposed to a racial vision of New Caledonian society and is in favor of a multicultural New Caledonia, better reflecting the existence of large populations of Polynesians, Indonesians, Chinese, and other immigrants. This duality in the political sphere can be echoed and emphasized by the linguistic situation in New Zealand.
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II/ The linguistic situation of New Zealand The linguistic situation of New Zealand is complex due to the vast number of languages spoken throughout the country.

During the colonization, native speakers used their mother tongue to communicate and in needed case they used Bichlamar an anglo-melanesian language whose lexical basis is essentially English This language allowed them to communicate with shopkeepers or with the other Melanesian populations. Those native languages have been favoured by some of the missionaries to evangelize the population, but the catholic missionaries preferred the usage of French. Thus, there were three languages at work: French, English and Bichlamar. In 1853, a decree imposed the teaching of French in every school of the colony, and in 1863, only the teaching of French was allowed because the colonizers did not consider the other languages as competitor to French.

New Caledonia is constituted of numerous populations, but the vast majority is represented by Kanaks or Europeans. Indeed, in 2009, 40.3% of the population reported belonging to the Kanak community, 29.2% to the European community and 8.7% to the community originating from Wallis and Futuna. The remaining identified communities represented 7.3% of the population, and included Tahitians (2.0%), Indonesians (1.6%), Vietnamese (1.0%), NiVanuatu (0.9%) other Asian (0.8%) and other (1.0%). Nowadays, there are about 30 Melanesian languages (21 kanak languages and 11 dialects) spoken and also other languages peculiar to the immigrant populations (Javanese, Vietnamese, Indonesian, Chinese, and others). Those populations have immigrated to New Caledonia during the nickel rush. Those 30 Melanesian languages came from oral traditions and are daily spoken by Kanaks. These multiple languages are their mother tongues. The most important are: Drehu (spoken in Lifou), Nengone (Mar), and Paic (north of Grande Terre). The other language would extinct in the future because of the wide usage of French. So Kanaks are bilinguals. [Ref. Annexe 1: the New Caledonian
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languages]

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But only French is the official language. The French language began to spread with the establishment of French settlements. While French is now spoken even in the most secluded villages, the degree of mastery varies greatly among the different population groups. These differences in the level of mastery are also altered by ethnicity or even social strata. In addition to that Kanaks use a different French when they want to communicate with other populations or communities: they speak the Caledonian French, a mix between French and colonial natives languages also called caldoche. [Ref.Annexe 2: le franais de Nouvelle Caldonie] This is a regional French which differs from standard French. Nevertheless New Caledonia being a part of French Republic, its official language is French, following the constitutional law of June 1992. This law is applicable to every field (justice, tribunals, administration, schools). At the level of legislation and justice, only French is recognized. In the administration, French is used because it is the official language, but in some occasions they may have recourse to a Melanesian language (in spoken conversation, for example). The language of education is, therefore, also French but a series of decrees and clauses allow the usage of Melanesian languages in some cases. The more important law to that purpose is the Loi dorientation dOutre-Mer (law 2000-1207, December 2000) which stipulates that we have to respect these native languages which are a part of New Caledonian culture. The Acadmie des Langues Kanak (ALK) was founded in January 2007 to promote the New Caledonian languages spoken in New Caledonia. I quote from the web site:
N de lAccord de Nouma (1998) mais cr en 2007, ce jeune tablissement public du gouvernement de la Nouvelle-Caldonie a pour missions de fixer les rgles dusage et de concourir la promotion et au dveloppement de lensemble des langues et dialectes kanak qui font partie de la famille austronsienne du groupe ocanien.1

Some schools give optional native languages lessons, but it is still very rare. Nevertheless, four languages are proposed at the baccalaureate: Aji, Drehu, Nengone and

From Acadmie des Langues Kanak website, home page : http://www.alk.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/alk/

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Paic. There are a lot of problems in the educational system, because the programs are not adjusted to the population. Indeed, as every DOM-TOM, New Caledonia is almost exclusively under the power of France at the educative level and the textbooks imported reflect a European model in which New Caledonians do not find themselves. Moreover, French is a foreign language in this country and the textbooks are created for French native people. This situation has provoked a high rate of analphabetism and failure by New Caledonians students. So the success rate at the baccalaureate is very low.

Conclusion As a conclusion we can say that French is not as well known as we could think: despite the fact that school is taught in French, the perfect command of the language is decreasing after the return into the community. Indeed, it is not seen as normal to express yourself in a language that is not yours and in a context that does not require the use of French. But an important thing to say is that native languages are neither well known, especially by the young population. It all depends on how much time they have spent in their community, how interested in their culture they are. Nevertheless, an important number of Kanaks decide to really learn their language when they become adults. Some of these languages are therefore endangered of extinction, while others win speakers. New Caledonia is a bilingual or even multilingual country but this is a part of the culture. Multilingualism does not mean fragmentation; on the contrary, it is a part of the New Caledonian cultural scene. The linguistic situation of New Caledonia is complex due to its History, its colonization and its multiple languages, but the population does not seem to suffer from it. Each language has its right function in the society. The complexity of the linguistic situation in this country is equally its richness.

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VOCABULARY: A sui generis collectivity: a Latin expression, literally meaning of its own kind or unique in its characteristics. Blackbirding: a term that refers to recruitment of people through trickery and kidnappings to work as labourers. Bichlamar: a creole language, one of the official languages of Vanuatu.

Bibliography: Site web du gouvernement de la nouvelle Caldonie ; Enseignement : http://www.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/gouv/themes/enseignement (19/10/2011, 13h38) Site web du gouvernement de la Nouvelle Caldonie : http://www.gouv.nc/portal/page/portal/gouv/ (18/10/2011, 23h32 ; 19/10/2011, 13h30) ANGLEVIEL Frdric, Parole, communication et symbole en Ocanie: actes du septime Colloque C.O.R.A.I.L, Le franais langue seconde en Nouvelle Caldonie Broch, 3 mai 2000 FILLOL Vronique et VERNAUDON Jacques, Les langues kanakes et le franais, langues d'enseignement et de culture en Nouvelle-Caldonie : d'un compromis un bilinguisme quilibr , Ela. tudes de linguistique applique. , 2004/1 no 133, p. 47-59. The Journal of Pacific History Inc: http://www.jstor.org/ (18/10/2011, 23h57)

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Annexes 1: the New Caledonian languages

Langues du groupe Nord Langues du groupe Centre Langues du groupe Sud Langues du groupe Loyaut Langue polynsienne

Langue

Graphie alternative yalyu

Locuteurs

Commune(s)

Province

Aire coutumire

dialectes Pooc/haat (Belep) ; Puma/paak/ovac (Arama, Balade)

nyelyu nlmwanixumwak caac yuangazuanga jawe nemi fwi pije pwaami

1522 1100 (2009) 890

Ougoa, Belep,Poubo

Province Hoot Ma Nord Waap Province Hoot ma Nord Waap Province Nord Province Nord Province Nord Province Nord Province Nord Province Nord

fwa kumak

Koumac, Poum

Poubo

4 5 6 7 8 9

yga nmi -

1992 729 768 1131 161 219

Kaala-Gomen,Ougoa Hienghne,Poubo Hienghne Hienghne Hienghne Voh

nlmw (Tribu de Nnma), nixumwak Cawac (variante Hoot Ma parle la Conception Waap au Mont Dore depuis 1865) Hoot Ma Waap Hoot Ma Waap Hoot Ma Ouanga, Oulis, Waap Kavatch Hoot Ma Waap Hoot Ma Tha (Tiendanite) Waap Naak (Temala, Voh); Dhaak/yaak (Fatenaoue)

Province Hoot Ma Nord Waap

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Province Hoot Ma Nord Waap

10

pwapw

16

Voh

11

dialectes de la rgion de Voh-Kon

878

12 13 14 15 16 17 18

cmuh paic aji arh arh orowe neku

camuki paici a'ji ar abwbw nku

2051 5498 4044 35 62 587 221 4 (langue teinte depuis avril 2006) 264 3784 566 946 1814

bwatoo (Oudjo, Npou, Baco et parl autrefois l'le Province Hoot Ma Voh, Kon Konine), haeke, Nord Waap haveke, hmwaeke, havele, vamale (Haute Tipindje), waamwang Province Paici Touho, Kon, etPoindimi Nord Camuki Province PaiciPoindimi,Ponrihouen,Kon, Poya Nord Camuki Province Houalou,Ponrihouen,Poya, Kouaoua Aji-Aro Nord Province Poya Aji-Aro Nord Province Poya Aji-Aro Nord Province Bourail Aji-Aro Sud Province Bourail Moindou Aji-Aro Sud Province Aji-Aro Sud Province Xaracuu Sud Province Xaracuu Sud Province Xaracuu Sud Province DjubaSud Kapon Province Sud les Loyaut les Loyaut les Loyaut les Loyaut DjubaKapon Parfois considr comme une variante dialectale de l'aji tr, mea Langue proche du xrc -

19

sch

zch, ssh

Bourail, Moindou

20 21 22 23 24

tr xrc xrgr n druba n num nengone

tir xaracuu drubea numee/kapone

La Foa, Sarrama Canala, La Foa,Boulouparis Thio Pata, Dumba,Nouma, Yat Yat, Mont-Dore,le des Pins

25

6377

Mar, tiga

26 27 28

drehu iaai faga uvea

fagauvea

11338 1562 1107

Lifou Ouva Ouva

xr (Yat), w (le Ouen), kwnyii (le des Pins) Iwateno (langue Nengone crmonielle ou langue des chefs) Miny (langue Drehu crmonielle ou langue des chefs) Iaai Iaai -

cet inventaire est ajoute une 29e langue, le tayo, un crole base lexicale franaise parl par environ 600 locuteurs originaires de la tribu de Saint-Louis (Commune du Mont Dore).

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Annexe 2 : Le franais de Nouvelle Caldonie ou le Caldoche Le parler no-caldonien est avant tout un accent et sous-tend toute une culture caldoche qui tendance se perdre surtout Nouma. En brousse, il est encore bien marqu. Il existe de nombreux ouvrages qui dcortiquent les expressions trs images pouvant parfois paratre vulgaire mais qui pour un Caldonien ne le sont pas. Par exemple : L'encul, tu connais, pte couille mn con, il a jamais voulu me donner la main pour tailler les brousses cet encul ! . Quelques expressions : bloc Les Caldoniens disent bloc de quelque chose pour indiquer une quantit importante. y'avait bloc de gadins (cerfs) dans les brousses ! ( Il y avait plein de cerfs dans les brousses ). Astiquer Corriger ou rprimander (quelqu'un), ou dans le sens taquiner quelque-chose. Exemple: astiquer un cerf coup de cartouches (chasser), astiquer la bouteille carre (prendre l'apro en forant un peu), astiquer les gosses s'ils font trop de bruit. Pour une personne se faire astiquer revient se faire battre ou corriger. S'utilise aussi pour motiver Allez ! Astique fond !!! Biquette Chvre. C'est une jeune biquette. Bleu La couleur Bleu est souvent utilise pour exprimer une trs grande quantit ou une grande intensit. Par exemple. C'est bleu de poissons sur la patate. Il a eu une pnse bleue Boucan Magie Noire locale. Bouffer la gueule (se) Cette expression, qui signifie embrasser passionnment, a perdu de son caractre grossier. Utilis lorsque l'on voit des gens s'embrasser avec fougue dans la rue, ou dans des lieux publics Allez Bouffe la gueule ! . Boulette Avoir la boulette. tre plein d'nergie. Oh ! Boulette ou quoi ? . a va ? T'as la forme ?. Bouteille carre Expression trs utilise pour dsigner le whisky. Vient d'une marque clbre d'cosse (Johnny Walker) qui vend cet alcool dans une bouteille carre. La bouteille carre est aussi rcupre pour conserver l'eau au rfrigrateur. Brousse Dsigne toutes vgtations un peu denses et par extension tout lieu non urbain, puis tout lieu hors de Nouma, la capitale. Il vient de la brousse.
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a de wizz Exprime l'admiration ou la satisfaction : H, la vieille, tu nous ptes l'apro a de wizz ! Casse pas la tte Trs employ. Ne t'en fais pas, pas de problme. Chier Mourir (utilis dans une menace). Va chier ! Choc Trs employ chez les jeunes en Nouvelle-Caldonie comme dans l'expression c'est choc voire fin choc ! est quivalent c'est super , c'est terrible . Claquer On claque beaucoup en Caldonie, on pte aussi l'expression est similaire. Claquer un coup de pche, un coup de fte, un coup de coutume, un coup de chasse. On peut mme claquer une photo ou un gros sourire ! Claquettes Dsignent les tongs, chaussures ares trs rpandues et portes en Nouvelle-Caldonie, que ce soit en ville ou en brousse, et dans toutes les communauts. Le fait d'appeler des claquettes des tongs est souvent le premier moyen utilis pour reprer un Zoreil. On disait autrefois souvent claquettes japonaises, car elles taient censes tre fabriques au Japon ou portes par les japonais, mais on n'utilise plus aujourd'hui ce terme. Expression populaire : "Aouh, j'ai largu mes claquettes Ty "(Peut tre remplac par un autre lieu) . Expression souvent prise dans le ton de la plaisanterie, utilise pour indiquer qu'une personne du sexe oppos a vcu de faon relle ou non un flirt avec une personne de ce mme lieu. Coco Fruit du cocotier. Mais galement expression traduisant la surprise. Il doit, avant d'tre prononc, tre prcd d'un ravalement de salive bruyant marquant l'tonnement. " Srrrrr, COCO ! ". Driv : Cocoro. Couillonner Berner. Il m'a couillonn! Coup de Le terme coup de est employ pour la plupart des sorties de pche ou de chasse, ou pour les ftes. Alooorrss on s'le claque (pte) ce coup de chasse ? , y'a un coup de fte bleue samedi Creek Tout simplement un ruisseau. Mot d'origine anglo-saxonne. Tous les ruisseaux sont des creeks en Caldonie. Damer Taper sur quelqu'un, lui damer la gueule ! On l'emploie aussi dans la notion de quantit Ce
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matin y'avait dam de woitures au page lngin j'ai cru que j'allais claquer un coup de colre toute seule ! Double-narine Fusil double canon. Il a pt un oiseau avec son double-narine ! Envoyer Ca enwoye [envouaye] du gros ben ca va enwoyer de l'air ! : c'est fort, c'est cors, c'est super. quivalent de a va le faire . Feinte, feinter Blaguer. Un mensonge malin : j'tai feint l hein ? . Signifie aussi comme en Mtropole, viter, piger quelqu'un. Je t'ai bien eu l hein ? . 'Gad Abrviation de "regarde. H gad lui comment il parle mal ! . Kaillafou ou kaya fou Personne la dgaine et tenue rasta ou hippie, sens driv de mdiocre et expression d'origine mlansienne. Quand le jardin des voisins est en vrac on dit : oh c'est kayafou chez lui ! . Peut signifier aussi une action ou une chose ralise de manire brouillonne, sans vritable mthode. Live Etre en live : tre compltement dtruit par la fatigue (par exemple). Barrer en live , Partir en live : partir en sucette, faire un bad trip. On a repeint toute la maison. Pouha je suis en live... . Mam Diminutif de maman, vient vraisemblablement de l'anglo-saxon mum et mummy. Dad n'est pas employ. Se dit aussi d'une amie ge un peu maternelle : elle fait sa mam ! . Manou Paro. Le mot est probablement d'origine tahitienne. Utilis en pagne ou comme tenue dcontracte la maison ou sur la plage. Dans l'ide, c'est un petit peu comme le peignoir local. On retrouve ce terme dans l'expression : y'a une couille dans le manou (y'a comme un problme...) ou Il a rien dans le manou ! (il a rien dans le ventre). Moyen Moyen ? Y a moyen ? Y'a moyen faire ?! Est-ce possible ?, peut-on le faire ?. J'aimerais emprunter ta woiture ? moyen faire ? . En crole de Saint-Louis monya signifie pouvoir. On dit aussi Moyen monter dans le bus ? signifie puis-je monter dans le bus ? Pour bus prononcez beusse. Pter On pte comme on claque en Caldonie. Pter un coup d'apro, un coup de chasse, pter un cerf, on peut aussi pter un rglage.

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Pinailler Peut avoir le mme sens qu'en mtropole, mais est beaucoup plus utilis, et de manire tendue. tu pinailles l signifie tu dconnes l Arrte de pinailler pour arrte de dconner pas de pinaillage Poken Dsigne les Australiens ou les No-zlandais la plupart du temps.. Quoi a ! Marque la surprise, l'tonnement. Souque Ordre donn au chien de ramener le btail ou d'attaquer. Stock-man Dsigne essentiellement les leveurs ou les garons de ferme chargs de mener le btail, gnralement cheval. Le stock-man constitue souvent l'archtype du broussard et est souvent compar aux cow-boys amricains. Comme ces derniers, il porte souvent le stetson ou des chapeaux assimils ainsi que le fouet. Taper la oure Pinailler. Adopter un comportement indsirable. Ne rien glander. Exemples : "- Mais on le voit plus mon con de Kvin en ce moment. - Ben tu connais, depuis qu'il est avec sa vieille il tape la oure" ; "- Et ton camarade Charles-Edouard ? A-t-il de bons rsultats l'cole ? Awa mam, Charlou il tape la oure en classe" Tinkyoubien Le thank you anglo-saxon caldonis : merci bien. Au supermarch on remercie la vendeuse : tinkyou ou tinkyoubien ! . Topette Cannette de bire, on dit aussi boisson hyginique dans le mme sens. Awa, frre, paye ta topette glace, l ! Trapard Requin en gnral. Utilis lorsque l'on ne donne pas de prcision sur le type de requin comme : pointes blanches, tigre, ou marteau par exemple. Voir l'expression Dans la passe c'est bleu de trapards ! qui signifie : Il y a normment de requins dans la passe. Un coup Souvent utilis pour souligner une action. "Passe un coup le soyo" pour "Passe-moi le soyo". Vout vout Onomatope cre par Bernard Berger dans La Brousse en folie pour dcrire le bruit de la claquette lance par Tonton Marcel. Maintenant employ pour dsigner les claquettes. Quand le chien fait une btise ou refuse d'obir : Lngin ! Tu vas recewoir ma vout vout t'vas woir l !

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Wanamatcha ! Mot mlansien. Exclamation, tonnement ou frayeur. Zoreil Dsigne un mtropolitain frachement dbarqu (souvent reconnaissable son parler). Par le sens gnral que les Caldoniens lui donnent, ce mot pourrait tre assimil l'expression pied tendre. C'est un terme souvent pjoratif mais qui peut tre juste moqueur, voire affectueux. Un Caldonien faisant trop de manires se verra traiter de zoreil. Exemple : table l'invit fait la grimace parce qu'un dtail le chiffonne, rponse des convives : H mais arrte un peu de faire ton zoreil l... . L'origine du mot est difficile dterminer, mais vient trs probablement des Antilles ou de la Runion o il est aussi employ dans des contextes quivalents. C'est un terme qu'on vitera d'utiliser trop la lgre, certaines personnes y sont plus sensibles que d'autres.

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