Geometry Terms Geo (Earth) + Metrein (Measure) = Geometry Undefined terms Point, Line, Plane Because we can easily

y define these terms without looking at a dictionary. 1. Point represented as a dot and has no dimensions. 2. Line two points determine a line; can be extended in two directions. 3. Plane plane is a flat surface that has length and width but no thickness. It extends indefinitely in all directions. 4. Segment a part of a line with two endpoints and composed of all points on the line between the endpoints. 5. Ray a part of a line which only has one endpoint. 6. Collinear two or more points lying on the same line. 7. Coplanar points and/or lines lying on the same plane. 8. Two lines, two planes, or a line and a plane intersect if they have common points. Postulate is a statement about Geometry which is assumed and accepted without proof. Theorem is a statement which has to be proved from previous known facts, namely definitions, postulates, and proven theorems. 1. Line Postulate through 2 given distinct points, one and only one line can be drawn through them. 2. Length of a Segment DE=|b-a| 3. Segment Addition Postulate If three points A, B, and C are collinear and B is between A and C, then AB+BC=AC. 4. Protractor Postulate On AB in a given plane, choose any point O between A and B. Consider OA and OB and all the rays that can be drawn from O on one side of AB. These rays can be paired with the real numbers from 0 to 180, in such a way that: a.) OA is paired with 0, and OB with 180. b.) If OP is paired with X, and OQ with Y, then m POQ=|X-Y|. 5. Angle Addition Postulate If point B lies in the interior of AOC, then m AOB + m BOC = m AOC. Postulates: 1. 2. 3. 4. A plane contains at least three non-collinear points. A line contains two distinct points. Given two distinct points, one and only one line can contain those two points. Three non-collinear points determine a unique plane. If two points are contained in a plane, then the line that is formed by the two points is also contained in the same plane. 5. If two planes intersect, then this intersection is a line.

Theorems: 1. Exterior Angle Theorem The exterior angle is equal to the sum of the two remote interior angles. 2. Sum of Interior Angles The sum of the measure of the interior angles of a triangle is equal to 180. 3. Sum of Exterior Angles The sum of the measure of all exterior angles of any polygon is 360o. 4. Exterior Angles of a Regular Polygon All the exterior angles of a regular polygon are congruent. 5. Measure of One Exterior Angle 360 n Angles a figure formed by two rays that have a common endpoint. Parts of an Angle: 1. Sides (e.g. BA, BC) 2. Vertex (e.g. B) Naming an Angle: 1. 1 Use the number that appears at the vertex. 2. ABC using 3 letters, the vertex being the middle letter. 3. B using the vertex. Kinds of Angles: 1. Acute angles 2. Right angles 3. Obtuse angles Adjacent angles are angles that have a common side. Vertical angles are two non-adjacent angles whose sides form two pairs of opposite rays. When two lines intersect, they form vertical angles. Angle Bisector is a ray that divides the angle into two congruent angles. Perpendicular lines are two lines that form right angles. Perpendicular Bisector of a segment is right to a segment at its midpoint. Parallel lines are two lines that do not intersect and are coplanar. Skew lines are two lines that do not intersect and are non-coplanar. Transversal is a line that intersect two or more coplanar lines at different points. Classifications of Angles: 1. Complementary Angles two angles that measure up to 90o.

2. Supplementary Angles the sum of these two angles measure up to 180o. 3. Linear Pair two supplementary angles that have a common side that form a line. The noncommon sides are opposite rays. 4. Alternate Interior Angles are two non-adjacent interior angles on opposite sides of the transversal. 5. Alternate Exterior Angles are two non-adjacent exterior angles on opposite sides of the transversal. 6. Same-side Interior Angles are interior angles on the same side of the transversal. 7. Same-side Exterior Angles are exterior angles on the same side of the transversal. 8. Corresponding Angles are angles in corresponding position in relative to the lines.

Conclusions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Alternate interior angles are congruent. Alternate exterior angles are congruent. Same-side interior angles are non-congruent but supplementary. Same-side exterior angles are non-congruent but supplementary. Corresponding angles are congruent.

Formulas: 1. Formula to get # of segments: n (n-1) 2 2. Formula to get # of rays: 2 (n-1) 3. Formula to get # of angles: n (n-1) 2 4. Formula to get sum of interior angles of a polygon (n-2) 180 5. Formula to get measure of an interior angle of a regular polygon (n-2) 180 n 6. Formula to get # of diagonals: n (n-3) 2 7. Sum of all interior and exterior angles of a polygon: 180n

Corollary a statement that can be proved easily by applying a theorem. 1. If two angles of one triangle are congruent to two angles of another triangle, then the third angles are congruent. 2. Each angle of an equiangular triangle is 60o. 3. In a triangle, there can be at most one right angle or obtuse angle. 4. The acute angles of a right triangle are complementary. Polygon Poly (many) + Gonus (angles) = Polygons a) Each segment intersects only at the endpoint. b) No two segments that have a common endpoint are collinear. A polygon is convex if the segment joining any two points on the polygon lies completely inside it, otherwise, it is non-convex. Diagonal a segment that joins two non-consecutive points in a polygon. Regular Polygon both equilateral and equiangular. Classifications of Polygons according to the number of sides Number of sides 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 n-sides Polygon Triangle Quadrilateral Pentagon Hexagon Heptagon Octagon Nonagon Decagon Undecagon Dodecagon n-gon

Conditional Statements Conditionals are formed by joining two statements p and q (If p, then q), where p is the hypothesis and q is the conclusion. Negation (~p) using the word not, changing = to

Rules of Negation

1. The negation of a true statement is false. 2. The negation of a false statement is true. Type Conditional Converse Inverse Contrapositive Biconditional Form If p, then q. If q, then p. If ~p, then ~q. If ~q, then ~p. P iff q.

Rules of Logic for Biconditionals: 1. A biconditional is true when both conditional and converse is true. 2. A biconditional is false when either or both of its conditional or converse is false. Properties of Real Numbers: 1. Commutative Property a+b = b+a (a)(b)=(b)(a) 2. Associative Property (a+b)+c=a+(b+c) (axb)c=a(bxc) 3. Distributive Property a(b+c)=ab+ac 4. Additive Identity Additive Inverse a+0=a a+(-a)=0 5. Multiplication Identity a(1)=a Properties of Equality 1. Addition Property If a=b, then a+c=b+c 2. Subtraction Property If a=b, then a-c=b-c 3. Multiplication Property If a=b, then a(c)=b(c), where c 4. Division Property If a=b, and c 0, then a=b c c

5. Substitution Property If a=b, and a+c=d, then b+c=d. 6. Reflexive Property a=a 7. Symmetric Property If a=b, then b=a. 8. Transitive Property If a=b, and b=c, then a=c. Properties of Congruence 1. Reflexive Property DE=DE 2. Symmetric Property If DE=FG, then FG=DE. 3. Transitive Property If DE=FG, and FG=JK, then DE=JK.

Summary lang po nung Calvin Cycle So first, kukuha ng 6 Carbon molecules from the atmosphere , then magcocombine yung carbon with 6 RuBP (yung RuBP, Ribulose Biphosphate *5 carbon molecules, 2 phosphate groups+). Then yung product ng Light dependent reaction (which are ATP and NADPH) ang kumbaga mag susupply ng power para mag fix yung carbon(carbon fixation). Then yung ATP magiging ADP dahil mawawala yung isang Phosphate group nya (kasi nga ginamit as energy).Pagkatapos nyan, makakaproduce tayo ng 12 PGAL (3 carbon molecules and 1 phosphate group). CHECK NYO RIN TO: 6 carbon + 6 RuBP = 12 PGAL Let RuBP be 5 carbon molecules and 2 phosphate groups Let PGAl be 3 carbon molecules and 1 phosphate group SO Kunyari algebra 6 c + 6 (5c + 2 phosphate) = 12 (3c + 1 phosphate) 6c + 30c + 12 phosphate = 36c + 12 phosphate COMBINE LIKE TERMS 36c + 12 phosphate=36c + 12 phosphate So 12 PGALs na yung na produce. 10 dito, irerecycle, gagamitin ulit sa cycle para makaproduce pa ng more RuBPs tas yung 2, gagamitin na para mag produce ng Glucose. Yung Ru Bis Co, Enzyme yan na tumutulong sa Calvin Cycle. Tulad dun sa Carbon Fixation, May part sya dun Although di ako masyadong sure kung ano =D The Calvin cycle or CalvinBenson-Bassham cycle or reductive pentose phosphate cycle or C3 cycle or CBB cycle is a series of biochemical redox reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplasts in photosynthetic organisms. It is also known (erroneously) as the "dark reaction" or "dark stage." The cycle was discovered by Melvin Calvin, James Bassham, and Andrew Benson at the University of California, Berkeley[1] by using the radioactive isotope carbon-14. It is one of the light-independent (dark) reactions, used for carbon fixation. Overview Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH. The light-independent Calvin cycle uses the energy from short-lived electronically excited carriers to convert carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds[ that can be used by the organism (and by animals that feed on it). This set of reactions is also called carbon fixation. The key enzyme of the cycle is calledRuBisCO. In the following biochemical equations, the chemical species (phosphates and carboxylic acids) exist in equilibria among their various ionized states as governed by the pH.

The enzymes in the Calvin cycle are functionally equivalent to many enzymes used in other metabolic pathways such asgluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway, but they are to be found in the chloroplast stroma instead of the cell cytoplasm, separating the reactions. They are activated in the light (which is why the name "dark reaction" is misleading), and also by products of the light-dependent reaction. These regulatory functions prevent the Calvin cycle from being respired to carbon dioxide. Energy (in the form of ATP) would be wasted in carrying out these reactions that have no net productivity. The sum of reactions in the Calvin cycle is the following: 3 CO2 + 6 NADPH + 5 H2O + 9 ATP glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) + 2 H+ + 6 NADP+ + 9 ADP + 8 Pi or 3 CO2 + 6 C21H29N7O17P3 + 5 H2O + 9 C10H16N5O13P3 C3H5O3-PO2 3 + 2 H+ + 6 NADP+ + 9 C10H15N5O10P2 + 8 Pi Hexose (six-carbon) sugars are not a product of the Calvin cycle. Although many texts list a product of photosynthesis as C6H12O6, this is mainly a convenience to counter the equation of respiration, where six-carbon sugars are oxidized in mitochondria. The carbohydrate products of the Calvin cycle are three-carbon sugar phosphate molecules, or "triose phosphates," namely, glyceraldehyde-3phosphate (G3P). Steps of the Calvin cycle 1. The enzyme RuBisCO catalyses the carboxylation of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, RuBP, a 5-carbon compound, by carbon dioxide (a total of 6 carbons) in a two-step reaction.[3] The product of the first step is enediol-enzyme complex that can capture CO2 or O2. Thus, enediol-enzyme complex is the real carboxylase/oxygenase. The CO2 that is captured by enediol in second step produces a six-carbon intermediate initially that immediately splits in half, forming two molecules of 3phosphoglycerate, or PGA, a 3-carbon compound[4] (also: 3-phosphoglycerate, 3phosphoglyceric acid, 3PGA). 2. The enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase catalyses the phosphorylation of 3PGA by ATP (which was produced in the light-dependent stage). 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (glycerate-1,3-bisphosphate) and ADP are the products. (However, note that two PGAs are produced for every CO2 that enters the cycle, so this step utilizes two ATP per CO2 fixed.) 3. The enzyme G3P dehydrogenase catalyses the reduction of 1,3BPGA by NADPH (which is another product of the light-dependent stage). Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (also G3P, GP, TP, PGAL) is produced, and the NADPH itself was oxidized and becomes NADP+. Again, two NADPH are utilized per CO2 fixed.

(Simplified versions of the Calvin cycle integrate the remaining steps, except for the last one, into one general step - the regeneration of RuBP. Also, one G3P would exit here.) 1. Triose phosphate isomerase converts all of the G3P reversibly into dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), also a 3-carbon molecule. 2. Aldolase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase convert a G3P and a DHAP into fructose 6phosphate (6C). A phosphate ion is lost into solution. 3. Then fixation of another CO2 generates two more G3P. 4. F6P has two carbons removed by transketolase, giving erythrose-4-phosphate. The two carbons on transketolase are added to a G3P, giving the ketose xylulose-5-phosphate (Xu5P). 5. E4P and a DHAP (formed from one of the G3P from the second CO2 fixation) are converted into sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate (7C) by aldolase enzyme. 6. Sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase (one of only three enzymes of the Calvin cycle that are unique to plants) cleaves sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate into sedoheptulose-7-phosphate, releasing an inorganic phosphate ion into solution. 7. Fixation of a third CO2 generates two more G3P. The ketose S7P has two carbons removed by transketolase, giving ribose-5-phosphate (R5P), and the two carbons remaining on transketolaseare transferred to one of the G3P, giving another Xu5P. This leaves one G3P as the product of fixation of 3 CO2, with generation of three pentoses that can be converted to Ru5P. 8. R5P is converted into ribulose-5-phosphate (Ru5P, RuP) by phosphopentose isomerase. Xu5P is converted into RuP by phosphopentose epimerase. 9. Finally, phosphoribulokinase (another plant-unique enzyme of the pathway) phosphorylates RuP into RuBP, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, completing the Calvin cycle. This requires the input of one ATP. Thus, of 6 G3P produced, three RuBP (5C) are made, totaling 15 carbons, with only one available for subsequent conversion to hexose. This required 9 ATPs and 6 NADPH per 3 CO2. RuBisCO also reacts competitively with O2 instead of CO2 in photorespiration. The rate of photorespiration is higher at high temperatures. Photorespiration turns RuBP into 3PGA and 2phosphoglycolate, a 2-carbon molecule that can be converted via glycolate and glyoxalate to glycine. Via the glycine cleavage system and tetrahydrofolate, two glycines are converted into serine +CO2. Serine can be converted back to 3-phosphoglycerate. Thus, only 3 of 4 carbons from two phosphoglycolates can be converted back to 3PGA. It can be seen that photorespiration has very negative consequences for the plant, because, rather than fixing CO2, this process leads to loss

of CO2. C4 carbon fixation evolved to circumvent photorespiration, but can occur only in certain plants native to very warm or tropical climates, for example, corn. Products of the Calvin cycle The immediate products of one turn of the Calvin cycle are 2 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) molecules, 3 ADP, and 2 NADP+ (ADP and NADP+ are not really "products." They are regenerated and later used again in the Light-dependent reactions). Each G3P molecule is composed of 3 carbons. In order for the Calvin cycle to continue, RuBP (ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate) must be regenerated. So, 5/6 carbon from the 2 G3P molecules are used for this purpose. Therefore, there is only 1 net carbon produced to play with for each turn. To create 1 surplus, G3P requires 3 carbons, and therefore 3 turns of the Calvin cycle. To make one glucose molecule (which can be created from 2 G3P molecules) would require 6 turns of the Calvin cycle. Surplus G3P can also be used to form other carbohydrates such as starch, sucrose, and cellulose, depending on what the plant needs. The difference occurs in the second part of photosynthesis, the Calvin-Benson cycle, which "fixes" CO2 into carbohydrates. The Calvin-Benson cycle (in "normal", C3 plants) consists of three processes: 1. The fixation of CO2 onto a 5-carbon "receptor" (ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate, better known as RuBP), which results in two 3-carbon molecules ( a sugar-phospate called 3-phosphoglycerate, or 3PG), a reaction catalyzed by the protein rubisco. 2. The reduction of 3PG to form a carbohydrate, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). 3. Regeneration of the original receptor, RuBP. Every "turn" of this cycle, one CO2 is fixed. The problem comes in the first part of the cycle, where rubisco is used. Rubisco can either grab onto CO2..._or_ O2. If it latches onto CO2 as it should, then the first part of the cycle produces 2x 3PG, as it should. If it latches onto O2 instead, then the first part of the cycle produces one 3PG, and one glycolate. Now, C3 plants have evolved ways to reclaim at least some of the carbons channeled away as glycolate, by feeding glycolate through a peroxisome and a mitochondrion, where it undergoes several transformations and some of it is released back out as CO2 (this is the pathway called photorespiration). However, it reduces the net carbon fixation by about 25%. Rubisco has about 10x more affinity for CO2 than it does for O2, so under normal circumstances this is not a problem. However, on very hot, dry days plants close the stomata in their leaves in order to minimize the loss of water -- and this interferes with gas exchange as well. As CO2 is used up by the normal Calvin-Benson cycle, the balance of CO2:O2 inside the leaf alters in favor of O2, and rubsico starts to grab it instead. This both slows down photosynthesis and reduces its carbon fixation overall. The C4 plants have introduced an extra bit into the Calvin-Benson cycle, an extra early reaction that

fixes CO2 into not *3*-carbon sugars, but *4*-carbon sugars called oxaloacetate (hence the names, by the way, C3 for 3-carbon and C4 for 4-carbon sugars) -- by plunking CO2 onto a different receptor molecule (phosphoenolpyruvate, or PEP) by way of the enzyme PEP carboxylase. PEP carboxylase has two advantages over rubisco: it has no affinity for O2 at all, and it finds and fixes CO2 even at very low CO2 levels. And oxaloacetate has an advantage over 3PG, in low-CO2 circumstances -- some of it degrades to form CO2 again in the mesophyll, the cells which carry CO2 to rubisco. As a result, the C4 plants can close their stomata to retain moisture under hot, dry conditions, but still keep photosynthesis ticking over at good efficiency. CAM plants (from "crassulacean acid metabolism", because this mechanism was first described in members of plant family Crassulaceae) are a different kind of C4 plant. In the C4 plants described above, the fixation of CO2 into 4-carbon sugars and the further fixation of CO2 into 3-carbon sugars happens in different cells, separated in space but at the same time. In CAM plants, the two different kinds of CO2-fixation happen in the same cells, but separated in time. In CAM plants the fixation of CO2 into oxaloacetate happens at night, when it is cooler and the stomata can open to ensure a plentiful supply of CO2, and then the oxaloacetate is stored as malic acid. Then, during the day, the stomata close to minimize moisture loss, and the stored malic acid is reclaimed and turned back into CO2 to power the normal Calvin-Benson cycle. I hope that answers your question. Just for added info, C3 plants include roses, wheat, rice, barley, oats, rye, and Kentucky bluegrass. C4 plants include corn (maize), sugarcane, and crabgrass (which is why crabgrass thrives in the hot days of August, when Kentucky bluegrass withers). CAM plants include many kinds of cacti, and pineapples. http://www.answerbag.com/q_view/32799

herald

(h r ld)

1. A person who carries or proclaims important news; a messenger. 2. One that gives a sign or indication of something to come; a harbinger: The crocus is a herald of spring. 3. An official whose specialty is heraldry. 4. a. An official formerly charged with making royal proclamations and bearing messages of state between sovereigns. b. An official who formerly made proclamations and conveyed challenges at a tournament. tr.v. heralded, heralding, heralds To proclaim; announce: cheers that heralded the team's arrival. hesitate (h z -t t )

intr.v. hesitated, hesitating, hesitates 1. a. To be slow to act, speak, or decide. b. To pause in uncertainty; waver. 2. To be reluctant. 3. To speak haltingly; falter. curse (krs)

1. a. An appeal or prayer for evil or misfortune to befall someone or something. b. The evil or misfortune that comes in or as if in response to such an appeal: bewailed the curse of ill health. 2. One that is accursed. 3. A source or cause of evil; a scourge: "Selfishness is the greatest curse of the human race" (William Ewart Gladstone). 4. A profane word or phrase; a swearword. 5. Ecclesiastical A censure, ban, or anathema. 6. Slang Menstruation. Used with the.

v. cursed or curst (krst), cursing, curses v.tr. 1. To invoke evil or misfortune upon; damn. 2. To swear at. 3. To bring evil upon; afflict: was cursed with crippling arthritis. 4. Ecclesiastical To put under a ban or an anathema; excommunicate. v.intr. To utter curses; swear. appar ently adv. appar entness n. Synonyms: apparent, clear, clear-cut, distinct, evident, manifest, obvious, patent, plain These adjectives mean readily seen, perceived, or understood: angry for no apparent reason; a clear danger; clear-cut evidence of tampering; distinct fingerprints; evident hostility; manifest pleasure; obvious errors; patent advantages; making my meaning plain. Usage Note: Used before a noun, apparent means "seeming": For all his apparent wealth, Pat had no money to pay the rent. Used after a form of the verb be,however, apparent can mean either "seeming" (as in His virtues are only apparent) or "obvious" (as in The effects of the drought are apparent to anyone who sees the parched fields). One should take care that the intended meaning is clear from the context. ashram *rm -] 1. (Non-Christian Religions / Hinduism) a religious retreat or community where a Hindu holy man lives 2. a house that provides accommodation for destitute people dynasty (d n -st )

n. pl. dynasties 1. A succession of rulers from the same family or line. 2. A family or group that maintains power for several generations: a political dynasty controlling the state.

garland

(gr l nd)

1. a. A wreath or festoon, especially one of plaited flowers or leaves, worn on the body or draped as a decoration. b. A representation of such a wreath or festoon, used as an architectural ornament or heraldic device. 2. A mark of honor or tribute; an accolade: received garlands of praise. 3. Nautical A ring or collar of rope used to hoist spars or prevent fraying. 4. An anthology, as of ballads or poems. tr.v. garlanded, garlanding, garlands 1. To ornament or deck with a garland. 2. To form into a garland. blur (blr)

v. blurred, blurring, blurs v.tr. 1. To make indistinct and hazy in outline or appearance; obscure. 2. To smear or stain; smudge. 3. To lessen the perception of; dim: "For street children . . . drugs offer the chance to blur their hopeless poverty" (Alma Guillermoprieto). v.intr. 1. To become indistinct. 2. To make smudges or stains by smearing. n. 1. A smear or blot; a smudge. 2. Something that is hazy and indistinct to the sight or mind.