EXHIBIT 1 TEAM BUILDING A team is a collection of people who interact with each other regularly and are dependent

t on each other for the attainment of common goals. Team building removes hindrances and enhances organizational effectiveness and efficiency. The key elements of a team are goal sharing, interdependence, commitment and accountability. ; Argyris, 1966; Blake and Mouton, 1969. EXHIBIT 10 COMPONENTS OF TEAM BUILDING
Developing the individual Achievement of the task Building and maintaining the team

Source: Adair, 1987. EXHIBIT 11 TEAM MANAGEMENT

Authoritarian style vs Democratic or participative style

Source: Tarkenton and Tuleja, 1986. EXHIBIT 12 TEAM MEETING STRUCTURE

Follow up Review performance data Reinforce Solve problems Plan action Communicate

Source: Tarkenton and Tuleja, 1986. EXHIBIT 13 IMPROVING TEAM EFFICIENCY

Set effective norms Informal and relaxed atmosphere Participative discussion regarding tasks Clear understanding and acceptance of objectives Free expression and tolerance of other's views Recognition and resolution of disagreements Decision making by consensus Criticism frequent but not personal Clear responsibilities No dominance of team leader and no power struggle Self-awareness of group about its operations Provide the necessary technology Ensure high skill levels Provide effective extrinsic rewards Meaningful, clearly defined tasks with identifiable ends Each member skilled in completing the job Autonomy in working methods, planning and assignment of responsibilities in the group

Source: Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986.

Reading note: Team building

Groups Teams Team building in agricultural research organizations References

Team building is an approach towards enhancing organizational effectiveness and proficiency. A team is 'a collection of people who interact with each other regularly and are dependent on each other for the attainment of common goals.' The objective of team development is the removal of impediments to improving group effectiveness. The key elements of a team are goal sharing, interdependence, commitment and accountability.

Groups
A clear understanding of groups and their formation and dynamics is essential before discussing team building and management. 'Group' is defined as consisting of two or more people who interact and influence one another (Shaw, 1981). According to their numerical size, groups can be dyads (group of two members), triads (group of three), small (four to nine members) or large (ten or more). Group formation Important variables (Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986) which influence group formation include:

 Personal characteristics, which include shared beliefs, values, attitudes, security needs and affiliation needs. Interests and goals in common. Influence, since a group can exert more power and influence to get proper attention and action. Opportunity for interaction, which helps in developing affinities and relationships. Other factors are similar functional departments, cooperative physical activities, intellectual pursuits, emotional needs or protection, and attention and friendship. Group dynamics Understanding group dynamics is essential for a manager in order to encourage effective teamwork. Group dynamics can be understood by exploring (Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986): how group members are influenced, factors in helping, cooperating and competing, the way group cohesion relates to satisfaction and productivity of group members, maintaining external linkages, and how to make task groups more effective. Group influence The process of influence and obedience in groups is important for group dynamics. How people influence each other in a group is the process of group influence. This process prevails in all types of human interaction and interdependence. Obedience or conformity involves direct influence of the group on the behaviour of individuals such that their behaviour outside the group will be different. Behaviour People differ in their vulnerability to pressures, yet most people can be influenced to behave in a particular manner. Compliance, identification, internalization and social facilitation are some of the important factors which could play a crucial role in influencing people to behave differently. Compliance is when people agree in spite of their own beliefs and preferences. This is obedience. Identification refers to agreements when people respect or are attracted to others. Internalization refers to the change in behaviour manifested when people accept requests or orders because either they are consistent with their own beliefs and values or they expect the desired behaviour to be rewarding to them.

 Social facilitation occurs as a result of the influence exerted by the mere presence of someone. Helping behaviour People's penchant to help others differ. Some people care, and are willing to take more risk to help others. There are several factors that reduce or facilitate helping, and they can be important to the success of a group or organization. Cooperation and competition are also crucial for an organization. Cooperation is more than mere helping: it encompasses giving support to others and contributing time and effort in situations where people can work together towards the same goals. In competition, people are more concerned with personal or group interests. Group cohesion Group cohesion refers to the degree to which group members are attracted to each other and to group membership. Cohesiveness brings group members towards a common goal and creates team spirit. According to Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll (1986), some of the important factors which can enhance group cohesion concern: group formation, group development, difficulty of entry, status congruence, reward allocation, success, stability of membership, external threat, and group size. A manager can boost group cohesion by: communicating with the subordinates as a group, emphasizing and promoting competition with other groups, rewarding cooperation, managing conflict situations within the group, setting achievement goals for the group rather than for individuals, treating everyone in the group equitably without favouritism, and encouraging social interaction among group members. External linkages A group comprises members representing various areas, skills or backgrounds. Good, balanced representation can facilitate acceptance of a group's work. Encouraging work groups

Group efficiency and effectiveness can be increased by fostering group productivity, satisfaction, cohesion and learning. This can be achieved by various measures, including (Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986): Treating employees as social beings and not as mere numbers. Taking care when establishing group size so as to establish neither too small nor too large a group. Encouraging group members to select other members whenever possible. This improves interpersonal relations in the group, which in turn generates cohesion and cooperation. Supporting groups to develop and mature. It helps in settling tensions and other difficulties in the group. Encouraging group productivity norms in congruence with organizational goals. Dealing with group situations where cohesion is based on norms that are harmful to the organization. Supporting groups to develop good productivity goals. Encouraging participation of individual members' in the group task so as to avoid the ill effects of social loafing. Social loafing occurs when in a group an individual does not do his share of work, expecting that the work will get done anyway since other members of the group are working towards the same goal. Exercising care and discretion in utilizing competition to encourage group productivity. Providing groups with opportunities for success.

Teams
A team can make important contributions to the development of the organization, wield strong influence on individual work attitudes and behaviour, and gain the commitment of its members by being participative and consequently facilitating implementation. Building a team The building blocks of effective teams, as identified by Woodcock (1986) are: clear objectives and agreed goals, openness and confrontation, support and trust, cooperation and conflict, sound procedures, appropriate leadership,

 regular review, individual development, and sound intergroup relations. Stages in team building To make teams efficient and effective, a research manager should use: managing talents to successfully guide teams through various stages of development, and leading skills, which would kindle team members to achieve their full potential at every stage of team development. There are five sequential steps involved in the team building process (Kormanski and Mozenter, 1987; Adair, 1987): (i) Forming refers to awareness. During this stage, team members are oriented, become committed, and then accept the goals and programmes. (ii) Storming refers to resolution and development of a feeling of belonging. (iii) Norming refers to cooperation and collaboration in which communication is promoted. This results in a feeling of enticement and support. (iv) Performing refers to productivity. During this stage problems are solved and interdependence fostered, which results in achievements. (v) Adjourning refers to separation. This does not occur if the previous four stages have been successful, with no problems encountered. Approaches to team building There are several approaches to team building, with differing degrees of group participation, self-examination, problem confrontation and goal setting. Any of these approaches can be used for team development. A manager can also blend and integrate different approaches, depending upon situational requirements. Goal-setting approach The goal-setting approach (Beer, 1976) is based on the assumption that a goal influences not only individual and group behaviour but also direction, coordination and extent of group efforts. If problems of the group are identified through interviews with group members, they can be handled by group solutions. Based on these solutions, the group could set goals. Goal setting creates commitment and a feeling of involvement. The inter-personal approach Based on the assumption that an inter-personally congenial team functions more effectively, the inter-personal approach encourages 'sharing of feelings, psychological support for one another, and non-evaluative communication' among team members (Argyris, 1966). Cooperation and

better understanding is obtained by developing mutual trust and confidence among group members. It helps in creating an environment where conflicts are effectively settled, problems solved efficiently, and decision making is based on group concordance. This increases the effectiveness and productivity of the team. The managerial grid model The managerial grid approach (Blake and Mouton, 1969) aims at productive and cohesive teamwork. It involves four steps. The first step is evaluation. Every team member evaluates their personal contribution and performance as well as that of others in the group. This process helps each member to identify what they are doing or not doing to make the team effective. In the second step, the understanding of group members concerning the team's functioning is deliberated and examined so as to identify the problems faced by the team. The third step is to eliminate unacceptable individual and team practices and to replace them with new behaviour and performance goals. The fourth step involves trying out new styles of team-work and individual behaviour to overcome problems being faced at that time. If these steps are successful, the usefulness of the new approaches is proven and will provide the group members with a model of how they can work together. Role model The role model concept is based on the assumption that 'role is a set of behaviour which an individual in a particular organizational position feels obliged to perform and which individuals in other organizational positions expect that person to perform' (Beer, 1976). Thus, a team is a chain of overlapping roles. Behaviour in a group can be understood in the context of how individuals understand their roles. If group members correctly perceive their role and the roles of other members, conflict and vagueness can be eliminated and efficiency increased. Many types of role and clarification meetings are used for developing effective teams. Components of team building There are three interlocking components in team building (Adair, 1987). They are: Developing the individual Individuals come to groups with their own needs. They work in groups to accomplish group tasks while simultaneously expecting that group membership will fulfil some of their individual needs. Task achievement This is the need to achieve something. It is the task on which the group is working. Building and maintaining the team The need to develop and sustain working relationships among members is necessary for the accomplishing of group tasks. This is the maintenance need of the group. Team management There are two approaches to managing a team effectively (Tarkenton and Tuleja, 1986). One is the traditional approach, based on an authoritarian style. The other is a democratic or participative approach.

The authoritarian style of team management relies on the manager being in full command. Involvement of group members in decision making is discouraged. The democratic or participative style of team management encourages group members to talk, express their opinions, and involves them in the decision making process and in problem solving. Through this process, group results are optimized. By relying more on task and achievement-orientation, an authoritarian-style manager can perhaps ensure obedience without motivation and involvement, but that would not generate the best performance in the long term, whereas a participative style usually promotes that. To promote team-work, a manager should act as an educator or a facilitator rather than as a dictator or autocratic boss. Team meetings Tarkenton and Tuleja (1986) have developed a 'team meeting' structure, consisting of six sequential steps: (i) Follow-up Every team meeting should conclude with some plan of action to implement the decisions made. Similarly, every team meeting should start by objectively reviewing progress in implementing the decisions approved in previous meetings. Follow-up action is necessary when planning and reviewing. (ii) Review of performance data The next step is to evaluate progress in team performance since the last meeting. This is done to ensure that the team is moving in the right direction. (iii) Reinforcement After reviewing the implementation or performance, a manager has to provide reinforcement. Obviously, positive reinforcements are given to those who have contributed to progress and performed well. Negative reinforcement is for those who fell short in their performance. In the team setting, positive reinforcement is effective in encouraging the good performer to continued with good, or even improved, performance. Simultaneously, it also motivates slow performers towards better efforts in the hope of receiving positive reinforcement later on, when they have improved their performance. A manager should use negative reinforcement only after exhausting other means. Initially, negative reinforcement should be mild so as not to demotivate poor performers. The aim should be to motivate towards better performance. Tarkenton and Tuleja (1986) observed that: behaviour resulting from positive reinforcement tends to continue, persist or even increase, behaviour that is re-motivated by negative consequences tends to deplete, and good behaviour which is not reinforced in any manner tends to decline over time. (iv) Problem solving During team meetings, appropriate reinforcement aims at solving problems so as to make group members more productive. An imaginative and creative problem-solving approach is crucial to good team performance. It provides an opportunity for positive interactions between team members and is helpful in increasing team productivity. (v) Planning action The next step in the team meeting process is to formulate an action plan and assign specific responsibilities to individual members of the group.

(vi) Communicating The last step of a team meeting is a brief discussion about the group's current and future concerns and progress. It strengthens team spirit. It simultaneously reassures team members that they are working jointly to achieve common goals. Improving team efficiency Some useful ways to improve team efficiency are considered below (Beer, 1976; Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986; Adair, 1987): (i) Influence the evolution of effective norms which a team adopts, and depending on managerial style, a manager can achieve this by defining standards, focusing on setting goals with the group, reinforcing goals when they are met, and recognizing good performance. Some important considerations (McGregor, 1960) in setting norms are noted below. The atmosphere in the group should be informal and relaxed. There should be provision for ample discussion regarding tasks, with each member participating in the discussion and expressing their views. Objectives should be clearly formulated and understood, and accepted by group members Members should listen to each other. They should be able to freely express their ideas and opinions, including those relating to group performance. Disagreements should be acknowledged and settled, rather than subdued. Most decisions should be arrived at through some form of concordance. Criticism should be frequent, but seldom personal. Responsibilities should be assigned clearly and without ambivalence. The team leader should not overshadow the team, and there should be no power struggle within the group. The group should be aware of its operation. (ii) Improve the efficiency of the team, and a manager can do this by efficiently organizing the work and securing the means necessary, including appropriate technology, resources, and supporting facilities. (iii) Ensure high skill levels. (iv) Ensure that pay, promotions and recognitions are related to team performance. The manager thus demonstrates to subordinates the value of team-work and the value attached to the contribution of individuals in team-work. (v) Provide intrinsic rewards, such as challenging work, clear responsibilities and autonomy in influencing work methods. The manager should ensure not only that jobs synchronize with the

interests of individual members, but also that they find the job easier in a team setting. For effective intrinsic group rewards, managers should define tasks completely, purposely and explicitly. A task should have an identifiable end point. Each group member should have skills required to complete these tasks. The team should have freedom in deciding on its working methods, planning and allocation of responsibilities to individual members.

Team building in agricultural research organizations

Increasing specialization in every field has led to the need for a multidisciplinary approach in research. This necessitates pooling of experience and knowledge of various fields to foster creativity and efficiency in a research team. Agricultural research organizations consist of a number of groups. These groups are important because they provide a stimulus for creativity and innovation. Through synergic effects, they help in tackling multidimensional and complex research problems which require collaborative inputs from several disciplines. Team research also puts limited resources to optimal use. It can result in total solutions covering different dimensions. Teams can be constituted either vertically or horizontally. Vertically formed teams are based on fields of production. Horizontal teams comprise departments based on disciplines. The size and skills of a team should be based on the problem to be solved and its magnitude. A research manager has to consider the relative merits and drawbacks of alternative approaches in forming the team so as to provide the required capabilities for realizing the goals set by the organization. The research manager has a crucial role in facilitating smooth, effective and efficient functioning of the team which includes highly skilled scientists. The manager has to satisfy both individual and organizational needs through appropriate managerial interventions and reinforcements. The effective and efficient functioning of a team can be facilitated if the objectives of the team are jointly decided and tasks clearly specified. In research organizations, human factors play a proportionally greater role than in other organizations. A research organization can be effective only if the special human needs of scientists are satisfied. In general in agricultural research organizations, it is desirable to attain a suitable blend of both vertical and horizontal elements in teams. Examples of discipline-based horizontal teams are: soil chemistry, soil physics, soil pedology, crop genetics and plant breeding, plant physiology, plant pathology, irrigation and salinity, animal physiology, agricultural engineering, agricultural economics, food technology or entomology. Teams based on production lines (vertical) are: field crops, vegetable crops, horticulture, forestry, animal husbandry or poultry. In some organizations, team building may influence individual freedom and creativity, but not so in an agricultural research organization, where problem solving generally requires inputs from various disciplines. Research problems are jointly discussed by those constituting the team, i.e., the scientists of the various disciplines. On the basis of such discussion, goals are decided. The individual contribution of each scientist is also discussed and planned. Every scientist then has the freedom to plan their work independently. However, the scientists meet periodically to exchange experiences, discuss problems and review progress.

References
Adair, J. 1987. Effective Team Building. Vermont: Gower Publishing.

Argyris, C. 1966. Inter-personal barriers to decision making. Harvard Business Review, 44: 8497. Beer, M. 1976. The technology of organization development. pp. 937-993, in: Dunned, M.D. (ed) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Chicago IL: Rand McNally. Blake, R.R., & Mouton, J.S. 1969. Building a Dynamic Corporation through Grid Organization Development. Reading AM: Addison Wesley. Kormanski, C., & Mozenter, A. 1987. A new model of team building: a technology for today and tomorrow. The Annual Conference: Developing Human Resources. La Jolla CA: University Associates. McGregor, D. 1960. The Human Side of Enterprise. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Shaw, M.E. 1981 Group Dynamics: The Psychology of Small Group Behaviour. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Tarkenton, F., & Tuleja, T. 1986. How to Motivate People: The Team Strategy for Success. New York, NY: Harper and Row. Tosi, H.L., Rizzo, J.R., & Carroll, S.J. 1986. Managing Organizational Behaviour. New York, NY: Pitman. Woodcock, M. 1986. Team Development Manual. Aldershot: Gower Press.

Session 3. Team building

Session guide: Team building Reading note: Team building

DATE TIME FORMAT Plenary participatory lecture TRAINER

OBJECTIVES At the end of this session, participants should be able to understand and appreciate: 1. The concept and importance of team building. 2. Factors which influence group formation, dynamics, influence and cohesion. 3. Team building: conditions necessary for; stages in; and theoretical approaches. 4. Team building and management in agricultural research organizations.

INSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Exhibit 1 Exhibit 2 Exhibit 3 Exhibit 4 Exhibit 5 Exhibit 6 Exhibit 7. Exhibit 8 Exhibit 9 Exhibit 10 Exhibit 11 Exhibit 12 Exhibit 13 Team building Group Factors influencing behaviour Factors influencing group cohesion Increasing group cohesiveness Encouraging work groups Conditions necessary for building a team Stages in team building Approaches to team building Components of team building Team management Team meeting structure Improving team efficiency

REQUIRED READING Reading note: Team Building.

BACKGROUND READING None. SPECIAL EQUIPMENT AND AIDS Overhead projector and chalkboard

Session guide: Team building

Initiate discussion by asking participants "What is a team?" Why should a team be formed, particularly in a research institution? Show EXHIBIT 1 and discuss the concept of team building. A team is collection of people who interact with each other regularly and are dependent on each other for attainment of common goals. A team brings together people with different expertise and thus enables application of specialized knowledge in solving problems. Team building helps in improving organizational effectiveness and efficiency. Elicit examples of various teams in the organizations to which the participants belong, and enquire what functions the teams perform. Ask "Are they effective?" If so, in what way? Groups and group dynamics underlie the concept of team building and management. Show EXHIBIT 2 and discuss important considerations which influence group formation. These are: personal characteristics, interest and goals, influence, opportunity for interaction, and other related factors. Continue referring to EXHIBIT 2 and discuss the concept of group dynamics and group influence. Now discuss behaviour (EXHIBIT 3). The important factors which lead to variations in behaviour are compliance, identification, internalization and social facilitation. Ask participants why people differ in their natural tendency to help others. Discuss and distinguish between cooperation and competition. Group cohesion is important in bringing members together towards a common goal and generating team spirit. Show EXHIBIT 4 and 5, and discuss factors which could enhance group cohesion, and ways and means of improving it. Show EXHIBIT 6 and discuss steps in fostering group productivity, satisfaction, cohesion and learning, which together encourage work groups. Now start discussing team building and management issues. To begin with, ask participants how teams are useful in achieving organizational goals. What are the conditions necessary when building a team? Show EXHIBIT 7 and discuss these conditions. Encourage participants to share their experience with respect to each of these conditions. Various stages in the team-building process are forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning. Show EXHIBIT 8 and briefly discuss each of these stages. There are many approaches to team building. Some time could be devoted to a discussion of each of these approaches, as illustrated in EXHIBIT 9. Observe that goal setting creates commitment and a feeling of involvement. The inter-personal approach develops mutual trust

and confidence among group members, and creates an environment where decision making involves group consensus, problems being solved efficiently, and conflicts resolved easily. The managerial grid approach aims at productive and cohesive team-work and involves four steps. The role model considers 'team' as a series of overlapping roles. The components of team building are: developing the individual, achievement of the task, and building and maintaining the team. Show EXHIBIT 10 and discuss each of these components and how they interlock with each other. Now initiate discussion on team management. Team management could be either authoritarian or democratic. Authoritarian styles are task and achievement oriented, while democratic styles use a participative approach. Show EXHIBIT 11 and discuss the two styles briefly. Discuss the six sequential team meeting steps (EXHIBIT 12). Participants could be asked whether, in their experience, team meetings are along those lines, or otherwise. There are methods available for managing teams efficiently and effectively. Show EXHIBIT 13 and discuss these methods. They include setting effective norms, providing the necessary technology, ensuring high skill levels, and providing effective extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. The session could be concluded by a brief discussion of team building and management in research organizations, and increasing trends in this direction. Team building is essential for multidisciplinary research. EXHIBIT 1 TEAM BUILDING A team is a collection of people who interact with each other regularly and are dependent on each other for the attainment of common goals. Team building removes hindrances and enhances organizational effectiveness and efficiency. The key elements of a team are goal sharing, interdependence, commitment and accountability. Source: Shaw, 1981. EXHIBIT 2 GROUP
Definition Two or more people who interact and influence one another Formation Personal characteristics Interests and goals Influence Opportunity for interaction Other factors Group dynamics

How group members are influenced Factors in helping, cooperating and competing Group cohesion and satisfaction, and productivity of group members Maintaining external linkages Increasing effectiveness of task groups Group influence

Source: Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986. EXHIBIT 3 FACTORS INFLUENCING BEHAVIOUR
Compliance Identification Internalization Social facilitation

Source: Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986. EXHIBIT 4 FACTORS ENHANCING GROUP COHESION
group formation factors group development factors difficulty of entry status congruence reward allocation success stability of membership external threat group size

Source: Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986. EXHIBIT 5 INCREASING GROUP COHESIVENESS
communicating with the subordinates as a group emphasizing and promoting competition with other groups rewarding cooperation managing conflicting within the group setting achievement goals for the group rather than for individuals treating everyone equitably and not playing favourites encouraging social interaction among group members

Source: Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986. EXHIBIT 6 ENCOURAGING WORK GROUPS
treat employees as social beings and not as mere numbers establish a manageable group size encourage group members to select the other members whenever possible assist groups to develop and mature

 encourage group productivity norms deal with group situations where cohesion is based on norms harmful to the organization support groups to develop good productivity goals, encouraging participation of individual members cautious use of competition to encourage group productivity provide opportunities for success

Source: Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986. EXHIBIT 7 CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR TEAM BUILDING
clear objectives and agreed goals openness and confrontation support and trust cooperation and conflict sound procedures appropriate leadership regular review individual development sound intergroup relations

Source: Woodcock, 1986. EXHIBIT 8 STAGES IN TEAM BUILDING

Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning

Sources: Adair, 1987; Kormanski and Mozenter, 1987. EXHIBIT 9 APPROACHES TO TEAM BUILDING
Goal-setting approach Inter-personal approach Managerial grid model - Self-evaluation - Perceptions about mode of functioning - New behaviour and performance goals - New styles of team-work - Individual behaviour Role model

Sources: Beer, 1976; Argyris, 1966; Blake and Mouton, 1969. EXHIBIT 10 COMPONENTS OF TEAM BUILDING
Developing the individual

Achievement of the task Building and maintaining the team

Source: Adair, 1987. EXHIBIT 11 TEAM MANAGEMENT

Authoritarian style vs Democratic or participative style

Source: Tarkenton and Tuleja, 1986. EXHIBIT 12 TEAM MEETING STRUCTURE

Follow up Review performance data Reinforce Solve problems Plan action Communicate

Source: Tarkenton and Tuleja, 1986. EXHIBIT 13 IMPROVING TEAM EFFICIENCY

Set effective norms Informal and relaxed atmosphere Participative discussion regarding tasks Clear understanding and acceptance of objectives Free expression and tolerance of other's views Recognition and resolution of disagreements Decision making by consensus Criticism frequent but not personal Clear responsibilities No dominance of team leader and no power struggle Self-awareness of group about its operations Provide the necessary technology Ensure high skill levels Provide effective extrinsic rewards Meaningful, clearly defined tasks with identifiable ends Each member skilled in completing the job Autonomy in working methods, planning and assignment of responsibilities in the group

Source: Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986.

Reading note: Team building

Groups Teams Team building in agricultural research organizations References

Team building is an approach towards enhancing organizational effectiveness and proficiency. A team is 'a collection of people who interact with each other regularly and are dependent on each other for the attainment of common goals.' The objective of team development is the removal of impediments to improving group effectiveness. The key elements of a team are goal sharing, interdependence, commitment and accountability.

Groups
A clear understanding of groups and their formation and dynamics is essential before discussing team building and management. 'Group' is defined as consisting of two or more people who interact and influence one another (Shaw, 1981). According to their numerical size, groups can be dyads (group of two members), triads (group of three), small (four to nine members) or large (ten or more). Group formation Important variables (Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986) which influence group formation include: Personal characteristics, which include shared beliefs, values, attitudes, security needs and affiliation needs. Interests and goals in common. Influence, since a group can exert more power and influence to get proper attention and action. Opportunity for interaction, which helps in developing affinities and relationships. Other factors are similar functional departments, cooperative physical activities, intellectual pursuits, emotional needs or protection, and attention and friendship. Group dynamics Understanding group dynamics is essential for a manager in order to encourage effective teamwork. Group dynamics can be understood by exploring (Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986): how group members are influenced, factors in helping, cooperating and competing, the way group cohesion relates to satisfaction and productivity of group members, maintaining external linkages, and how to make task groups more effective.

Group influence The process of influence and obedience in groups is important for group dynamics. How people influence each other in a group is the process of group influence. This process prevails in all types of human interaction and interdependence. Obedience or conformity involves direct influence of the group on the behaviour of individuals such that their behaviour outside the group will be different. Behaviour People differ in their vulnerability to pressures, yet most people can be influenced to behave in a particular manner. Compliance, identification, internalization and social facilitation are some of the important factors which could play a crucial role in influencing people to behave differently. Compliance is when people agree in spite of their own beliefs and preferences. This is obedience. Identification refers to agreements when people respect or are attracted to others. Internalization refers to the change in behaviour manifested when people accept requests or orders because either they are consistent with their own beliefs and values or they expect the desired behaviour to be rewarding to them. Social facilitation occurs as a result of the influence exerted by the mere presence of someone. Helping behaviour People's penchant to help others differ. Some people care, and are willing to take more risk to help others. There are several factors that reduce or facilitate helping, and they can be important to the success of a group or organization. Cooperation and competition are also crucial for an organization. Cooperation is more than mere helping: it encompasses giving support to others and contributing time and effort in situations where people can work together towards the same goals. In competition, people are more concerned with personal or group interests. Group cohesion Group cohesion refers to the degree to which group members are attracted to each other and to group membership. Cohesiveness brings group members towards a common goal and creates team spirit. According to Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll (1986), some of the important factors which can enhance group cohesion concern: group formation, group development, difficulty of entry, status congruence, reward allocation,

 success, stability of membership, external threat, and group size. A manager can boost group cohesion by: communicating with the subordinates as a group, emphasizing and promoting competition with other groups, rewarding cooperation, managing conflict situations within the group, setting achievement goals for the group rather than for individuals, treating everyone in the group equitably without favouritism, and encouraging social interaction among group members. External linkages A group comprises members representing various areas, skills or backgrounds. Good, balanced representation can facilitate acceptance of a group's work. Encouraging work groups Group efficiency and effectiveness can be increased by fostering group productivity, satisfaction, cohesion and learning. This can be achieved by various measures, including (Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986): Treating employees as social beings and not as mere numbers. Taking care when establishing group size so as to establish neither too small nor too large a group. Encouraging group members to select other members whenever possible. This improves interpersonal relations in the group, which in turn generates cohesion and cooperation. Supporting groups to develop and mature. It helps in settling tensions and other difficulties in the group. Encouraging group productivity norms in congruence with organizational goals. Dealing with group situations where cohesion is based on norms that are harmful to the organization. Supporting groups to develop good productivity goals. Encouraging participation of individual members' in the group task so as to avoid the ill effects of social loafing. Social loafing occurs when in a group an individual does not do his share of work, expecting that the work will get done anyway since other members of the group are working towards the same goal. Exercising care and discretion in utilizing competition to encourage group productivity.

 Providing groups with opportunities for success.

Teams
A team can make important contributions to the development of the organization, wield strong influence on individual work attitudes and behaviour, and gain the commitment of its members by being participative and consequently facilitating implementation. Building a team The building blocks of effective teams, as identified by Woodcock (1986) are: clear objectives and agreed goals, openness and confrontation, support and trust, cooperation and conflict, sound procedures, appropriate leadership, regular review, individual development, and sound intergroup relations. Stages in team building To make teams efficient and effective, a research manager should use: managing talents to successfully guide teams through various stages of development, and leading skills, which would kindle team members to achieve their full potential at every stage of team development. There are five sequential steps involved in the team building process (Kormanski and Mozenter, 1987; Adair, 1987): (i) Forming refers to awareness. During this stage, team members are oriented, become committed, and then accept the goals and programmes. (ii) Storming refers to resolution and development of a feeling of belonging. (iii) Norming refers to cooperation and collaboration in which communication is promoted. This results in a feeling of enticement and support. (iv) Performing refers to productivity. During this stage problems are solved and interdependence fostered, which results in achievements.

(v) Adjourning refers to separation. This does not occur if the previous four stages have been successful, with no problems encountered. Approaches to team building There are several approaches to team building, with differing degrees of group participation, self-examination, problem confrontation and goal setting. Any of these approaches can be used for team development. A manager can also blend and integrate different approaches, depending upon situational requirements. Goal-setting approach The goal-setting approach (Beer, 1976) is based on the assumption that a goal influences not only individual and group behaviour but also direction, coordination and extent of group efforts. If problems of the group are identified through interviews with group members, they can be handled by group solutions. Based on these solutions, the group could set goals. Goal setting creates commitment and a feeling of involvement. The inter-personal approach Based on the assumption that an inter-personally congenial team functions more effectively, the inter-personal approach encourages 'sharing of feelings, psychological support for one another, and non-evaluative communication' among team members (Argyris, 1966). Cooperation and better understanding is obtained by developing mutual trust and confidence among group members. It helps in creating an environment where conflicts are effectively settled, problems solved efficiently, and decision making is based on group concordance. This increases the effectiveness and productivity of the team. The managerial grid model The managerial grid approach (Blake and Mouton, 1969) aims at productive and cohesive teamwork. It involves four steps. The first step is evaluation. Every team member evaluates their personal contribution and performance as well as that of others in the group. This process helps each member to identify what they are doing or not doing to make the team effective. In the second step, the understanding of group members concerning the team's functioning is deliberated and examined so as to identify the problems faced by the team. The third step is to eliminate unacceptable individual and team practices and to replace them with new behaviour and performance goals. The fourth step involves trying out new styles of team-work and individual behaviour to overcome problems being faced at that time. If these steps are successful, the usefulness of the new approaches is proven and will provide the group members with a model of how they can work together. Role model The role model concept is based on the assumption that 'role is a set of behaviour which an individual in a particular organizational position feels obliged to perform and which individuals in other organizational positions expect that person to perform' (Beer, 1976). Thus, a team is a chain of overlapping roles. Behaviour in a group can be understood in the context of how individuals understand their roles. If group members correctly perceive their role and the roles of

other members, conflict and vagueness can be eliminated and efficiency increased. Many types of role and clarification meetings are used for developing effective teams. Components of team building There are three interlocking components in team building (Adair, 1987). They are: Developing the individual Individuals come to groups with their own needs. They work in groups to accomplish group tasks while simultaneously expecting that group membership will fulfil some of their individual needs. Task achievement This is the need to achieve something. It is the task on which the group is working. Building and maintaining the team The need to develop and sustain working relationships among members is necessary for the accomplishing of group tasks. This is the maintenance need of the group. Team management There are two approaches to managing a team effectively (Tarkenton and Tuleja, 1986). One is the traditional approach, based on an authoritarian style. The other is a democratic or participative approach. The authoritarian style of team management relies on the manager being in full command. Involvement of group members in decision making is discouraged. The democratic or participative style of team management encourages group members to talk, express their opinions, and involves them in the decision making process and in problem solving. Through this process, group results are optimized. By relying more on task and achievement-orientation, an authoritarian-style manager can perhaps ensure obedience without motivation and involvement, but that would not generate the best performance in the long term, whereas a participative style usually promotes that. To promote team-work, a manager should act as an educator or a facilitator rather than as a dictator or autocratic boss. Team meetings Tarkenton and Tuleja (1986) have developed a 'team meeting' structure, consisting of six sequential steps: (i) Follow-up Every team meeting should conclude with some plan of action to implement the decisions made. Similarly, every team meeting should start by objectively reviewing progress in implementing the decisions approved in previous meetings. Follow-up action is necessary when planning and reviewing. (ii) Review of performance data The next step is to evaluate progress in team performance since the last meeting. This is done to ensure that the team is moving in the right direction.

(iii) Reinforcement After reviewing the implementation or performance, a manager has to provide reinforcement. Obviously, positive reinforcements are given to those who have contributed to progress and performed well. Negative reinforcement is for those who fell short in their performance. In the team setting, positive reinforcement is effective in encouraging the good performer to continued with good, or even improved, performance. Simultaneously, it also motivates slow performers towards better efforts in the hope of receiving positive reinforcement later on, when they have improved their performance. A manager should use negative reinforcement only after exhausting other means. Initially, negative reinforcement should be mild so as not to demotivate poor performers. The aim should be to motivate towards better performance. Tarkenton and Tuleja (1986) observed that: behaviour resulting from positive reinforcement tends to continue, persist or even increase, behaviour that is re-motivated by negative consequences tends to deplete, and good behaviour which is not reinforced in any manner tends to decline over time. (iv) Problem solving During team meetings, appropriate reinforcement aims at solving problems so as to make group members more productive. An imaginative and creative problem-solving approach is crucial to good team performance. It provides an opportunity for positive interactions between team members and is helpful in increasing team productivity. (v) Planning action The next step in the team meeting process is to formulate an action plan and assign specific responsibilities to individual members of the group. (vi) Communicating The last step of a team meeting is a brief discussion about the group's current and future concerns and progress. It strengthens team spirit. It simultaneously reassures team members that they are working jointly to achieve common goals. Improving team efficiency Some useful ways to improve team efficiency are considered below (Beer, 1976; Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll, 1986; Adair, 1987): (i) Influence the evolution of effective norms which a team adopts, and depending on managerial style, a manager can achieve this by defining standards, focusing on setting goals with the group, reinforcing goals when they are met, and recognizing good performance. Some important considerations (McGregor, 1960) in setting norms are noted below. The atmosphere in the group should be informal and relaxed. There should be provision for ample discussion regarding tasks, with each member participating in the discussion and expressing their views. Objectives should be clearly formulated and understood, and accepted by group members Members should listen to each other. They should be able to freely express their ideas and opinions, including those relating to group performance. Disagreements should be acknowledged and settled, rather than subdued. Most decisions should be arrived at through some form of concordance.

 Criticism should be frequent, but seldom personal. Responsibilities should be assigned clearly and without ambivalence. The team leader should not overshadow the team, and there should be no power struggle within the group. The group should be aware of its operation. (ii) Improve the efficiency of the team, and a manager can do this by efficiently organizing the work and securing the means necessary, including appropriate technology, resources, and supporting facilities. (iii) Ensure high skill levels. (iv) Ensure that pay, promotions and recognitions are related to team performance. The manager thus demonstrates to subordinates the value of team-work and the value attached to the contribution of individuals in team-work. (v) Provide intrinsic rewards, such as challenging work, clear responsibilities and autonomy in influencing work methods. The manager should ensure not only that jobs synchronize with the interests of individual members, but also that they find the job easier in a team setting. For effective intrinsic group rewards, managers should define tasks completely, purposely and explicitly. A task should have an identifiable end point. Each group member should have skills required to complete these tasks. The team should have freedom in deciding on its working methods, planning and allocation of responsibilities to individual members.

Team building in agricultural research organizations

Increasing specialization in every field has led to the need for a multidisciplinary approach in research. This necessitates pooling of experience and knowledge of various fields to foster creativity and efficiency in a research team. Agricultural research organizations consist of a number of groups. These groups are important because they provide a stimulus for creativity and innovation. Through synergic effects, they help in tackling multidimensional and complex research problems which require collaborative inputs from several disciplines. Team research also puts limited resources to optimal use. It can result in total solutions covering different dimensions. Teams can be constituted either vertically or horizontally. Vertically formed teams are based on fields of production. Horizontal teams comprise departments based on disciplines. The size and skills of a team should be based on the problem to be solved and its magnitude. A research manager has to consider the relative merits and drawbacks of alternative approaches in forming the team so as to provide the required capabilities for realizing the goals set by the organization. The research manager has a crucial role in facilitating smooth, effective and efficient functioning of the team which includes highly skilled scientists. The manager has to satisfy both individual and organizational needs through appropriate managerial interventions and reinforcements. The effective and efficient functioning of a team can be facilitated if the objectives of the team are jointly decided and tasks clearly specified. In research organizations, human factors play a

proportionally greater role than in other organizations. A research organization can be effective only if the special human needs of scientists are satisfied. In general in agricultural research organizations, it is desirable to attain a suitable blend of both vertical and horizontal elements in teams. Examples of discipline-based horizontal teams are: soil chemistry, soil physics, soil pedology, crop genetics and plant breeding, plant physiology, plant pathology, irrigation and salinity, animal physiology, agricultural engineering, agricultural economics, food technology or entomology. Teams based on production lines (vertical) are: field crops, vegetable crops, horticulture, forestry, animal husbandry or poultry. In some organizations, team building may influence individual freedom and creativity, but not so in an agricultural research organization, where problem solving generally requires inputs from various disciplines. Research problems are jointly discussed by those constituting the team, i.e., the scientists of the various disciplines. On the basis of such discussion, goals are decided. The individual contribution of each scientist is also discussed and planned. Every scientist then has the freedom to plan their work independently. However, the scientists meet periodically to exchange experiences, discuss problems and review progress.

References
Adair, J. 1987. Effective Team Building. Vermont: Gower Publishing. Argyris, C. 1966. Inter-personal barriers to decision making. Harvard Business Review, 44: 8497. Beer, M. 1976. The technology of organization development. pp. 937-993, in: Dunned, M.D. (ed) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Chicago IL: Rand McNally. Blake, R.R., & Mouton, J.S. 1969. Building a Dynamic Corporation through Grid Organization Development. Reading AM: Addison Wesley. Kormanski, C., & Mozenter, A. 1987. A new model of team building: a technology for today and tomorrow. The Annual Conference: Developing Human Resources. La Jolla CA: University Associates. McGregor, D. 1960. The Human Side of Enterprise. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Shaw, M.E. 1981 Group Dynamics: The Psychology of Small Group Behaviour. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Tarkenton, F., & Tuleja, T. 1986. How to Motivate People: The Team Strategy for Success. New York, NY: Harper and Row. Tosi, H.L., Rizzo, J.R., & Carroll, S.J. 1986. Managing Organizational Behaviour. New York, NY: Pitman. Woodcock, M. 1986. Team Development Manual. Aldershot: Gower Press.

Team Effectiveness - 5 Factors to Manage

To improve a team's effectiveness, it is first necessary to understand the factors that impact its performance. Once you understand these factors you can determine when and what team development is needed. In order for teams to function effectively they must manage how they work together and how they interact with the rest of the organization. As a result of his studies, Richard Beckhard ("Optimising Team Building Efforts", Journal of Contemporary Business, Summer 1972) states that for teams to be effective they must manage four areas internal to the team: goals, roles, processes and relationships. Further research has identified a fifth factor impacting performance: how the team manages its interaction with the organisational environment. Within these factors is a hierarchy with some factors affecting all of the others. These five factors become the focus of attention for the manager who wants to raise team performance, because teams that effectively manage these areas function more effectively than teams that do not. Environmental Influences - the impact of the organisation and the outside world on team performance. The organisation creates the context within which the team functions. The policies, procedures and systems within an organisation can either support or hinder a team's effectiveness. An excellent example is the impact an organisation's reward system has on teamwork. Organisations typically reward only individual contribution. Few organizations have found ways to reward teams. Signs to look for: The team is physically distant, not given enough resources to do the job, individuals are not recognized for team effort. Goals - what the team is to accomplish A team exists when members have responsibility for accomplishing a common goal. An effective team is aware of and manages: 1. The extent to which goals are clear, understood and communicated to all members 2. The amount of ownership of team goals 3. The extent to which goals are defined, quantified and deliverable 4. The extent to which goals are shared or congruent 5. The extent of goal conflict or divergence Signs to look for: The goals are unclear or not communicated, everyone is doing

their own thing and not participating in goal setting. Roles - who does what on the team Do all members understand what they and others are to do to accomplish the task? Do they know their individual responsibilities and limits of authority? In new teams time should be spent discussing and defining roles and responsibilities. As the team develops it is typical for individuals to build expectations and assumptions of others which are seldom recorded anywhere. These should be discussed and agreed upon. Conflict may occur as a result of differing expectations among team members. Overlapping roles can create conflict, especially when two or more team members see themselves as responsible for the same task. Signs to look for: Responsibilities are poorly defined, there is a power vacuum, members act independently and avoid responsibility. Work Processes - how members work together Once team members know what they are to do and who is to do it, they must determine how they will work together. Typical considerations are: Decision making - how will each of the team members participate in decision making. Communication - what should be communicated within the team, to whom, by what method, when and how frequently? Meetings - what is the team trying to accomplish, what subjects are to be covered, who is responsible for the subject, how will the meeting be conducted, who should attend? Leadership style - the leader and the team need to agree the best style to meet the situation and the leader should be open to receiving feedback on their style. Signs to look for: Meetings are unproductive or poorly attended, decision making is dominated by one or two people, actions taken without planning or communication is one way. Relationships - the quality of interaction among team members As team members work together, relationships often become strained. Members need ways to resolve problems and to assure that a good working relationship continues. Sometimes relationship problems occur because of a difference in values or a personality or management style clash. Managers may need to take an active role in soothing relationships during times of conflict. The more energy that is siphoned off because of bad feelings, attitudes or strong emotions, the less energy is available for the team's task. Signs to look for: Personality conflicts, or members are defensive or competitive. Team development is a process aimed at improving team performance in any one or all of the five factors in the team hierarchy. After examining your team's performance in these areas, your role as a manager is to identify where your focus for team development needs to be. Pam Kennett is Founder and Director of Chiswick Consulting Limited a management consultancy which provides advice and direction to clients in

marketing and human resources. Pam has more than 20 years experience working with teams and leadership groups to raise performance. Contact her at pam@chiswickconsulting.com or visit http://www.chiswickconsulting.com .

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Team Building, Collaboration and Communication

Why, What, How?
Building a good team is the single most important thing a Project Manager can do to achieve a successful project. With the right attitude, a team will overcome almost any difficulty to succeed in its goals. In most projects there will be times when only the determination of the team can overcome the difficulties and carry the initiative through to success. Even when there is no pressure, the team's spirit and enthusiasm will be reflected in the quality of the solution and the extent to which other people buy-in to it. There is a whole area of academic study and practical experience about building good teams. Business psychologists present many theories concerning the way in which people interact. A world-class Project Manager needs to be an amateur psychologist and a manipulator of human behaviour. Here are some of the factors which generally lead to a good team:

shared belief in the value and achievability of the team's goals, awareness of the value of the individual's own role and contribution, recognition of the value of other team members (whether they are key specialists or just non-specialist, junior assistants), desire to work collaboratively, sharing thoughts, ideas, concerns, etc, friendship - enjoying working together with a common purpose, supporting each other in recognition that the team's success requires all members to be successful, coaching junior members rather than bossing them, listening to ideas and advice from other team members, making time to communicate with other team members, celebrating successes, rewarding good team behaviour in financial and non-financial ways.

To achieve this collaborative team style, the Project Manager usually needs to behave as one of the team - collaborative, supportive, friendly, etc. The Project Manager should be the best of friends with each team member to the extent that each participant would go to great lengths to help the project succeed. It is interesting to compare this project management style with the traditional view of the Project Manager. Often the best recognised Project Managers are those who make a lot of noise, bang the table, make snap judgements, are tough with their people, "crack the whip" and generally

drive people to perform through the exercise of power. These behaviours are very visible and it is common to find managers with this personal style do get recognised and promoted. A regime of terror can only succeed so far and for so long. There comes a point where the participants give up trying and no amount of pressure can persuade them to increase their contribution. Beyond that point, people will leave and the project will fail. Conversely, in a collaborative team the participants feel that the team's success is their own personal mission. They will respond ever more determinedly as the pressure rises. The Project Manager who has created an excellent team will find the team performing optimally with very little intervention. Herein lies the dilemma for a career-minded Project Manager. In good projects the Project Manager does not need to (and should not) exhibit dramatic, powerful, personal characteristics, but the organisation's leadership may be more likely to recognise the talents of a manager who creates a lot of noise. The reality is that a sensible balance achieves the best results:

reward vs punishment pleasure vs pain opportunity vs threat encouragement vs coercion The classic analogy is the donkey, motivated by the promise of a carrot and the threat of a beating with the stick. Most psychologists believe that the positive experience of the carrot is much more successful than the negative threat of the stick. They would argue that the stick should be applied only on rare occasions with good cause - or, maybe, never at all. The carrot should be offered as a constant reward for performance. A similar balance should be achieved between the stimulus generated by the availability of opportunities versus the instinctive survival reaction to threats. The best compromise can sometimes be achieved by people taking on different "good guy" and "bad guy" roles. Think about the "headteacher sanction". In a school class, children should be exposed for most of their time to a friendly, helpful, collaborative teacher. If they behave badly, it is unwise to damage the teacher-student

relationship so the threat of pain and punishment takes the form of a trip to the headteacher. If you apply this logic to a hierarchical structure, the conclusion is that each person more than one level from the bottom needs to be a friendly, collaborative, supportive mentor to their immediate subordinates, but a tough, demanding figure in the eyes of those below. Each manager needs to be able to play both roles. Human behaviour is driven by a combination of many factors - some controllable, some not. The inherent nature of each individual is something the Project Manager can do little about. The way participants are assigned to roles and sub-teams can be controlled. In an extreme case, the Project Manager might choose not to use a given individual if their character would not fit in. Look for a good balance of personalities as well as skills when building the sub-teams and the working relationships within the Project Team. This is an area where considerable psychological research has been performed - many publications and training programmes are available.

Building a collaborative team But who said teams need to be hierarchical? Within a team you will find a mixture of different people with different assignments - but that does not necessarily require a hierarchy. The best team cultures develop where team members recognise that everyone else also has important value to contribute. For each issue someone needs to be the recognised leader; someone has to believe it is their responsibility to drive an issue otherwise it may become forgotten. For each issue there will be a sub-set of people most appropriate to make contributions. "Appropriate", here, means a combination of capability, resource scheduling/availability, and the need to build a good team. The team structure that develops (either formally or informally) will be flexible such that the right people work together for any given topic. It also means that a leader for one issue might be only a contributor for another - and vice versa. A can be B's "boss" in some aspects of the teamwork, but B might be A's boss in others.

In this example, see how the Applications Development Team Leader is an important contributor to the Solutions Architecture Team and also to the overall project leadership team. In fact, all the leaders can be a leader in one context but a contributor in others. If we expand this thinking, it is possible to generate a highly collaborative team where every member has at least one issue to lead upon. In this table, we see how the Project Manager has assigned staff to the various issues. Even the most junior team member, Pat Sapphire, has a team leader role to play - Pat is responsible for organising the team's social events. Notice how Jude Jade, the Change Management leader, works for Jo Green as part of the Solutions Architecture Team, but Jo defers to Jude when dealing with Change Management issues. By respecting the specialist skills, roles and responsibilities of other team members, a strong, collaborative team spirit can be created - each person recognising the value of others and the value of working as a team. It is a good idea to give everyone responsibility for some aspect, major or minor, of the overall success of the project.

Planning for a first-class team

You might be able to build a good, effective team based on your own instinct and personality. If, however, you apply your wisdom you will realise you need to plan your approach in advance of building the team. Team-building considerations will impact your decisions on such things as:

budget, team structure, reward mechanisms (bonuses, payments, other incentives) assignments and usage of specific individuals,

mobilisation of resources, communications strategy, planned activities - events and regular meetings.

The project's sponsors should also understand the importance of building a good team. Make sure they support the measures and approaches you plan. For example, if you feel it would help to allow the team to wear jeans, work from home and have free drinks every Friday - you could get in a lot of trouble unless the senior leadership understand and agree. Routine activities and special events should be included in the overall high-level planning for the project and in the detailed plan for each phase.

Mobilising the team

You should begin to build an effective team culture as (or even before) the individuals join the project. This is a combination of attitude and specific actions. All people in leadership roles should make each individual feel a valued part of a team with a clear and important mission. Key message to convey to all team members are:

the objective of the project what the end result should look like why it is of value to the organisation what approach the project will take (focus areas, workstreams, timing, technology, techniques, etc) the style and culture the project team is expected to adopt why each individual's co-operation is vital and of great value.

There will also be a large number of specific things the team members need to understand, eg:

where they work, eat, get coffee, go to the toilet, park the car, run to when there is a fire, etc who they report to and how, what they have to do, where they find information, documentation, advice etc how they fill in timesheets, how they report issues, problems, bugs etc, what behavioural norms are expected (eg clothes, language, timekeeping, personal use of telephone, internet and other equipment or technology, etc) how to use specific software, hardware and other equipment.

Some of this can be conveyed to individuals personally as they arrive. To handle the bulk of the information you should prepare:

welcome packs containing information about the project and its modus operandi, team briefing sessions for batches of team members as they arrive, training sessions for any specific technologies being used - both for the project work or for the administration and control of the project.

Remember that the emphasis is to build a good team. The right attitude can be promoted throughout all these activities. In addition, you should plan appropriate formal and informal activities that build the desired attitudes and behaviours. In most cases, some form of team social event should be held early in the project. Informal social activities can also be planned - even where they are intended to look unplanned.

Team-building and social events Most Project Managers view activities involving alcohol as the easiest way to win over the hearts of the team members. Remember to be generous! There are many other options. You need to give careful thought to the desired team culture, the norms of the organisation, and the background of all team members. Please remember that just because you think a good fun night out involves a large amount of beer and loud dance music, it does not follow that all your team members would enjoy it. Avoid activities that only appeal to a sub-set of the team, eg go-kart racing, paint-ball battles, golf, opera, wine tasting, etc. If you organise such activities, make sure the next event appeals to a wholly different group. Be particularly careful to avoid developing a team culture where you socialise with a group of friends who regularly enjoy all your social activities but you find there are other people who never want to join in. What you are doing is dividing the team into your friends versus the people who do not share your interests. Here are some ideas:

Provide food and refreshments for team meetings

Particularly useful if you want to encourage people to attend inconvenient or unwelcome meetings. Used to be very common - but the damage you do to the progress of the project can be very visible. In general, it is best to reserve this for special celebrations. A majority of project team members may enjoy the socialising - even if they are not interested in drinking or staying late. Typically any such event appeals to a minority of the team. Try to

Lunchtime drinks and meals

Evening drinks, meals, etc

Clubs, dancing, theatre, etc

choose something which will be interesting to most and tolerable to everyone

Day trips

Often most effective if achieving a serious business goal as well as being fun. For example, take the team to an "away-day" at a pleasant location to hold an event such as a briefing, training, symposium, think-tank, etc. These activities are often the most popular, but there is a major risk that a significant part of the team will not enjoy such activities and feel annoyed that their interests are not being considered. Make sure there is appropriate insurance cover. These work well provided the style changes with each event. People will enjoy most novel activities once (and once only). Look for activities that anyone could enjoy previous experience not required.

"Macho" pursuits - eg go-karts, paint ball, abseiling, climbing, racing cars, driving off-road vehicles, parachuting, bungy jumping, etc

"Off the wall" fun - ie strange things you never thought you would do as an adult, eg murder mystery, quiz competitions, karaoke, trivial pursuits, ten pin bowling, badminton, sports day, pony trekking, etc

Community charity - eg clean up Usually excellent team-building a canal, paint the Boy Scout hut, activities that do good as well. coach at the local school, etc Somehow, the messier you get the better they seem to work. Charity events Again, good team builders provided a large number of people participate. Training can be fun as well as serving a more serious purpose. Investment in training also emphasises the importance and value you place on the team members. It works particularly well if several team members attend the training together. Gather together the team or subteams as appropriate for regular

Training courses

Training days

training or briefing sessions - say once a month. These are opportunities to convey general information and specific knowledge. They also provide an excellent opportunity for team building.

IMPORTANT WARNINGS Any activity that costs money or detracts from normal working time must be agreed by the project's sponsor and senior leadership. Observe any legal or cultural restrictions. What some nations, industries and organisations see as normal, desirable business behaviour can be seen by others as immoral, illegal or devious. Any activity outside normal working practices and/or locations may require special insurance.

Case Study A senior public sector IT manager was given a free place on a training course that was relevant to his work. He was dismissed for accepting the supplier's hospitality.

Team building, meetings and communication during the project

Events Team-building should continue throughout the project. As with the events during mobilisation, these would normally be a mixture of directly work-related activities, and other social, team building. Building good team spirit is not just a matter of organising entertainment for the team. As well as the special events, the routine work of a project typically gives rise to many opportunities for human interaction - meetings, informal discussions, chance encounters, written messages, etc. Each of these is an opportunity to enhance the effectiveness of the team by displaying the right attitude and saying the right things.

MBWA MBWA is a famous management theory - it means "Management By Walking About". What it means is that a good manager operates, at least in part, by getting out to see what the team is doing whether or not there is a specific reason to do so. It is very easy for a busy Project Manager to shut the door and concentrate on consolidating the plan or reviewing the deliverables. You must reserve enough time for direct interaction with the team. It should be a two-way, collaborative process. Here are some of the things you should be aiming to achieve:

motivate individuals and sub-teams promote the right attitudes and behaviours: team spirit, collaboration, sharing knowledge, focus, etc gain an improved understanding of the project: requirements, designs, quality, issues, progress, etc provide better guidance: steer thinking, suggest ways forward, intercept potential problems, coach individuals, etc.

Brownie points It may be possible to promote good team behaviour using recognition and reward mechanisms. In most organisations there will be some form of formal performance assessment and reward process. This would normally address the major objectives of the individual. The current project might, or might not, be one a significant factor in those objectives and/or the performance assessment. It may also be possible to introduce additional incentives directly relating to the project, for example, bonuses paid for beating deadlines. Formal reward processes usually focus on the individual's prime objectives. They are rarely able to promote good behaviour across all aspects of the work - to do so would require complex analysis of all desirable behaviours and a carefully constructed performance measurement system to balance the competing goals. The Project Manager may be able to find other ways to recognise, promote and reward good behaviour, particularly where it lies outside the individuals' main reward system. Recognition itself is very valuable in promoting good behaviour. Remembering to say "thank you" is the cheapest and easiest way to improve team performance. Make sure it sounds (and preferably is) genuine: "thank you, that was really useful". In the right situations, secondary recognition mechanisms can be administered by the Project Team. Where there are significant financial rewards involved, this must be done properly with the agreement of the project's sponsor and the overall organisation. It will normally be subject to

tax and legal requirements. It is also important to ensure that it is acceptable in the overall organisation and environment; for example, do people not working on the Project Team consider it unfair? One potential solution is to use rewards and recognition with no direct financial value. There does need to be some belief that the reward or recognition has value - but value can be established in many ways. For example:

Definitions Brownie a junior Girl Scout Brownie English colloquial expression: Point A recognition of merit which could seemingly be added to the individual's overall merit score, but which, in fact, has no real value so collecting them is equally pointless.

the Project Manager guarantees to communicate positive feedback to the individual's line management fun fantasy league table of sub-team or individual Brownie Point performance token gifts or treats (subject to whatever financial limits are appropriate in the environment) eg bottle of Champagne, shopping voucher, airline ticket bonus payments

A "Brownie Point" system, if it is to be taken seriously, needs to be administered by the Project Office. Members of the team at any level can nominate a colleague as deserving a number of Brownie Points for doing something special which contributed towards the success of the project. It could relate to the quality of the work, getting things done on time, the social life of the team, relationships with external parties, etc. You might also set up tariffs for specific actions you wish to encourage, for example, the submission of issues or completing timesheets on time. The nomination or submissions would be scrutinised by the Project Office to make sure it is genuine and appropriate. Individual scores feed into whichever for of reward mechanism is in operation.

Meetings Two common complaints from project teams are: "too many meetings" and "not enough communication". Senior management often react to the latter of these by organising more meetings. Let's distinguish between formal meetings and the gatherings of work groups. Some rules about formal meetings can be found in the Control and Reporting section.

The gathering together of people for the practicalities of working together is bound to involve a large number and wide range of meetings over the life of a project. In some cases, regular scheduling makes sense in order to overcome natural reluctance to communicate, to share knowledge, and, in particular, to admit to failings. Some people inevitably feel that any disturbance from their main task is unwelcome and/or unhelpful. Group members frequently dislike interaction with others outside that group. Here is a typical pattern of recurring Project Team meetings... Attendance Full Project Team Purpose Briefing, plenary session, and teambuilding social event Progress, issues, actions Frequency Approximately once a month, preferably coinciding with major milestones Weekly

Project leadership (PM plus team leaders) Team leader plus sub-team

Specific tasks, Daily progress, problems, estimates, help wanted

In other cases, meetings will be arranged around specific activities or issues and will involve only the people concerned. If you take another look at the picture of thecollaborative project team, you will see that there will be many different workgroup relationships and consequent needs to gather together the right people. Here is the ideal (but unachievable) mental picture of how the collaborative team works: At any instant I can share my thinking with precisely the right group of people - those who can help and those who benefit from understanding. The fundamental rule should be to get optimum value from people's time. Do not have meetings where the presence of certain attendees adds no value for a majority of the time - maybe separate meetings or approaches would work better. Do not waste time on routine matters that could effectively be conveyed in a more efficient way. Avoid the tendency to involve every possible person in every discussion - you will make more progress with a small number of the right people. It is not just a waste of time, resources and money. Wasting time at meetings often leads to cynicism, demotivation and a lack of confidence in the leaders.

Videoconferencing

Much productive time can be lost travelling to meetings. Face-to-face meetings usually provide the best channel for discussion, information exchange and relationship building. These benefits should be balanced against the lost productive time. In general a mixture of physical and virtual meetings provides the best compromise. Arranging telephone conferences should be simple. Most major organisations already have facilities available. Alternatively, the telephone service provider should be able to make the arrangements. There are two main styles of Videoconferencing: using specialist videoconference facilities or using desktop software from your PC. The ideal scenario is to be able to hook up with other participants through the network at any time without leaving your desk. Although this is technically feasible, relatively few organisations have the bandwidth and controls to operate it efficiently. The alternative is for attendees to gather at their nearest video conference suite (internally or externally - eg conference centres, press agencies). Two-way links are just dialled directly. Multiple link ups can be achieved through "bridges" - everyone connects to the bridge which combines and controls the multiple video and audio links. Here is a project meeting with participants at five locations in four different countries. Videoconference links are combined through a "bridge" provided by the external telecomms provider. Further participants are connected to the bridge through audio channels (ie normal telephone dial in).

As well as the videoconferencing, the participants are connected through the organisation's global network. They are able to:

view presentations share applications share text messages, diagrams etc

Non-verbal communication There will be a range of channels available for communication within the project team and with external participants. The objective is to share information, knowledge, thoughts, concerns, feelings, etc in the most efficient way. Remember that people often feel they have insufficient time to read all the written material that is sent to them - at least with face-to-face communication you can see that they can hear you (but not necessarily whether they are listening). Some of the uses and channels of communication would normally have been considered and agreed as part of a Communications Plan and, generally, as part of theChange Management process. This is particularly the case where communications are made to people outside the Project Team. Here are some tips... Channel EMail Commentary Undoubtedly the conveyor of most ad-hoc written messages. Not everyone reads all their mail, so make sure its content and importance is clear in the title. For those people who like to scan message previews, make sure the most important facts appear in the first few words (don't waste the first two lines with "Dear Fred" and a blank line). For important communications, track that recipients have read and/or responded as required. Real-time brief text messages exchanged between two or more participants. Can be very useful for brief exchanges. Provides instant check that the other person has read the message and responded. This works best if team members

PC / web chat services

have access to a directory of chat addresses for all project participants. If something important or relevant to others comes up, copy and paste the text into an EMail or document. Circulars There will be frequent needs to communicate messages to sub-sets of the Project Team - whether by paper, by EMail or by other methods. The Project Office would normally maintain circulation lists and other contact information. Make sure you communicate valuable information to people who need to know, otherwise your messages become resource-wasting junk mail.

Team newsletter Can be motivating, fun, informative, etc. The two main uses are to build team spirit and to communicate general information about the project. There is a danger that they achieve neither of these goals and become a waste of resources. Encourage people to read them with useful, valuable content - eg social calendar, bonus dates, competitions. Project newsletter This is primarily aimed at participants outside the team. The objective will be to raise awareness and support for the project. In the latter stages of the project, more specific information, instructions and schedules will be conveyed. The use of external communications should be agreed as part of the Change Management planning.

Project Website Many projects create a web site to hold a wide range of information that participants may wish to access. On the front page will be headline messages. Reference information would be accessible through indexes. Communication through this channel will be particularly effective if participants have to visit it - for example, if the (compulsory) timesheets are entered through the same portal. Documentation All projects generate great volumes of documentation, hopefully in a sharable electronic format. Easy, controlled access to the project documentation is the best way to enable communication of detailed information. Where there is something new or amended that particular team members need to be aware of, a process should be in place to draw their attention to it. Certain forms of communication are controlled through specific processes and media, for example timesheets,progress reports, change requests, issues, etc. See the specific guidance for these.

Formalised communication

Phase-end and project-end activities

Celebrating the completion of major phases of work or the overall project is an important element of team building. In some cases it might be argued that it is too late to affect outcome, but there are still good reasons to celebrate. A key element of building an effective team is to focus the group on their goal. The importance of the goal is reinforced by the idea that it is a cause for celebration and a time to applaud the team's achievements. This understanding will help to motivate and focus the group. It is an implicit promise that completion will be celebrated and a wise manager will not break a promise even if there is no reason to believe the same people will work together again in the future. Project celebrations are also a valuable tool in spreading the message of the project's success. To achieve a successful business solution, the organisation, senior leadership, end users, management and interested third parties all need to believe in its achievements, importance and relevance. As with any other team-building event, ensure that the plans and expenditure are appropriate and agreed.

Copyright Simon Wallace, 1999-2007