Chapter 2:

History of Management Thought What can be learned from classical management thinking? What insights come from behavioral management approaches? What are the foundations of modern management thinking?

Study Question 1: What can be learned from classical management thinking? Classical approaches to management include: Scientific management Administrative principles Bureaucratic organization

Figure 2.1 Major branches in the classical approach to management.

Scientific management (Frederick Taylor) Develop rules of motion, standardized work implements, and proper working conditions for every job. Carefully select workers with the right abilities for the job. Carefully train workers and provide proper incentives. Support workers by carefully planning their work and removing obstacles.

Scientific management (the Gilbreths) Motion study Science of reducing a job or task to its basic physical motions.

Eliminating wasted motions improves performance.

Practical lessons from scientific management Make results-based compensation a performance incentive Carefully design jobs with efficient work methods Carefully select workers with the abilities to do these jobs Train workers to perform jobs to the best of their abilities Train supervisors to support workers so they can perform jobs to the best of their abilities

Administrative principles (Henri Fayol) rules of management: Foresight to complete a plan of action for the future. Organization to provide and mobilize resources to implement the plan. Command to lead, select, and evaluate workers to get the best work toward the plan. Coordination to fit diverse efforts together and ensure information is shared and problems solved.

Control to make sure things happen according to plan and to take necessary corrective action Administrative principles (Henri Fayol) key principles of management: Scalar chain there should be a clear and unbroken line of communication from the top to the bottom of the organization. Unity of command each person should receive orders from only one boss. Unity of direction one person should be in charge of all activities with the same performance objective.

Bureaucratic organization (Max Weber) Bureaucracy An ideal, intentionally rational, and very efficient form of organization. Based on principles of logic, order, and legitimate authority.

Characteristics of bureaucratic organizations: Clear division of labor Clear hierarchy of authority Formal rules and procedures Impersonality Careers based on merit

Possible disadvantages of bureaucracy: Excessive paperwork or red tape Slowness in handling problems Rigidity in the face of shifting needs Resistance to change Employee apathy

Administrative principles (Mary Parker Follett) Groups and human cooperation: Groups are mechanisms through which individuals can combine their talents for a greater good. Organizations are cooperating communities of managers and workers.

Managers job is to help people in the organization cooperate and achieve an integration of interests.

Administrative principles (Mary Parker Follett)

Forward-looking management insights: Making every employee an owner creates a sense of collective

responsibility (precursor of employee ownership, profit sharing, and gainsharing) Business problems involve a variety of inter-related factors (precursor of systems thinking) Private profits relative to public good (precursor of managerial ethics and social responsibility) Figure 2.2 Foundations in the behavioral or human resource approaches to management

Study Question 2: What insights come from the behavioral management approaches? Behavioral Management - human resource approaches include: Hawthorne studies Maslows theory of human needs McGregors Theory X and Theory Y Argyriss theory of adult personality

Hawthorne studies Initial study examined how economic incentives and physical conditions affected worker output. No consistent relationship found. Psychological factors influenced results.

Hawthorne studies (cont.) Relay assembly test-room studies Manipulated physical work conditions to assess impact on output. Designed to minimize the psychological factors of previous experiment. Factors that accounted for increased productivity: Group atmosphere Participative supervision

Hawthorne studies (cont.) Relay assembly test-room studies Manipulated physical work conditions to assess impact on output. Designed to minimize the psychological factors of previous experiment. Factors that accounted for increased productivity: Group atmosphere Participative supervision

Hawthorne studies (cont.) Employee attitudes, interpersonal relations and group processes. Some things satisfied some workers but not others. People restricted output to adhere to group norms.

Lessons from the Hawthorne Studies: Social and human concerns are keys to productivity. Hawthorne effect people who are singled out for special attention perform as expected.

Maslows theory of human needs

A need is a physiological or psychological deficiency a person feels compelled to satisfy.

Need levels: Physiological Safety Social Esteem Self-actualization

Figure 2.3 Maslows hierarchy of human needs.

Maslows theory of human needs Deficit principle A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior. Progression principle

 A need becomes a motivator once the preceding lower-level need is satisfied. Both principles cease to operate at self-actualization level.

McGregors Theory X assumes that workers: Dislike work Lack ambition Are irresponsible Resist change Prefer to be led

McGregors Theory Y assumes that workers are: Willing to work Capable of self control Willing to accept responsibility Imaginative and creative Capable of self-direction

Implications of Theory X and Theory Y: Managers create self-fulfilling prophecies. Theory X managers create situations where workers become dependent and reluctant. Theory Y managers create situations where workers respond with initiative and high performance. Central to notions of empowerment and self-management.

Argyriss theory of adult personality Classical management principles and practices inhibit worker maturation and are

inconsistent with the mature adult personality. Management practices should accommodate the mature personality by: Increasing task responsibility Increasing task variety Using participative decision making Study Question 3: What are the foundations of modern management thinking? Foundations for continuing developments in management Systems view of organizations Contingency thinking Commitment to quality and performance Learning organizations

Management science or operations research The scientific applications of mathematical techniques to management problems Mathematical forecasting makes future projections useful for planning Inventory modeling controls inventories mathematically Linear programming calculates how to allocate scarce resources among competing uses

Management science or operations research Queuing theory allocates service personnel/workstations to minimize service cost and customer waiting time Network models break large tasks into smaller components for for better coordination Simulations create problem models to test different solutions

Operations management is the study of how organizations produce goods and services

Organizations as Systems System Collection of interrelated parts that function together to achieve a common purpose. Subsystem A smaller component of a larger system. Open systems Organizations that interact with their environments in the continual process of transforming resource inputs into outputs.

Figure 2.4 Organizations as complex networks of interacting subsystems.

Contingency thinking Tries to match managerial responses with problems and opportunities unique to different situations. Especially individual or environmental differences. No one best way to manage. Appropriate way to manage depends on the situation.

Quality and performance excellence Managers and workers in progressive organizations are quality conscious. Quality and competitive advantage are linked. Total quality management (TQM) Comprehensive approach to continuous quality improvement for a total organization. Creates context for the value chain.

Quality and performance excellence ISO certification Global quality benchmark. Refine and upgrade quality to meet ISO standards Continuous improvement Continual search for new ways to improve quality Something always can and should be improved on

Knowledge Management and Organizational Learning Knowledge management is the process of using intellectual capital for competitive advantage Portfolio of intellectual assets include patents, intellectual property rights, trade secrets, and accumulated knowledge of the entire workforce.

Learning organizations Organizations that are able to continually learn and adapt to new circumstances. Core ingredients include: Mental models Personal mastery

 Systems thinking Shared vision Team learning High Performance Organizations Organizations that consistently achieve excellence while creating a high quality work environment. Common characteristics of high performance organizations include: People oriented value people as human assets Team oriented achieve synergy through teamwork Information oriented mobilizes the latest information technology High Performance Organizations Achievement oriented focuses on the needs of customers and stakeholders Learning oriented operates with internal culture that respects and facilitates learning Evidence-Based Management Making management decisions on hard facts about what really works

Evidence-Based Positive Human Resource Management Practices Employment security Selective hiring Self-managing teams High pay based on merit Training and development Reduced status distinctions

Shared information