http://www.shsu.edu/~mgt_ves/mgt481/lesson6/sld030.htm Quality Control A Control Chart is a tool you can use to monitor a process.

It graphically depicts the average value and the upper and lower control limits (the highest and lowest values) of a process. All processes have some form of variation. A Control Chart helps you distinguish between normal and unusual variation in a process. If you want to reduce the amount of variation in a process, you need to compare the results of the process with a standard. Variation can exist for two reasons: Common causes are flaws inherent in the design of the process. Special causes are variations from standards caused by employees or by unusual circumstances or events. Most variations in processes are caused by flaws in the system or the process, not by the employees. Once you realize this, you can stop blaming the employees and start changing the systems and processes that cause the employees to make mistakes. (It is important to remember, however, that some variations are not "mistakes" introduced by employees, but, rather, they are innovations. Some variations are deliberately introduced to processes by employees specifically because these variations are found to be more practical.) Control Charts for variables: In case of variables, software quality control involves the control of variation both in measures of central tendency or averages and also measures of dispersion like range or standard deviation. The variables under study are assumed to be normally distributed. In case of variables the control charts are prepared for Mean ( char), for Range (R-chart) and for Standard deviation ( - chart). Control Charts for Mean or - Chart: If the sample size is relatively small (say equal to or less than 10), we can use the range instead of the standard deviation of a sample to construct control charts on and the range, R. The range of a sample is simply the difference between the largest and smallest observation. There is a statistical relationship between the mean range for data from a normal distribution and , the standard deviation of that distribution. This relationship depends only on the sample size, n. The mean of R is d2 , where the value of d2 is also a function of n. An estimator of is therefore R /d2. Let R1, R2, ..., Rk, be the range of k samples. The average range is Then an estimate of can be computed as So, if we use (or a given target) as an estimator of and R/d2 as an estimator of , then the parameters of the chart are

The simplest way to describe the limits is to define the factor and the construction of the becomes Control chart for Range (R-chart): This chart controls the process variability since the sample range is related to the process standard deviation. The center line of the R chart is the average range. To compute the control limits we need an estimate of the true, but unknown standard deviation W = R/ . This can be found from the distribution of W = R/ (assuming that the items that we measure follow a normal distribution). The standard deviation of W is d3, and is a known function of the sample size, n. It is tabulated in many textbooks on statistical quality control. Therefore since R = W , the standard deviation of R is R = d3&sigma . But since the true is unknown, we may estimate R by As a result, the parameters of the R chart with the customary 3-sigma control limits are As was the case with the control chart parameters for the subgroup averages, defining another set of factors will ease the computations, namely: D3 = 1 - 3 d3 / d2 and D4 = 1 + 3 d3 / d2. These yields Control chart for Standard Deviation ( - Chart) Since standard deviation is a better measure of dispersion than range, it is better to have a control chart of mean along with a control chart of the standard deviation. The 3 limits for the control chart of standard deviation are given by U.C.L. = B2 L.C.L. = B1 where is the process standard deviation. If is not known then its estimate based on the average of sample standard deviations is used. In that case: U.C.L. = B4 L.C.L. = B3 where The values of constants B1, B2, B3 and B4 for different sample sizes are given in the table. The steps in the construction of chart and its interpretation is on the same lines as R-chart. Control chart for Attributes When the quality controls have to focus on a quality characteristic hard or expensive to measure on a numerical scale, the control chart for attributes are a useful alternative. Attributes concern quality characteristics which are able to be classified in two types,

conform and not conform to specifications. What is called nonconforming means that the unit controlled is not conformed to standard on one or more of examined quality characteristics. The goal of control charts for variable is still to control mean and variability of a process but here, we focus of number of nonconforming units or nonconformities in a population. Three types of charts exist. Their use depends on the production (which quality characteristic to control, how many to examine), the characteristic of controls (constant or variable sample size): The p-chart: it is a control chart for fraction nonconforming The c-chart: it is a control chart for number of defects or nonconformities The u-chart: it is a control chart for number of nonconformities per unit A. The p-chart: Control chart for fraction nonconforming The focus of the chart is the ratio of the number of nonconforming units in a population over the total number of units in this population. This fraction is called p. In general, m samples of n units are tested but the sample size can be either constant or variable. In the following, we study both cases. Case I: For a constant sample size If the sample size is constant, the formula for the value plotted on the p-chart is: To construct the p-chart, we plot the fraction nonconforming for each sample. Case II: For a variable sample size In some cases, the sample size is not constant from a sample to another. Here are described the changes it implies in the construction of a p-chart. Formulas are changed to take in count the variable sample size The way the chart is plotted and analyzed is identical. B. C-chart: Control chart for number of nonconformities observed The focus of the chart is the number of nonconformities in a population. This number is called c and is directly plotted on a c-chart. In this case again, m samples of n units are controlled and the sample size can be constant or not Case I: For a constant sample size The central line and control limits are computed as shown below: Case II: For a variable sample size When sample have different size and controls focus on the number of nonconformities, it is better to use a u-chart described in the next paragraph. C. The u-chart: Control chart for number of nonconformities per unit

The u- chart is often used for controls where the sample size is variable. It consists plotting the number of nonconformities per unit tested. where : average nonconformities per unit x : number of total nonconformities in a sample n : sample size Here are formulas for control chart characteristics: The scheme for building a u-chart is the same than the one for other charts. Acceptance Sampling Acceptance sampling is "the middle of the road" approach between no inspection and 100% inspection. There are two major classifications of acceptance plans: by attributes ("go, no-go") and by variables. The attribute case is the most common for acceptance sampling, and will be assumed for the rest of this section A point to remember is that the main purpose of acceptance sampling is to decide whether or not the lot is likely to be acceptable, not to estimate the quality of the lot. Acceptance sampling is employed when one or several of the following hold: Testing is destructive The cost of 100% inspection is very high 100% inspection takes too long Types of acceptance sampling plans Sampling plans can be categorized across several dimensions: Sampling by attributes vs. sampling by variables: When the item inspection leads to a binary result (either the item is conforming or nonconforming) or the number of nonconformities in an item are counted, then we are dealing with sampling by attributes. If the item inspection leads to a continuous measurement, then we are sampling by variables. Incoming vs. outgoing inspection: If the batches are inspected before the product is shipped to the consumer, it is called outgoing inspection. If the inspection is done by the consumer, after they were received from the supplier, it is called incoming inspection. Rectifying vs. non-rectifying sampling plans: Determines what is done with nonconforming items that were found during the inspection. When the cost of replacing faulty items with new ones, or reworking them is accounted for, the sampling plan is rectifying. Single, double, and multiple sampling plans: The sampling procedure may consist of drawing a single sample, or it may be done in two or more steps. A double sampling procedure means that if the sample taken from the batch is not informative enough, another sample is taken. In multiple sampling, additional samples can be drawn after the second sample. O.C. Curve The Operating Characteristic (OC) curve shows the probability of acceptance, Pa, for any level of lot quality. On the horizontal axis is the quality characteristic.

This OC-curve enables you to evaluate the probability of acceptance for any true lot quality level-on a what-if basis. This way, you can design sampling plans that perform the way you want. Interpret the curve according to this example: If the lot quality is 0.093 fraction defective, then the probability of acceptance, PA, is 0.05. If the lot quality is 0.018 fraction defective, then the probability of acceptance, PA, is 0.95. where PA = the probability of acceptance p = the fraction or percent defective PF or alpha = the probability of rejection N = Lot size n = the sample size A = the maximum number of defects

Control Chart
What is it?
A Control Chart is a tool you can use to monitor a process. It graphically depicts the average value and the upper and lower control limits (the highest and lowest values) of a process.

Who uses it?

The management, the team.

Why use it?

All processes have some form of variation. A Control Chart helps you distinguish between normal and unusual variation in a process. If you want to reduce the amount of variation in a process, you need to compare the results of the process with a standard. Variation can exist for two reasons: 1. Common causes are flaws inherent in the design of the process. 2. Special causes are variations from standards caused by employees or by unusual circumstances or events.

Most variations in processes are caused by flaws in the system or the process, not by the employees. Once you realize this, you can stop blaming the employees and start changing the systems and processes that cause the employees to make mistakes. (It is important to remember, however, that some variations are not "mistakes" introduced by employees, but, rather, they are innovations. Some variations are deliberately introduced to processes by employees specifically because these variations are found to be more practical.)

When to use it?

First, you need to define the standards of how things should be. Then, you need to monitor (collect data) about processes in your organization. Then, you create a control graph using the monitoring data.

How to use it:

1. Select the process to be charted and decide on the type of control chart to use. o Use a Percent Nonconforming Chart (more information available from Health Tactics P Chart) if you have data measured using two outcomes (for example, the billing can be correct or incorrect). o Use an Average and Range Control Chart (more information available from Health Tactics X-R Chart) if you have data measured using a continuous scale (for example, waiting time in the health center).

2. Determine your sampling method and plan: o Choose the sample size (how many samples will you obtain?). o Choose the frequency of sampling, depending on the process to be evaluated (months, days, years?). o Make sure you get samples at random (don't always get data from the same person, on the same day of the week, etc.).

3. Start data collection: o Gather the sampled data. o Record data on the appropriate control graph.

4. Calculate the appropriate statistics (the control limits) depending on the type of graph. 5. Observation: The control graph is divided into zones:

______________________________ Upper Control Limit (UCL)

______________________________ Standard (average)

______________________________ Lower Control Limit (LCL)

6. Interpret the graph: o If the data fluctuates within the limits, it is the result of common causes within the process (flaws inherent in the process) and can only be affected if the system is improved or changed. o If the data falls outside of the limits, it is the result of special causes (in human service organizations, special causes can include bad instruction, lack of training, ineffective processes, or inadequate support systems). o These special causes must be eliminated before the control chart can be used as a monitoring tool. In a health setting, for example, staff may need better instruction or training, or processes may need to be improved, before the process is "under control." Once the process is "under control," samples can be taken at regular intervals to assure that the process does not fundamentally change. o A process is said to be "out of control" if one or more points falls outside the control limits.