ELECTRIC CURRENT

Electric current is the flow (movement) of electric charge. The SI unit of electric current
is the ampere, and electric current is measured using an ammeter. For the definition of the
ampere, see the Ampere article.

CURRENT IN A METAL WIRE

A solid conductive metal contains a large population of mobile, or free, electrons. These
electrons are bound to the metal lattice but not to any individual atom. Even with no
external electric field applied, these electrons move about randomly due to thermal
energy but, on average, there is zero net current within the metal. Given an imaginary
plane through which the wire passes, the number of electrons moving from one side to
the other in any period of time is on average equal to the number passing in the opposite
direction.

A typical metal wire for electrical conduction is the stranded copper wire.

When a metal wire is connected across the two terminals of a DC voltage source such as
a battery, the source places an electric field across the conductor. The moment contact is
made, the free electrons of the conductor are forced to drift toward the positive terminal
under the influence of this field. The free electrons are therefore the current carrier in a
typical solid conductor. For an electric current of 1 ampere, 1 coulomb of electric charge
(which consists of about 6.242 × 1018 electrons) drifts every second through any
imaginary plane through which the conductor passes.

The current I in amperes can be calculated with the following equation:

where

is the electric charge in coulombs (ampere seconds)

is the time in seconds
It follows that:

and

More generally, electric current can be represented as the time rate of change of charge,
or

CURRENT DENSITY

Main article: Current density

Current density is a measure of the density of electrical current. It is defined as a vector

whose magnitude is the electric current per cross-sectional area. In SI units, the current
density is measured in amperes per square meter.

The drift speed of electric charges

The mobile charged particles within a conductor move constantly in random directions,
like the particles of a gas. In order for there to be a net flow of charge, the particles must
also move together with an average drift rate. Electrons are the charge carriers in metals
and they follow an erratic path, bouncing from atom to atom, but generally drifting in the
direction of the electric field. The speed at which they drift can be calculated from the
equation:

where

is the electric current

is number of charged particles per unit volume
is the cross-sectional area of the conductor
is the drift velocity, and
is the charge on each particle.

Electric currents in solids typically flow very slowly. For example, in a copper wire of
cross-section 0.5 mm², carrying a current of 5 A, the drift velocity of the electrons is of
the order of a millimetre per second. To take a different example, in the near-vacuum
inside a cathode ray tube, the electrons travel in near-straight lines ("ballistically") at
about a tenth of the speed of light.
Any accelerating electric charge, and therefore any changing electric current, gives rise to
an electromagnetic wave that propagates at very high speed outside the surface of the
conductor. This speed is usually a significant fraction of the speed of light, as can be
deduced from Maxwell's Equations, and is therefore many times faster than the drift
velocity of the electrons. For example, in AC power lines, the waves of electromagnetic
energy propagate through the space between the wires, moving from a source to a distant
load, even though the electrons in the wires only move back and forth over a tiny
distance.

The ratio of the speed of the electromagnetic wave to the speed of light in free space is
called the velocity factor, and depends on the electromagnetic properties of the conductor
and the insulating materials surrounding it, and on their shape and size.

The nature of these three velocities can be illustrated by an analogy with the three similar
velocities associated with gases. The low drift velocity of charge carriers is analogous to
air motion; in other words, winds. The high speed of electromagnetic waves is roughly
analogous to the speed of sound in a gas; while the random motion of charges is
analogous to heat - the thermal velocity of randomly vibrating gas particles.

OHM'S LAW

Ohm's law predicts the current in an (ideal) resistor (or other ohmic device) to be the
applied voltage divided by resistance:

where

I is the current, measured in amperes

V is the potential difference measured in volts
R is the resistance measured in ohms

CONVENTIONAL CURRENT

Conventional current was defined early in the history of electrical science as a flow of
positive charge. In solid metals, like wires, the positive charge carriers are immobile, and
only the negatively charged electrons flow. Because the electron carries negative charge,
the electron current is in the direction opposite to that of conventional (or electric)
current.
Diagram showing conventional current notation. Electric charge moves from the positive
side of the power source to the negative.

In other conductive materials, the electric current is due to the flow of charged particles
in both directions at the same time. Electric currents in electrolytes are flows of
electrically charged atoms (ions), which exist in both positive and negative varieties. For
example, an electrochemical cell may be constructed with salt water (a solution of
sodium chloride) on one side of a membrane and pure water on the other. The membrane
lets the positive sodium ions pass, but not the negative chloride ions, so a net current
results. Electric currents in plasma are flows of electrons as well as positive and negative
ions. In ice and in certain solid electrolytes, flowing protons constitute the electric
current. To simplify this situation, the original definition of conventional current still
stands.

There are also materials where the electric current is due to the flow of electrons and yet
it is conceptually easier to think of the current as due to the flow of positive "holes" (the
spots that should have an electron to make the conductor neutral). This is the case in a p-
type semiconductor.

Examples:

Natural examples include lightning and the solar wind, the source of the polar auroras
(the aurora borealis and aurora australis). The artificial form of electric current is the flow
of conduction electrons in metal wires, such as the overhead power lines that deliver
electrical energy across long distances and the smaller wires within electrical and
electronic equipment. In electronics, other forms of electric current include the flow of
electrons through resistors or through the vacuum in a vacuum tube, the flow of ions
inside a battery, and the flow of holes within a semiconductor.
According to Ampère's law, an electric current produces a magnetic field.

ELECTROMAGNETISM

Electric current produces a magnetic field. The magnetic field can be visualized as a
pattern of circular field lines surrounding the wire.

Electric current can be directly measured with a galvanometer, but this method involves
breaking the circuit, which is sometimes inconvenient. Current can also be measured
without breaking the circuit by detecting the magnetic field associated with the current.
Devices used for this include Hall effect sensors, current clamps, current transformers,
and Rogowski coils.

REFERENCE DIRECTION

When solving electrical circuits, the actual direction of current through a specific circuit
element is usually unknown. Consequently, each circuit element is assigned a current
variable with an arbitrarily chosen reference direction. When the circuit is solved, the
circuit element currents may have positive or negative values. A negative value means
that the actual direction of current through that circuit element is opposite that of the
chosen reference direction.

ELECTRICAL SAFETY

The most obvious hazard is electrical shock, where a current passes through part of the
body. It is the amount of current passing through the body that determines the effect, and
this depends on the nature of the contact, the condition of the body part, the current path
through the body and the voltage of the source. While a very small amount can cause a
slight tingle, too much can cause severe burns if it passes through the skin or even cardiac
arrest if enough passes through the heart. The effect also varies considerably from
individual to individual. (For approximate figures see Shock Effects under electric
shock.)

Due to this and the fact that passing current cannot be easily predicted in most practical
circumstances, any supply of over 50 volts should be considered a possible source of
dangerous electric shock. In particular, note that 110 volts (a minimum voltage at which
AC mains power is distributed in much of the Americas, and 4 other countries, mostly in
Asia) can certainly cause a lethal amount of current to pass through the body.

Electric arcs, which can occur with supplies of any voltage (for example, a typical arc
welding machine has a voltage between the electrodes of just a few tens of volts), are
very hot and emit ultra-violet (UV) and infra-red radiation (IR). Proximity to an electric
arc can therefore cause severe thermal burns, and UV is damaging to unprotected eyes
and skin.

Accidental electric heating can also be dangerous. An overloaded power cable is a

frequent cause of fire. A battery as small as an AA cell placed in a pocket with metal
coins can lead to a short circuit heating the battery and the coins which may inflict burns.
NiCad, NiMh cells, and lithium batteries are particularly risky because they can deliver a
very high current due to their low internal resistance.

ALTERNATING CURRENT

An alternating current (AC) is an electric current whose direction reverses cyclically, as

opposed to direct current, whose direction remains constant. The usual waveform of an
AC power circuit is a sine wave, as this results in the most efficient transmission of
energy. However in certain applications different waveforms are used, such as triangular
or square waves.

Used generically, AC refers to the form in which electricity is delivered to businesses and
residences. However, audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are also examples
of alternating current. In these applications, an important goal is often the recovery of
information encoded (or modulated) onto the AC signal.

ELECTRIC CHARGE

Electric charge is a fundamental conserved property of some subatomic particles, which

determines their electromagnetic interaction. Electrically charged matter is influenced by,
and produces, electromagnetic fields. The interaction between a moving charge and an
electromagnetic field is the source of the electromagnetic force, which is one of the four
fundamental forces.