9.

1 SULPHURIC ACID
9.1.1 Properties of sulphuric acid

1. Sulphuric acid is a strong mineral acid. 2. Its molecular formula is H2SO4. 3. It is soluble in water. 4. Sulphuric acid is a non-volatile diprotic acid. 5. It is a highly corrosive, dense and oily liquid. 6. Concentrated sulphuric acid is a viscous colourless liquid. Figure 9.1 A molecule of sulphuric acid.

Soluble in water Non-volatile acid Diprotic acid

Highly corrosive

Properties of sulphuric acid

Dense

Oily liquid

Viscous colourless liquid

Figure 9.2 Properties of sulphuric acid

9.1.2 The uses of sulphuric acid (1) To manufacture fertilisers There are many fertilizers that can be made of sulphuric acid. Some of them are: a) Calcium dihydrogen phosphate (superphosphate) 2 H2SO4 + Ca3(PO4) 2 Ca(H2 PO4) 2 + 2CaSO4 sulphuric acid + tricalcium phosphate calcium dihydrogen phosphate b) Ammonium sulphate +2NH3 (NH4) 2 SO4 H2SO4 sulphuric acid + aqueous ammonia ammonium sulphate c) Potassium sulphate +2NH3 (NH4) 2 SO4 H2SO4 sulphuric acid + aqueous ammonia ammonium sulphate

(2) To manufacture detergents Sulphuric acid reacts with hydrocarbon to produce sulphonic acid. Sulphonic acid is then neutralized with sodium hydroxide to produce detergents. Examples of hydrocarbon (3) To manufacture synthetic fibres Synthetic fibres are polymers ( long chain molecules). Rayon is an example of a synthetic fibre that is produced from the action of sulphuric acid on cellulose. (4) To manufacture paint pigments The white pigment in paint is usually barium sulphate, BaSO4. The neutralization

of sulphuric acid and barium hydroxide produces barium sulphate. (5) As an electrolyte in lead-acid accumulators (6) To remove metal oxides from metal surfaces before electroplating (7) To manufacture pesticides (8) The uses of sulphuric acid in school laboratories are: a. As a strong acid b. As a drying or dehydrating agent c. As an oxidising agent d. As a sulphonating agent e. As a catalyst

Synthetic fibres 9% As an electrolyte 10% Detergents 12% Paint pigment 15%

Metal cleaning 2% Dyes 2% As an acid 2% Fertilisers 32%

Other chemicals 16%

Figure 9.4 Uses of sulphuric acid in industry

9.1.3 The industrial process in manufacture sulphuric acid 1. Sulphuric acid is manufactured by the Contact process. 2. Sulphuric acid is produced from sulfur, oxygen and water via the contact process. 3. The Contact process involves three stages. Sulphur acid

Sulphur dioxide Sulphur trioxide

I II III

Sulphuric

4. Stage I: Production of sulphur dioxide gas, SO2. This can be done by two methods, a) Burning of sulphur in dry air in the furnace. + O2 S SO2

b)

Burning of metal sulphide such as zinc sulphide in dry air. 2ZnS + 3O2 2SO2 + 2ZnO

5. Stage II: Conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide , SO3. This is then oxidised to sulfur trioxide under the following conditions: a) The presence of a vanadium(V) oxide , V2O5 , as a catalyst. b) A temperature of between 450C to 550C. c) A pressure of one atmosphere. 2 SO2 + O2 2 SO3 4

6. Stage III: Production of sulphuric acid a) Sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4 to produce oleum , H2S2O7 H2SO4+ SO3

b) Oleum is reacted with water to form concentrated H2SO4. H2S2O7+ H2O 2 H2SO4 7. In stage II, sulphur dioxide is dried first before being added to dry air to produce sulphur trioxide. This is: (a) To remove water vapour (b) To remove contaminants 8. In stage III, sulphur trioxide is not dissolved directly in water to produce sulphuric acid. This is because: (a) sulphur trioxide has low solubility in water (b) sulphur trioxide reacts violently and mists are formed instead of a liquid

Sulphur or metal sulphide burned in air

Sulphur dioxide, SO2 a) the presence of a vanadium(V) oxide as a catalyst. b) a temperature of between 450C to 550C. c) a pressure of one atmosphere

Sulphur trioxide, SO3 dissolved in sulphuric acid, H2SO4

Oleum, H2S2O7

diluted with equal volume of water H2O

Concentrated sulphuric acid H2SO4 Figure 9.5 Flowchart of Contact process

9.1.4 Environmental pollution by sulphuric acid 1. 2. 3. 4. Sulphur dioxide is the main by- product produced when sulfur-containing fuels such as coal or oil are burned. Sulphuric acid is formed by atmospheric oxidation of sulphur dioxide in the presence of water. It also produces sulphurous acid. Sulphuric acid and sulphurous acid are constituents of acid rain. Acid rain can cause many effects such as: i. ii. iii. iv. 5. Corrodes concrete buildings and metal structure Destroys trees and plants Decrease the pH of the soil and make it become acidic Acid rain flows into the rivers and increases the acidity of water and kill aquatic living things. Hence, we must reduce the sulphur dioxide from the atmosphere by: i. ii. Use low sulphur fuels to reduce the emission of sulphur dioxide in exhaust gases Remove sulphur dioxide from waste air by treating it with calcium carbonated before it is released.

9.2 AMMONIA AND ITS SALT

9.2.1 Properties of ammonia 1. 2. A colorless, pungent gas. Its molecular formula is NH3 3. 4. 5. 6. It is extremely soluble in water. It is a weak alkali. It is about one half as dense as air Figure 9.6 A molecule of ammonia.

It reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to produce NH3 + HCl NH4Cl

white fumes of ammonium chloride.

7.

Ammonia is alkaline in property and reacts with dilute acids in NH3 + HNO 3 NH4NO 3 2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4) 2 SO4

neutralization to produce salts. For examples:

8.Aqueous solutions of ammonia produces OH ions (except Na+ ion, K+ ion, and Ca 2+ ion) forming metal hydroxides precipitate. Fe3+ + 3OH Fe(OH) 3 Mg2+ + 2OH Mg(OH) 2
Witep h recipitate B w p itate ro n recip

9. Some metal hydroxides such as zinc hydroxide and copper (II) hydroxide dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia to form complexes. Zn(OH)2 + 4NH3 [Zn(NH3)4] 2+ + 2OH

Cu(OH)2 + 4NH3 [Cu(NH3)4] 2+ + 2OH

Weak alkali Properties of ammonia

Extremely soluble in water

Colorless

Pungent smell Figure 9.7 Properties of ammonia

9.2.2 The uses of ammonia 9

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The major use of ammonia and its compounds is as fertilizers. Ammonia is also used for the synthesis of nitric acid. Ammonium fertilizers contain ammonium ions, NH4+, that can be Nitrogen is absorbed by plants to produce protein in the form of nitrates, The effectiveness of ammonium fertilizers is determined by the percentage

converted into nitrate ions by bacteria living in the soil. NO3, which are soluble in water. of nitrogen by mass in them. The fertilizer with a higher percentage of nitrogen is more effective. 6. The percentage of nitrogen by mass can be calculated using this formula: Mass of nitrogen
X 10 0%

Molar mass of fertilizers

9.2.3 The industrial process in manufacture of ammonia 1. Haber process is the industrial method of producing ammonia. 2. It needs direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen under high pressure in the presence of a catalyst, often iron. 3. Nitrogen gas used in Haber process is obtained from the frictional distillation of liquid air. 4. Hydrogen gas used in Haber process can be obtained by two methods: C + H2O CO + a) The reaction between steam and heated coke (carbon) H2

b) The reaction between steam and natural gas ( consisting mainly of CH4 + 2H2O CO2 + methane) 4H2

5. In the Haber process:

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a) A mixture consisting of one volume of nitrogen gas and three volume of hydrogen gas is compressed to a pressure between 200 500 atmospheres. b) The gas mixture is passed through a catalyst of powdered iron at a temperature of 450 - 550C. c) At this optimum temperature and pressure, ammonia gas is produced. N2+ 3H2 2NH3

9.3 ALLOYS
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9.3.1 Physical properties of pure metals 1. Pure metals have the following physical properties : a)Good conductor of electricity b)Malleable c) Ductile d)High melting and boiling point e)High density 2. Pure metals are weak and soft because the arrangement of atoms in pyre metals make them ductile and malleable. a) b) A pure metal contains atoms of the same size arranged in a Pure metals are soft because the orderly arrangement of atoms regular and organized closed-packed structure. enables the layers of atoms to slide over each other easily when an external force is applied on them. This makes the matels ductile and metals can be drawn to form long wires. c) There are imperfections in the natural arrangements of metal atoms. Empty space exist in the structures of pure metals. When hammered or pressed, groups of metal atoms may slide into new positions in the empty spaces. This makes metals malleable, able to be made into different shapes or pressed into thin sheets. 3. The strong forces of attraction between metal atoms requires high energy to overcome it. Hence, most metals have high melting points.

4. The close-packed arrangement of metal atoms results in the high density of metals. 12

Good conductor of electricity High melting and boiling point Properties of metals High density Malleable Ductile

Figure 9.8 Properties of metals

9.3.2 Meaning and purpose of making alloys 1. An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain composition in which the major component is a metal. 2. in the process of alloying, one or more foreign elements are added to a molten metal. When the alloy hardens, the positions of some of the metal atoms are replaced by the atoms of foreign elements, which size may be bigger or smaller than the original metal atoms. 3. In an alloy, these atoms of foreign elements disrupt the orderly arrangement of the metal atoms and also fill up any empty space in the metal crystal structure.

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4. Hence, the layers of metal atoms are prevented from sliding over each other easily. This makes the alloy harder and stronger, less ductile and less malleable than its pure metals.

5. The properties of a pure metal are thus improved by making them into alloys. There are three aims of alloying a pure metal: a) b) c) To increase the hardness and strength of a metal To prevent corrosion or rusting To improve the appearance of the metal surface

9.4 SYNTHETIC POLYMERS

9.4.1 The meaning of polymers 1. Polymers can be defined as large molecules composed of numerous smaller, repeating units known as monomers which are joined by covalent bonds. 2. Polymerisation is the chemical process by which the monomers are joined together to form the big molecule known as the polymers. 3. There are two types of polymerization process: a) Addition polymerization b) Condensation polymerization 4. A polymer is a very big molecule (macromolecule). Hence, the relative molecular mass of a polymer is large. 5. The properties of polymer are different from its monomers. 6. Polymers can be divided into two types: a) Naturally occurring polymers i. This type of polymer exists in living things in nature like the plants and animals.

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ii. a) b) c) Protein Carbohydrate Natural rubber iii.

Examples of naturally occuring polymers are:

Naturally occuring polymers are formed by the joining of monomers by polymerization.

b)

Protein is formed by the joining of monomers known as amino acid. Carbohydrate is formed by the joining of monomers known as glucose. Natural rubber is formed by the joining of monomers known as isoprene. Synthetic polymers 1. This type of polymer are man-made by chemical process in the laboratories.

2. 3. a) b) c)

The raw material for synthetic polymers are obtained frompetroleum. The types of synthetic polymers include: Plastics Fibres Elastomers 4. Examples of plastics are polythene(polyethylene),polyvinylchloride(PVC), polypropene (polypropylene), polystyrene , Perspex and bakelite. 5. 6. Polythene and PVC are produced by addition Examples of synthetics fibres are nylon and terylene. They polymerization are produced by condensation polymerization. 9.4.2 Advantages of synthetic polymers Strong and light Cheap Able to resist corrosion

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Inert to chemical reactions Easily moulded or shaped and be coloured Can be made to have special properties 9.4.3 Environmental pollution caused by synthetic polymers a) b) polymers a) b) Reduce, reuse and recycle synthetic polymers Develop biodegradable polymers As most of polymers are non-biodegradable, they will not Burning of polymers release harmful and poisonous gases. decay like other organic garbage. 9.4.4 Methods to overcome the environmental pollution caused by synthetic

9.5 GLASS AND CERAMICS

1. 2. a) b) c) d) e) f) The main component of both glass and ceramic is silica or silicon dioxide, SiO2. Both glass and ceramic have the same properties as follow Hard and brittle Inert to chemical reactions Insulators or poor conductors of heat and electricity Withstand compression but not stretching Can be easily cleaned Low cost of production 3. 4. a) Fused glass
It It

Differences between glass and cerement are, glass is transparent, while Types of glass are is consist mainly of silica or silicon dioxide has high heat resistance cannot withstand high temperatures

ceramic is opaque. Ceramic can withstand a higher temperature than normal glass.

b) c)

Soda lime glass

It

Borosilicate glass 16

It

can withstand high temperature

d)

Lead glass High refractive index Uses of improved glass for specific purpose a) Photochromic glass

5.

It is sensitive to light intensity b) Conducting glass It conducts electricity 6. 7. Glass 1. Glass is made up from sand. 2. The major component of glass is SiO2. 3. There are four types of glass which are as follows: Fused glass Soda-lime glass Borosilicate glass Lead crystal glass Chemical composition SiO2 (99%) Ba2 O 3 (1%) Ceramic is a manufactured substances made from clay, with the Superconductor is one improved ceramics for specific purposes. main constituent of aluminosilicate with small quantity of sand and feldspar.

Name of glass Fused glass

Properties Very high softening point (1700 C) hence, highly heat resistant Transparent to ultraviolet and infrared light

Examples of uses Telescope mirrors, Lenses Optical fibres Laboratory glass wares

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Difficult to be made into different shapes Does not crack when temperature changes (very low thermal expansion coefficient) Very resistant to chemical reactions Low softening point (700 C), hence, does not withstand heating Breaks easily Cracks easily with sudden temperature Soda lime glass changes (high coefficient of expansion) Less resistant to chemical reactions Easy to be made into different shapes Borosilicate glass SiO2 (80%) Ba2 O 3 (15%) Na2O (3%) Al 2 O 3 Laboratory apparatus Cooking utensils Electrical tubes Glass pipelines SiO2 (70%) Na2O (15%) CaO (3%) Others (5%) Bottles Windowpanes Light bulbs Mirrors Bowls ( The most widely used type of glass)

High softening point (800C). Thus it is heat resistant Does not crack easily with sudden temperature changes Transparent to

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ultraviolet light More resistant to chemical reactions Does not break easily

Low softening point (600 C) Lead crystal glass High density High refractive index Reflects light rays and appears spar kling

SiO2 (55%) PbO( 30%) K2O (10%) Na2O ( 3%) Al2 O 3 ( 2%)

Decorative items Crystal glasswares Lens Prisms Chandeliers

Ceramics
1. Ceramic is a manufactured substance made from clay that is dried and then

baked in a kiln at high temperature. 2. The main constituent of clay is aluminosilicate, (which consist of aluminium oxide and silicon dioxide) with small quantities of sand and feldspar.
3. Kaolinite is an example of high

4. Red clay contains iron (III) oxide which gives the red colour . 5. General uses ceramics are as follows of : very hard and strong but brittle inert to chemical reaction has a very high melting point good electric and heat insulator able to withstand compression

9.6 COMPOSITE MATERIAL

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1. complex mixture. 2. 3. 4.

A composite material is a structural material formed by

combining two or more materials with different physical properties, producing a The composite material produced will have different properties The composite material produced are harder, stronger, lighter, When composite material is formed, the weakness of the

far more superior to the original materials. more resistant to heat and corrosion and also for specific purposes. components will not exist anymore.

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Composite material

Component Concrete

Properties of component Hard but brittle, With low tensile strength Hard with high tensile strength but expensive and can corrode

Properties of composite Stronger, higher tensile strength, not so brittle, does not corrode easily, can withstand higher applied forces and loads, relatively cheaper Reflect light rays and allow light rays to travel along the fibre

Reinforced concrete

Steel

Glass of low Fibre optics refractive index Glass of high refractive index Glass Fibreglass Polyester plastic

Transparent, does not reflect light rays. Heavy, strong but brittle and nonflexible Heavy, strong but brittle and nonflexible Light, flexible, elastic but weak and inflammable Transparent and not sensitive to light Sensitive to light

Light, strong, tough, resilient and flexible, with high tensile strength and not flammable

Glass Photochromic glass Silver chloride, or silver bromide

Sensitive to light: darkness when light intensity is high, becomes clear when light intensity is low

Figure 9.9 Composite material and their new properties

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