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Realization of Electronic Proportional (P) controller

Thecontrolleroutputmaybeexpressedas: m=Kp .e whereKp =R1/R2 h K R andP=%proportionalband= 100/Kp

Or,

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Realization of Electronic PID controller (P, PI, & PD are special cases of PID)
The controller output may be expressed as: p y p

1 t de m = K p e + 0 edt + TD dt dt Ti

where Ti = integral time constant TD = derivative time constant

de m = Kpe + edt + KpTD Ti dt

t 0

Kp

Or,

Or, O

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TakingLaplacetransformwithzeroinitialconditions, Taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions

K p E (s ) M (s ) = K p E (s ) + + sK pTD E (s ) sTi Kp M (s ) = Kp + + sK p TD E (s ) sT i

M (s ) 1 = K p 1 + sT + sTD E (s ) i

thetransferfunctionofPIDcontroller h f f i f ll

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Parallel Realization of PID Controller

Or, Or

Circuit realization

M (s ) = (V1 (s ) + V2 (s ) + V3 (s ))

R1 1 M (s ) = E (s ) + + sRDCD R2 sRI CI

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AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Circuit realization
Therefore, transfer function of PID controller becomes ,

M (s ) R1 1 = + + sRDCD E(s ) R2 sRI CI

Kp R1 = R2

Here,

Kp Ti

1 = RI C I

K pTD = R D C D

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Circuit realization
Proportional and integral terms may be combined as:

E (s ) V 1 (s ) + 1 R2 R1 + sC

= 0

Or,

V1 (s )sC I E (s ) V 1 (s ) = = 1 1 + sR 1C I R2 R1 + sC I

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Circuit realization
Or,

V 1 (s ) 1 + sR 1 C R = E (s ) sR 2 C I

R1 1 = + R sR 2 C I 2 R1 1 1 + = R2 sR 1 C

Where

1 1 + = K p sT i R1 K p = and Ti = R1 C I R2

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A simple PID Controller with two op amps op-amps
e + _ m

R1

RD

CI

equivalent circuit

+ _

CD

_ +

m R2

RD

CI + m _

RI

Unity gain buffer

CD

RI

Here,

R2 RI + R2

The unity gain buffer amplifier is required to avoid the loading effect of the feedback network

CD

In matrix form:

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Circuit solution
Loop equations:
e
+ _ m RD CI I2 RI I1 + m _

1 I 2 RI M (s ) = I1 RI + sCI 1 0 = I1RI + I2 RI + RD + sCD

1 RI + sC RI I 1 RI + RD + RI sCD

I1 M ( s ) = I2 0

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Circuit solution
e
+ _ m

RI +

By Cramers rule: Cramer s

1 M (s) sCI

RD

CI

I2 =

CD

I2

RI

I1

+ m _

RI 0 +1 RI RI sC CI 1 RI RI + RD + sCD

Or, I2

M ( s ) RI

1 1 RI + RI + RD + R I2 sC I sC D

E ( s) =

( sCD ) I2 = sCD 1 1 2 RI + RI + RD + RI sCI sCD

M ( s ) RI

1 1 2 RI + RI + RD + RI sCD sCI sCD M ( s ) 1 CD + = RI m _ E ( s) RI I1 I2 2 1 1+ s (T1 +T2 + RI CD ) + s TT2 1 Simplifying, = sT1 1 1 2 RI + RI + RD + RI sCD sC C M ( s ) 1 1 T1 +T2CI RI CD 1 sCD + = = + + sT2 R E ( s ) T1 sT1 I
RD CI

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Circuit solution
Then, the T.F. becomes:
e
+ _ m

where T1 = RICI and T2 = RDCD

CD

This expression of A presents the problem of interaction and hence, the th controller d t ll developed i called an i t l d is ll d interacting controller. ti t ll

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Circuit solution
By substituting
e
+ _ m RD CI I2 RI I1 + m _

T1 + T2 + R I C D A= T1
A =1+ C D T2 + CI T1

Or,

CD

+ _

I2

RD

RI

CI

I1

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m + m _

The T.F. becomes: By substituting Or,

Circuit solution

T1 + T2 + R I C D A= T1

A =1+

C D T2 + CI T1

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
e + _ m

A simplified PID Controller with one op-amp op amp

e
+ _

R1

RD

CI

equivalent circuit

CD

_ +

m R2

Original circuit with two op-amps

CD RI + _ m

RD

CI

RI

Unity gain buffer

The unity gain buffer amplifier may be omitted if the resistances are chosen such that

(R

|| RD ) >> (R1 || R2 )
m

+ _

TD adjust CD

CI

R1 + R2 adjust

RD

Final circuit with one op-amp

RI Ti adjust

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Provision for providing a bias term Provision for ti derivative ki k P i i f anti d i ti kick Provision for anti-integral wind-up Output must be limited (saturation) Provision for Auto/Manual modes of control Provision for Local/Remote modes of operation

Desirable features of a Process Controller

The controller output is

Bias may be properly adjusted for zero steady state error with P and PD controllers, controllers when load is constant Proper bias can also ensure efficient constant. operation under start-up condition.

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Provision for providing a bias term
Non-zero steady state error

1 t de m = K p e + 0 edt + TD + bias dt Ti

P-control without bias

The controller output is

Bias may be properly adjusted for zero steady state error with P and PD controllers, controllers when load is constant Proper bias can also ensure efficient constant. operation under start-up condition.

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Provision for providing a bias term
P-control without bias

1 t de m = K p e + 0 edt + TD + bias dt Ti

P-control with bias

Derivative action may produce an unwanted kick at the controller output when there is a step change in the set-point. This effect may be p g p y eliminated if the derivative term is computed from the measured variable, instead of the error (anti-derivative kick feature).

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Provision for anti-derivative kick anti derivative
PD-control with derivative kick

PD-control with anti-derivative kick

Integral action i PI and PID controllers may produce a large integral I t l ti in d t ll d l i t l error term when a non-zero error persists for a long time. Integration action may be switched off to combat this situation, otherwise, a long time may be required to come back to normal working range.

In some controllers, when the integral term is present, the integral amount during Ti is summed with each pass through the calculation and becomes the controller bias. This technique is known as automatic reset and this is done to avoid long duration operation of the integral action d thi i d t id l d ti ti f th i t l ti thus error due to drift etc. during integration may be avoided.

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Provision for anti integral wind up anti-integral wind-up

It is desirable to limit the controller output (say between 0% and 100%) so that control valves or other final control elements may operate safely within their working limits.

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Output must be limited (saturation)

A change-over switch is normally provided for configuring the controller as an automatic controller (AUTO) for closed loop operation or as a manual controller (MAN) for open-loop operation.

Error

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Manual command MAN

Provision for Auto/Manual modes of control

Controller

AUTO Change-over switch

Final control element l

Actuating signal

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Electronic Process Controllers
Advantages No transmission lag (as compared to pneumatic systems) Capable of operating at low temperatures p p g p Compatibility with other electrical components

Absence of dead zone due to friction or hysteresis in moving parts

Prone to electrical hazards (in inflammable atmosphere) Analog integrators are not very reliable

Conversion equipments are necessary to interface p q p y pneumatic and hydraulic devices y

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Electronic Process Controllers
Disadvantages

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Fulcrum nozzle

Pneumatic Baffle Nozzle or Flapper Nozzle amplifier Baffle-Nozzle Flapper-Nozzle

Set point r displacement

Restriction (orifice) Constant pressure air supply (Ps) (20 psi) m Output pressure (To control valve) (Nozzle back pressure)

Error e

Baffle (or flapper)

Cm Measured variable

(joint)

e = (r - Cm)/2

Power source

Set point

+ -

Measured variable

Output

Pneumatic Baffle Nozzle or Flapper Nozzle amplifier Baffle-Nozzle Flapper-Nozzle

M (Nozzle back pressure)

Set point r displacement di l

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Fulcrum nozzle

Ps

Restriction (orifice) Constant pressure air supply (Ps) (20 psi)

Error e

Baffle (or flapper)

m Output pressure (To control valve) (Nozzle back pressure)

Typical 15 psi values 3 psi i Pa 0

approx. linear working range

0.001" 0.002"

+
Cm Measured variable

Baffle-Nozzle separation

(joint)

Typical values A typical curve relating nozzle back pressure

M to Baffle-Nozzle separation

e = (r - Cm)/2

x: change in baffle-nozzle separation. g p m: change in back pressure. Pa : the lowest possible pressure ( = ambient pressure).

Pneumatic Baffle Nozzle or Flapper Nozzle amplifier Baffle-Nozzle Flapper-Nozzle

Under steady state condition, change in output pressure may be expressed as:

m = Kn x, where Kn is the nozzle gain

Here,

a x= e a +b a a Thus, m = Kn e = K e , K is called the amplifier gain and K = K n a +b a+b

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Fulcrum nozzle

Set point r displacement

Restriction (orifice) Constant pressure air supply (Ps) (20 psi) m Output pressure (To control valve) (Nozzle back pressure)

Error e

Baffle (or flapper)

Cm Measured variable

(joint)

e = (r - Cm)/2

set point (Screw)

Arrangement for mechanical set-point g p and pneumatic measured variable

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Bellows e pneumatic measured variable Cm i bl

The output pressure from the pneumatic amplifier is not suitable for driving the final control element due to the presence of restriction in the air supply. For this reason a buffer stage known as relay valve or pilot valve is added at the reason, stage, valve, output to allow sufficient air flow at pressure m.

A relay valve may be direct-acting (positive gain) or reverse-acting (negative gain).

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Relay valve or pilot valve

Direct acting Direct-acting relay valve with a Baffle-Nozzle amplifier Baffle Nozzle

As the nozzle back pressure m increases, the relay output pressure also increases

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
x Restriction m Vent e Relay Bellows Relay output m m = - Kn.x

Air supply (Ps)

Relay valve (gain = 1)

In all positions of the valve, except at the position to shut off the air supply, air continues to bleed into the atmosphere.

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Direct acting Direct-acting relays
Bleed type relay

Non-bleed type relay

The air bleed stops when the equilibrium condition is obtained, and, therefore, there is no loss of pressurized air at steady-state operation.

As the nozzle back pressure increases, the ball valve is forced towards the lower seat, thereby g p p decreasing the output pressure

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Reverse acting Reverse-acting relay

The Baffle-Nozzle separation may be expressed as: Baffle Nozzle

where Kb is the bellows stiffness factor and m is the change in output pressure pressure.

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Pneumatic Proportional Controller
Feedback bellows m m a b x Restriction air supply (Ps) ( psi) (20 p ) e Error

(Controller output pressure) (3 - 15 psi)

a b ( x) = e Kb m a+b a+b

e Error

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Pneumatic Proportional Controller
Feedback bellows m (Controller (C t ll output pressure) (3 - 15 psi) m a b x Restriction air supply (Ps) (20 psi)

a b ( x) = e Kb m a+b a+b
Now m = Kn .x, where Kn is the nozzle gain.

Block diagram of the controller

E(s) ( )

a a+b

++ -

-X(s) b a+b

Kn

M(s)

Kb

e Error

Thus,

1 b a m + or Kb = e Kn a + b a + b 1 if Kn is very high, then 0, Kn

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Pneumatic Proportional Controller
Feedback bellows m (Controller (C t ll output pressure) (3 - 15 psi) m a b x Restriction air supply (Ps) (20 psi)

a b ( x) = e Kb m a+b a+b
Now m = Kn .x, where Kn is the nozzle gain.

a b = e Kbm Kn a + b a + b

e Error

This gives

where Kp = proportional gain =

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Pneumatic Proportional Controller
Feedback bellows m (Controller (C t ll output pressure) (3 - 15 psi) m a b x Restriction air supply (Ps) (20 psi)

a a a+b m= e= e = K p .e b bKb Kb a+b

a bK b

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Pneumatic Proportional Controller
Feedback bellows m (Controller (C t ll output pressure) (3 - 15 psi) m a b x Restriction air supply (Ps) (20 psi)

a a a+b m= e= e = K p .e b bKb Kb a +b
where Kp = proportional gain =

e Error

a bK b

Simplified block diagram of the controller

E(s)

Kp

M(s)

Pneumatic proportional controller with a direct-acting relay direct acting

e Error

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Feedback bellows
m (3 - 15 psi)

Controller output m

Relay valve (gain = 1) Air supply (Ps)

(20 psi)

Restriction

The Baffle-Nozzle separation may be expressed as:

a b Kb X ( s) = M ( s) E ( s) a +b a + b 1+ sTD
where Kb = Bellows stiffness factor, TD = Derivative time = RD CD , ( (assuming RD >> R) i R), CD = Capacity of the bellows.

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Feedback bellows Derivative time Restriction RD (Needle valve) CD a Baffle Nozzle Restriction (orifice) R b x e Error

Pneumatic Proportional-Derivative Controller Proportional Derivative

m (output pressure)

air supply (Ps)

(assuming RD >> R)

e Error

Thus

M ( s) a b Kb = M ( s) E ( s) Kn a +b a + b 1 + sTD
1 b Kb a M (s) + = E (s) K n a + b 1 + sTD a + b

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Feedback bellows Derivative time Restriction RD (Needle valve) CD m (output pressure) a Baffle Nozzle Restriction (orifice) R air supply (Ps)

Pneumatic Proportional-Derivative Controller Proportional Derivative

a b Kb X ( s) = E ( s) M ( s) a +b a + b 1+ sTD
Now

M (s ) = K n X ( s )

where Kn is the nozzle gain.

or,

Now,

K n >> 1,

1 0, Kn

M (s ) a (1 + s T D E (s ) bK b = K p (1 + sT D )

where Kp = proportional gain =

a bKb

The Baffle-Nozzle separation may be expressed as:

a b b Kb X ( s) = E ( s) Kb M ( s ) + M ( s) a +b a +b a + b 1 + sTi
where and Ti = Integral time = RICI CI = Capacity of integral bellows Kb = Bellows stiffness factor.

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Pneumatic Proportional-Integral Controller Proportional Integral
Integral time Restriction (Needle valve) RI
proportional bellows

CI

(output pressure) )

positive feedback

Integral bellows

negative feedback

Restriction (orifice) air supply (Ps) R

Error

(assuming RI >> R and same stiffness for both bellows)

positive feedback

Hence,

1 b a X ( s) = E ( s ) 1 Kb M ( s ) a +b 1 + sTi a + b T 1 a = E ( s) 1+ 1 a+b sT i b Kb M ( s ) a + b

Now, Now

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Pneumatic Proportional-Integral Controller Proportional Integral
Integral time Restriction (Needle valve) RI
proportional bellows

CI

(output pressure)

Integral bellows

negative feedback

a b b Kb X ( s) = M( s) E( s) KbM( s) + a+b a+b a+b 1+sTi

Restriction (orifice) air supply (Ps) R

Error

M ( s ) = K n .X ( s )

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Pneumatic Proportional-Integral Controller Proportional Integral
Integral time Restriction (Needle valve) RI
proportional bellows

1 b a E ( s ) 1 X ( s) = Kb M ( s ) a +b 1 + sTi a + b T 1 a = E ( s) 1+ 1 a+b sT i b Kb M ( s ) a + b

CI

(output pressure)

positive feedback

Integral bellows

negative feedback

Restriction (orifice) air supply (Ps) R

Error

and

M ( s ) = K n .X ( s )

Thus, assuming Kn >> 1, i.e.

1 0, Kn

M ( s) 1 1 a = 1 + = K p 1 + , E ( s ) bKb sTi sTi

where

a Kp = bKb

The Baffle-Nozzle separation may be expressed as:

a b K b X (s ) = E (s ) a+b a + b 1 + sT D

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Integral time Restriction RI 1 CI CD a RD Derivative time Restriction x e b R Restriction Error

Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller Proportional Integral Derivative

(output pressure) m

Air supply (Ps)

(assuming RI>>RD>> R)

M (s )

Kb b M (s ) + a + b (1 + sT i )(1 + sT D )

1 1 bK b a M (s ) E (s ) = a + b (1 + sT D ) (1 + sT i )(1 + sT D ) a+b

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Integral time Restriction RI 1 CD a RD Derivative time Restriction R t i ti (output pressure) m x e b R Restriction Air supply (Ps) Error

Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller Proportional Integral Derivative

a b K b X (s ) = E (s ) a+b a + b 1 + sT D M (s )

CI

Kb b M (s ) + a + b (1 + sTi )(1 + sT D )

1 1 a bK b = E (s ) (1 + sT ) (1 + sT )(1 + sT ) M (s ) a+b a + b D i D

Now,

1 1 1 + sTi 1 = 1 + sT D (1 + sTi )(1 + sT D ) (1 + sTi )(1 + sT D )

=

sTi 1 + sTi + sTD + s 2TiTD 1 1 TD 1+ + + sTD sTi Ti

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Integral time Restriction RI 1 CD a RD Derivative time Restriction R t i ti (output pressure) m x e b R Restriction Air supply (Ps) Error

Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller Proportional Integral Derivative

a b K b X (s ) = E (s ) a+b a + b 1 + sT D M (s )

CI

Kb b M (s ) + a + b (1 + sTi )(1 + sT D )

1 1 a bK b = E (s ) (1 + sT ) (1 + sT )(1 + sT ) M (s ) a+b a + b D i D

Therefore,

1 a bKb M (s ) X (s ) = E (s ) a +b a + b 1 + 1 + TD + sT D sT T i i
Now, Now

M (s ) = K n X (s )

CI

Therefore,

M (s ) a 1 bK b M (s ) = E (s ) Kn a +b a + b 1 + TD + 1 + sT D Ti sTi

or,

1 bK 1 = a E (s ) M (s ) + b TD 1 a + b Kn a + b 1 + + T sT + sTD i i

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Integral time Restriction RI 1 CD a RD Derivative time Restriction R t i ti (output pressure) m x e b R Restriction Air supply (Ps)

Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller Proportional Integral Derivative

1 a bK b M (s ) X (s ) = E (s ) 1 TD a+b a + b 1+ + + sTD sTi Ti

and

M (s ) = K n X ( s )

Error

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Integral time Restriction RI 1 CD a RD Derivative time Restriction R t i ti (output pressure) m x e b R Restriction Air supply (Ps)

Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller Proportional Integral Derivative

CI

1 bK 1 b M (s ) + K n a + b 1 + TD + 1 + sT D Ti sTi

= a E (s ) a + b

as

K n >> 1,

Error

1 0 Kn

Therefore,

TD 1 M(s) a TD 1 = 1+ + + sT = Kp 1+ + + sT D T sT D E(s) bK Ti sT b i i i
where

a Kp = bKb

 TD 1 M(s) a TD 1 = 1+ + + sT = Kp 1+ + + sT D D T sT E(s) bKb Ti sT i i i

Here,

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Integral time Restriction RI 1 CI CD a RD Derivative time Restriction R t i ti (output pressure) m x e b R Restriction Air supply (Ps) Error

Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller Proportional Integral Derivative

where

a Kp = bK b

TD T i

imposes an interaction between integral and derivative operations of the controller. If we choose Ti >> TD, the interaction reduces and the transfer function becomes

M (s ) 1 K p 1 + sT + sTD E (s ) i

the ideal relation of a PID controller.

AN EL JAN EC R TR AK IC SH JA AL IT D EN an AV G d KO P I A LK UR NE MIT AT U ER AV A, NI IN A IN VE G D CH D RS E A IA I P TT TY A E R R TM J E N EE T
Integral time Restriction RI 1 CI CD a RD Derivative time Restriction R t i ti x e b R Restriction Error

Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller Proportional Integral Derivative

(output pressure) m

Air supply (Ps)

The controller gain becomes infinite when Ti = TD, if derivative time restriction is placed in position (1).