TENSILE STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE UNDER VARIOUS RATES OF LOADING AND THE ROLE OF CREEP ON THE BEHAVIOUR

SA Kristiawan

ABSTRACT
The stress-strain behaviour of concrete in tension has been determined under different rates of loading as part of the full research to investigate cracking performance of concrete due to restrained shrinkage. The stress-strain relationship obtained from testing at slow loading rate was determined after separating the strain of concrete due to load and shrinkage. The results show that the stress-strain curves obtained from testing of concrete at slow loading rates are less steep than those determined under fast loading rate due to the effect of creep. A lower tensile strength is observed in concrete tested under a slower loading rate, but they fail at a higher strain. A stress ranging from 60-70% of the ultimate tensile strength is suggested as the limit for concrete to be considered to crack or fail in the restrained shrinkage condition. The elasticity of concrete determined under slow loading rates can be related to that determined under fast loading rate by integrating the effect of creep Keywords: tensile strength, stress-strain, modulus of elasticity, creep, shrinkage, loading rate

1. INTRODUCTION The effect of loading rate on the mechanical properties of concrete in tension i.e. strength, modulus of elasticity and the stress-strain relationship has been the subject of interest of some researchers (Yon et al; 1992 and Malvar et al; 1998). However, they focused on investigating the effect of loading rate from normal rate (static) to very high rate (dynamic) on those properties for the purpose of an accurate assessment of concrete under dynamic loading induced from earthquakes, impacts, air blasts, wind gust, and ocean waves. For the effect of slow loading rate, referred to that of loading which cause concrete to fail after few days of loading, there is very little information available. Brooks and Kristiawan (2001) pointed out that applying slow loading rate causes concrete to fail at a lower tensile strength and the slope of the stress-strain curve is less steep compared with that tested at fast (normal) loading rate. Creep is a factor that must be considered when slow rate is applied. It is creep that contributes to the changing of stress-strain curve determined under slow loading rates. Understanding the effect of slow loading rate and, consequently, the effect of creep on the mechanical properties will be useful for the evaluation of concrete under restrained drying shrinkage since the induced of tensile stress as a result of restrained shrinkage is developed at slow rate and can be regarded as a loading in the concrete. This research is part of the full research to evaluate the cracking performance of concrete due to restrained shrinkage. At this stage, the research focused on investigating the
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effect of creep observed in concrete tested under slow loading rates on tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and the stress-strain relationship.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW It is known that the stress-strain behaviour of concrete is affected by the rate of loading at which the stress-strain behaviour is determined. Yon et al (1992) and Malvar et al (1998) investigated the effect of loading rate from normal to very high rate and the results confirmed that higher tensile strength was observed in concrete determined under very high rate. In term of stress-strain curve, concrete loaded at higher rate showed steeper curve compared to that of normal rate. The modulus of elasticity determined from the slope of stress-strain curve was, consequently, higher in concrete tested under very high rate than normal rate. Brooks and Kristiawan (2001) observed the effect of loading rate by measuring concrete tested from fast (normal) rate to slow loading rate. Basically, the effect of rate found in their experiment was similar to that observed by Yon et al (1992) and Malvar et al (1998) even though the rates of loading used were different. The effect of application of very slow loading rate on mechanical properties of concrete can be summarized as follows: the strength of concrete is reduced the modulus of elasticity is reduced the stress-strain curve is more curvilinear From creep tests at different levels of constant stress, Domone (1974) obtained stressstrain curves. The curves showed similarity with the stress-strain curves obtained from testing on concrete at different loading rates. The similarity was obvious with those determined under slow loading rates. With slow loading rates as those of Brooks and Kristiawan (2001), concrete had a time to creep while under loading. And the finding of Domone (1974) and Brooks and Kristiawan (2001) confirmed each other that it was creep which contributed to the changing of stress-strain curve.

3. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION 3.1. Material and Mixes. Six different materials were used to observe the effect of water/cement ratio (w/c), pulverised fuel ash (pfa), ground granulated blast furnace slag (ggbs), superplasticizer and shrinkage reducing admixture (sra) on the properties investigated. The proportion and identification of the mixes are tabulated in Table 1 together with their slump/flow table. After casting, all materials were stored in the room of 20o C and 99% RH until tested at the age of 14 days. 3.2. Fast (Normal) Loading Rate Test Since there is no standard method of testing of concrete in direct tension, the bobbinshaped specimens developed earlier by Brooks et al (1991) were adopted in this research. The rate of test was chose at the same rate as that of standard flexural test i.e. at 6.1x10-2 MPa/sec. The method of testing at fast loading rate of this research has been described elsewhere (Kristiawan, 2001). Parameters measured in the test (using Instron Machine) were stress and strain. 74

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Table 1. Proportion of the mixes and the results of slump/flow table tests.

No

Mix

Proportion *

w/c

Admixture

Slump/ Flow Table

1 2 3 4 5 6

c1 c2 pfa30 sp06 sra15 ggbs30

1:2:3 1:2:3 1:2:3 1:2:3 1:2:3 1:2:3

0.47 0.52 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47

N/A N/A 30% of opc replaced with pfa 0.6% volume of superplasticizer by weight of cement 1.5% of shrinkage reducing admixture by weight of cement 30% of opc replaced with ggbs

40 mm 180 mm 170 mm 620 mm 130 mm 35 mm

3.3. Slow Loading Rates Test The same bobbin-shaped specimens were used for slow loading rates test. Two loading rates were applied i.e. 0.88 MPa/day and 0.44 MPa/day. With these rates, concrete failed after under loading for 2 to 5 days. At slow loading rates concrete also deforms due to external factor other than load i.e. drying shrinkage. To separate the deformation due to load and that of drying shrinkage, the deformation on unloaded specimens were measured. By deducting the total deformation (due to load and shrinkage) on loaded specimens with deformation on unloaded specimens (due to shrinkage only), the deformation of concrete due to load can be obtained. Thus the measurement taken in the test included stress and strain on loaded specimens and shrinkage strain on unloaded specimens. The method of testing at slow loading rates can be referred to Brooks and Kristiawan (2001). In addition to the drying specimens, testing on the sealed specimens was also performed.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1. Tensile Strength Under a slow loading rate concrete fails at lower strength (see Table 2). On average they fail at about 60% of the ultimate tensile strength for the drying specimens. It is also found that there is no significant effect of reducing the rate of loading from 0.88 MPa/day to 0.44 MPa/day on the tensile strength of concrete for the drying specimens. The average tensile strengths of the sealed specimens are higher than those of the drying specimens. Domone (1974) also showed that the sealed specimen give a higher long-term tensile strength than that of immersed specimen. It seems that with concurrent drying or swelling, the longterm tensile strength is lower. Under loading rate of 0.88 MPa/day the tensile strength reaches about 70% of the ultimate tensile strength for the sealed specimens. Reducing the rate of loading to 0.44 MPa/day will decrease the tensile strength to about 65% of the ultimate tensile
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strength. With the rates of loading given in this test, the specimens fail within 2 to 5 days of testing. If the rate of loading was decreased so that the specimens failed at several months, the long-term tensile strength of the concrete may reach below the above values. The long-term tensile strengths suggested by Domone (1974) are higher than the finding of this research i.e. 85% and 75% for sealed and immersed specimen, respectively. Table 2. Tensile strength of concrete under various rates of loading.
The Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) Age (14 days) 3.31 2.71 3.31 3.23 3.3 3.22

Tensile Strength At Slow Rate of Loading (% The Ultimate Tensile Strength) 0.88 MPa/day Drying 68.28 66.79 60.73 53.87 61.52 70.50 63.61 0.44 MPa/day Drying 71.60 58.67 62.54 56.97 58.79 63.35 61.99 0.88 MPa/day Sealed 74.92 83.03 61.63 69.66 66.67 77.33 72.21 0.44 MPa/day Sealed 51.06 75.28 61.93 64.40 58.79 73.91 64.23

Mix c1 c2 pfa30 ggbs30 sp06 sra15 Average

It is suggested that the long-term tensile strength of concrete is correlated with the proportional limit of the stress-strain curve of concrete determined at fast loading rate. The point at which the stress-strain curve deviates from linearity has been found to correspond with the initiation of microcracks. Under long-term sustained tensile stress at level corresponding to the proportional limit, the microcracks will propagate until concrete fails. For that reason Carino et al (1976) adopted the proportional limit as the definition of failure of concrete. The average stress corresponding to the proportional limit of the stress-strain curve obtained from fast loading rate test is 54% of the ultimate tensile strength (Kristiawan, 2005). As expected this long-term tensile stress is lower than the tensile stress of concrete determined from the slow loading rates since the latter only takes 2 to 5 days of loading before concrete fails. For the evaluation of the restrained shrinkage cracking, the level of stress ranging from 60-70% of the ultimate tensile strength may be used as the limit for concrete considered to crack or fail. This range of stress is reasonable as under restrained shrinkage condition concrete may crack after 4-14 days of drying (Weigrink et al; 1996 and Shah et al; 1998).

4.2. Stress-Strain Relationship The average stress-strain relationships of concrete c1 tested at slow loading rates together with that tested at fast loading rate are given in Figure 1. As can be seen from the figure, one of the c1 concrete curves (tested at a loading rate of 0.88 MPa/day) tends to be 76
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linear up to failure while the other curve (tested at a loading rate of 0.44 MPa/day) is generally convex to the axis. The general trend of the curves of other mixes (Figs 2-6) seems to be similar i.e. linear or convex to the axis except for the curve of the pfa concrete tested at loading rate of 0.88 MPa/day (see Figure 3). With the fast loading rate the strain measured is only that due to the application of load while creep is negligible. On the other hand, at slow loading rates creep contributes to the magnitude of measured strain. Therefore, the difference in strain of curves obtained from fast and slow loading rate at same stress level has to be considered as creep. The results of the tests on sealed specimens are given in Figures 7-12. The figures do not include that obtained from the fast loading rate. In fact, a test on sealed specimens under fast loading rate was not performed. The effect of sealing is only significant on the slow loading rate test. In fast loading rate test, which takes only a few seconds to perform the test, it is assumed that there is no effect of deformation other than due to load (shrinkage or creep) on the stress-strain behaviour. The effect of moisture exchange only occurs in very limited time, hence, the shrinkage or creep is negligible. It is reasonable, therefore, to include the fast loading rate curves of the drying specimens in the figures as substitution of those of the sealed specimens.

3.5 3 2.5 S tr e s s ( M P a ) 2 c1-dry (6.1x10-2 MPa/sec) c1-dry (0.88 MPa/day) c1-dry (0.44 MPa/day)

3.5 c2-dry (6.1x10-2 MPa/sec) 3 2.5 S tre s s (M P a ) 2 c2-dry (0.88 MPa/day) c2-dry (0.44 MPa/day)

1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100 150 Strain (10-6)

1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100 150 Strain (10-6) 200 250 300

200

250

300

Figure 1. Stress-strain behaviour of c1-dry under different rates of loading

3.5 3 2.5 S tre s s (M P a )

Figure 2. Stress-strain behaviour of c2dry under different rates of loading

3.5 3 2.5 S tre s s (M P a ) 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100 150 Strain (10-6) 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 Strain (10-6) 200 250 300 ggbs30-dry (6.1x10-2 MPa/sec) ggbs30-dry (0.88 MPa/day) ggbs30-dry (0.44 MPa/day)

1.5 1 0.5 0 pfa30-dry(6.1x10-2 MPa/sec) pfa30-dry(0.88 MPa/day) pfa30-dry(0.44 MPa/day)

Figure 3. Stress-strain behaviour of pfa30-dry under different rates of loading

Figure 4. Stress-strain behaviour of ggbs30-dry under different rates of loading 77

Tensile Stress-Strain Behaviour Of Concrete Under Various Rates Of Loading And The Role Of Creep On The Behaviour (SA Kristiawan)

3.5 3 2.5 S tre s s (M P a ) 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100 150 Strain (10-6) 200 250 300 sp06-dry (6.1x10-2 MPa/sec) sp06-dry (0.9072 MPa/day) sp06-dry (0.45 MPa/day)

3.5 3 2.5 S tre s s (M P a ) 2 1.5 sra15-dry (6.1x10-2 MPa/sec) 1 0.5 0 0 50 100 150 Strain (10-6) 200 250 300 sra15-dry(0.9072 MPa/day) sra15-dry(0.45 MPa/day)

Figure 5. Stress-strain behaviour of sp06-dry under different rates of loading

Figure 6. Stress-strain behaviour of sra15-dry under different rates of loading

3.5 3 2.5 S tr e s s ( M P a ) 2 c1-dry (6.1x10-2 MPa/sec) c1-sealed (0.88 MPa/day) c1-sealed (0.44 MPa/day)
S tre s s (M P a )

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 c2-dry (6.1x10-2 MPa/sec) 1 0.5 0 c2-sealed (0.88 MPa/day) c2-sealed (0.44 MPa/day)

1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100 150 Strain (10-6)

200

250

300

50

100

150 Strain (10-6)

200

250

300

Figure 7. Stress-strain behaviour of c1-sealed under different rates of loading

Figure 8. Stress-strain behaviour of c2sealed under different rates of loading

3.5 3 2.5 S tr e s s (M P a ) 2 S tre s s (M P a )

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 ggbs30-dry (6.1x10-2 MPa/sec) 1 0.5 0 0 50 100 150 Strain (10-6) 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 Strain (10-6) 200 250 300 ggbs30-selaed (0.88 MPa/day) ggbs30-sealed (0.44 MPa/day)

1.5 1 0.5 0 pfa30-dry(6.1x10-2 MPa/sec) pfa30-sealed(0.88 MPa/day) pfa30-sealed(0.44 MPa/day)

Figure 9. Stress-strain behaviour of pfa30-sealed under different rates of loading

Figure 10. Stress-strain behaviour of ggbs30-sealed under different rates of loading

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3.5 3 2.5 S tr e s s ( M P a )
S tre s s (M P a )

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 sra15-dry (6.1x10-2 MPa/sec) 1 sra15-sealed (0.88 MPa/day) 0.5 0 sra15-sealed(0.44 MPa/day)

1.5 sp06-dry (6.1x10-2 MPa/sec) 1 0.5 0 0 50 100 150 Strain (10-6) 200 250 300 sp06-sealed (0.88 MPa/day) sp06-sealed (0.44 MPa/day)

50

100

150 Strain (10-6)

200

250

300

Figure 11. Stress-strain behaviour of sp06-sealed under different rates of loading

Figure 12. Stress-strain behaviour of sra15-sealed under different rates of loading

4.3. Modulus of Elasticity The modulus of elasticity is determined from the slope of the stress-strain curve. Since the curve is non-linear, the value of modulus of elasticity will depend on the level of stress at which it is considered. The modulus of elasticity determined in this way is termed as secant modulus of elasticity. From the stress-strain curves of concrete tested under different rates of loading as shown in Figures 1-12, it is obvious that the modulus of elasticity of concrete tested under fast loading rate is higher than that of the slow loading rate. The difference between the strain of curve obtained from slow loading rate and fast loading rate at the same stress level is due to creep. Therefore, creep is the cause for the lower modulus of elasticity of concrete tested under slow loading rate. The modulus of elasticity obtained from the fast loading rate may be related to that of slow loading rate by considering the influence of creep. First, the modulus of elasticity obtained from fast loading rate is assumed to be independent of the stress. With this assumption the stress-strain curve determined under fast loading rate is considered to be linear and the secant modulus of elasticity determined at any stress level within the stress-strain curve is equal to the initial modulus of elasticity. In view of this the initial modulus of elasticity is used as the value of modulus of elasticity for concrete tested under the fast loading rate. The use of initial modulus of elasticity for the fast loading rate may be arguable. However, according to Figures 1-12 it is clear that the maximum stress of concrete tested under slow loading rate is lower than that of fast loading rate, i.e. in the range of 60%-70%. Consequently the relation between the modulus of elasticity determined under fast loading rate and that of slow loading rate can only be applied to this range of stress. Also it is reasonable to use the initial modulus of elasticity since the proportional limit of the stressstrain curve obtained under a fast loading rate is about 54% of the ultimate strength. For concrete under the slow loading rate the effective modulus of elasticity at time t, Ee(t), is determined using the following equation: Ee(t) = (t)/tot(t) where (t) and tot(t) are respective stress and total strain at time t.
Tensile Stress-Strain Behaviour Of Concrete Under Various Rates Of Loading And The Role Of Creep On The Behaviour (SA Kristiawan)

(1)

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The total strain consists of the elastic strain, el(t), and creep, crp(t). Substituting these parameters into Equation (1) and taking into consideration the initial modulus of elasticity, E(0), and creep coefficient, (t), as: E(0) = (t)/el(t) and (t) = (crp(t)/ (t)) x E(0) then rearranging Equation (1) results in: Ee(t) = E(0)/(1+ (t)) (4) (3) (2)

Equation (4) gives the relation between the modulus of elasticity obtained from concrete tested at fast loading rate and that of slow loading rate.

5. CONCLUSIONS It is found in the current research that under slow loading rate concrete fails below the ultimate short-term tensile strength. The strength is equal to 60-70% of the ultimate tensile strength and may be used as a criterion to evaluate the cracking behaviour of concrete due to restrained shrinkage. The slope of the stress-strain relationship of concrete tested at the slow loading rate is lower than that of fast loading rate. It is creep which causes the reduction in the effective modulus of elasticity. The effective modulus of elasticity of concrete tested at a slow loading rate can be related with that of fast loading rate by considering creep. A change in the water/cement ratio has substantial effect on the creep and the effective modulus of elasticity.

REFERENCES Brooks, JJ and Kristiawan, SA., 2001, The effect of loading rate on tensile stress-strain behaviour of concrete, Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual BCA/Concrete Society Conference on Higher Education and the Concrete Industry, UMIST, Manchester, 3-4 July, pp 399-409. Brooks, JJ, Wainwright, P and Al-Kaisi, AF.,1991, Compressive and tensile creep of heatcured ordinary Portland and slag cement concrete, Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 43, No. 154, March, pp 1-12. Carino, NJ and Slate, FO., 1976, Limiting Tensile Strain Criterion for Failure of Concrete, ACI Journal, March, pp 160-165. Domone, PL., 1974, Uniaxial tensile creep and failure of concrete, Magazine of Concrete Research, vol. 26 No. 88, Sept, pp 144-152. Kristiawan, SA., 2001, Elasticity and Strength of Concrete under Direct Tension Test, Jurnal Penelitian Media Teknik Sipil, diterbitkan oleh Jurusan Teknik Sipil, Universitas Sebelas Maret, January, p 37-40. Kristiawan, SA., 2005, Tensile stress-strain behaviour of concrete under direct tension; verification of models and study of the effect of mix ingredients, Majalalah ilmiah GEMA TEKNIK, January 2005. 80
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Malvar, LJ and Ross, CA., 1998, Review of strain rate effect for concrete in tension, ACI Materials Journal, Nov-Dec, pp 735-739. Shah et al, 1998, A Method to Predict Shrinkage Cracking of Concrete, ACI Material Journal, July-Aug, pp 339-346. Wiegrink et al, 1996), Shrinkage Cracking of High-Strength Concrete, ACI Material Journal, Sept-Oct, pp 409-415. Yon, JH, Hopkins, NM and Kobayashi, AS., 1992, Strain-rate sensitivity of concrete mechanical properties, ACI Materials Journal, March-April, pp 146-153.

RIWAYAT PENULIS Stefanus Adi Kristiawan, ST, MSc (Eng), PhD adalah dosen di Jurusan Teknik Sipil, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta.

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