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Types of magnetic systems Pauli paramagnetism in metals Landau diamagnetism in metals Larmor diamagnetism in insulators Ferromagnetism of electron gas Spin Hamiltonian Mean field approach Curie transition
Magnets
Zero external field Paramagnets Finite external field
Diamagnets
Pauli paramagnetism
Let us first look at magnetic properties of a free electron gas. Electron are spin-1/2 particles In external magnetic field B Zeeman splitting
Pauli paramagnetism
= p 2 / 2m e B / 2mc
#of majority spins: #of minority spins:
= p 2 / 2m + e B / 2mc
d3 p f ( , ) (2 )3
N , = V
= p 2 / 2m e B / 2mc
= p 2 / 2m + e B / 2mc
- minority spins Fermi level
M=
e ( N N ) 2Vmc
- majority spins
M = B
- magnetic succeptibility
>0
- paramagnetism
Pauli succeptibility
= p 2 / 2m e B / 2mc
+ e B / 2 mc
Landau quantization
A free electron in magnetic field: Schrdinger equation:
2
= p 2 / 2m + e B / 2mc
B z
2
N N =
V ge B g ( )d V 2 e / 2mc 2 mc B
ieA + = 2m c
n, k z
Ay = Bx; Ax = Az = 0
e B / mc = 1K kB
e B / mc
e g 2mc
2
Magnetic succeptibility:
P =
nk = 2 kz2 / 2m + (e B / mc)(n + 1/ 2)
(Landau levels)
- strongly degenerate!!
Landau diamagnetism
A free electron in magnetic field: moves along spiral trajectories and create magnetic field themselves. This magnetic field is directed antiparallel to the external one
Electrons in metals
We know that there are diamagnetic metals. How can we explain their existence? Different spectra of electrons in metals and free electrons. Example: renormalized electron mass
Diamagnetism Energy:
m*
E = 2s
n
dk nk f ( nk ) 2
1 e
2
Magnetization:
M = V 1E / B
* * P = P ; L = L (m / m* )2
L = g = P 3 2mc 3
: paramagnetic!
We can explain paramagnetic and diamagnetic metals! But there is no way we can explain ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic metals in non-interacting electron model. Try insulators?
Total succeptibility:
= P + L = 2 P / 3 > 0
Larmor diamagnetism
Consider an ionic insulator with filled shells. Electrons are localized at the ions. Electron Hamiltonian:
Larmor diamagnetism
Eg = e2 B2 12mc 2
H =
ieA e BS ; A = B r + + c mc 2m
2
r
i
2 g
e2 ZN 2 2 B r 12mc 2
r small: consider terms with the field as a perturbation. Correction to the energy in the ground state:
Succeptibility:
Eg = g.s H g.s
1 2 E e2 Z = cA r 2 2 V B 6mc 2
Total spin and total momentum of electrons in a filled shell are zero; 2 only the term with r contributes.
Diamagnetism! If the ionic shells are not filled can get paramagnetic contribution due to other terms. Can explain paramagnetic and diamagnetic insulators, but not ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic ones!
Eg =
e2 B2 8mc 2
( x
i
2 i
+ yi2 )
g
e2 B2 12mc 2
r
i
2 g
Exchange interaction
Two electrons: antisymmetric wave function! Take an electron level
for
(r1 , r2 ) =
S = 0,1
+C J /2
To put an electron into the system costs electrostatic energy U and exchange energy -J Same spin: U + J Energy to pay: Opposite spin: U
J <
Non-magnetic state
J >
Ferromagnetic state
H = const JS1S2
Spin Hamiltonian
Itinerant ferromagnetism
If we can not get ferromagnetism with free electrons, try interacting electrons. Hartree-Fock approximation:
Itinerant ferromagnetism
Working the interaction terms out for free electrons (see Advanced Quantum Mechanics, lecture 4) Kinetic energy:
2 3 3N 2 kF Ekin = NEF = 5 5 2m
Eint = g Vint g
2 e2 1 2 drdr ' r r ' i (r ) j (r ') i* (r ) *j (r ') i (r ') j (r ) 2 ij
Potential energy:
3 k Eint = Ne2 F 4
kF kF
NB:
3 N = VkF /(3 2 )
Fock (exchange) interaction. Only exists if spin projections are the same in the states i and j
Kinetic energy loss can be compensated by the potential energy gain! For
k F aB <
2
5 1 2 21/ 3 + 1
aB =
/ me2
- Bohr radius
Antiferromagnetic ordering
A different situation: a pair of magnetic atoms in an insulating matrix Consider d-electrons, 5 electrons per atom
Antiferromagnetic ordering
2nd order corrections to the ground state: virtual states Ground Virtual
E =
M i E Ei
U
E = 25t 2 / U t,U
Ferromagnetic state: no second-order correction (forbidden by Pauli principle) Antiferromagnetic state preferential!
Spin Hamiltonian
Does not work for many atoms but still represents a good model to treat magnetism
H = J ij Si S j
ij
Common approximation: only nearest neighbours interact; the same exchange integrals for all bonds Heisenberg model:
h = J
S
j
H = hSi
H = J Si S j
ij
Now we need to calculate the average field self-consistently. Each site has
J > 0 ( J < 0)
Exact solution: only known for 1D chain (Bethe 1931) no magnetism! Can also be treated for high spins (classical) Let us see what we can do with approximate solutions.
chance to be up (parallel to the field) chance to be down (antiparallel to the field) Equation for the field:
Curie transition
Magnetization close to transition temperature
tanh x x x3 / 3
Solution:
2 h = 12kBTc (Tc T )
Tc =
JN 4k B
Depending on the temperature, either one solution h=0 (no magnetism) or three solutions (ferromagnetism) Three solutions at:
Square-root singularity
Curies temperature
Numerical solutions: give power laws, but not the square root. Obviously, these are problems of the mean-field approximation. To describe paramagnetic state: Can add the external field
h0
JN h tanh h = h0 + 2 2kBT