Overview: Key Roles of Cell Division

Ch 12: The Cell Cycle Ability of organism to make more of itself is difference of living and nonliving Continuity of life is based on reproduction of cells, or cell division Cell division is an integral part of cell cycle, the life of a cell from formation to its own division

Key concepts

C 12.1 most cell division (C) result in genetically identical daughter cells C 12.2 the mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell cycle C 12.3 the eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system Unicellular organisms: division of one cell reproduces the entire organism Multicellular organism: division is important for
-Development from a fertilized cell -growth -repair

C 12.1: most cell results in genetically identical daughter cell

Most C results in daughter cells with identically genetic info, DNA Exception is meiosis, a special type of that can produce sperm and egg cells All DNA is a cell constitutes the cells genome Genome consist of single DNA molecule (common in prokaryotic cells) or number of DNA molecules (common in eukaryotic cells) DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into chromosomes Eukaryotic chromosomes can exist as - chromatin, an extended linear complex of DNA and protein transcription can occur - chromosomes, condensed chromatin using histone proteins transcription cannot occur Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each cell nucleus Somatic cells (non-reproductive cells) have 2 sets of chromosomes (termed diploid) Gametes (reproductive cells: sperm and eggs) have half as many chromosomes as somatic cells (termed haploid)

Distribution of chromosomes eukaryotic cell division

DNA replicates and the chromosomes condense when the cell is

preparing for cell division

Each duplicated chromosome has 2 sister chromatids (joined copies of

the original chromosome) which separate during cell division The centromere is the narrow waist of the duplicated chromosome, where the two chromatids are most closely attached once separate, the chromatids are called chromosomes Eukaryotic cell division consists of - mitosis, the division of the genetic material in the nucleus - cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm Gametes are produced by a variation of cell division called meiosis that yields non-identical daughter cells that have only one set of chromosome, half as many as the parent cell Sperm of father + egg of mother, make a single cell organism called a Zygote which duplicates threw meiosis that later create a multicellular organism

C 12.2: The mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell

1882, German anatomis Walther Flemming developed dyes to observe chromosomes during
mitosis and cytokinesis

Cell consists of
- Interphase (Cell growth (Cw.) and copying of chromosomes in prep for C ) - Mitotic (M) phase (mitosis and cytokinesis) Interphase (~90% cell cycle) has sub-phases - G1phase (first gap) - S Phase (DNA synthesis) - G2 phase (second gap)

 Mitosis is conventionally divided into five phases - prophase - prometaphase - metaphase - anaphase - telophase Mitotic spindle: A closer look Mitotic spindle is a structure of mictobules and associated proteins that control chromosome movement during mitosis In animal cells, but not plant cells, assembly of spindle mictobulues begins in the centrsomsome, the microtubule organizing center Spindle includes - centrosome (replicates during interphase to 2 centromes, one in opposite ends of cell - spindle microtubules - aster (radial array of short microtubules) extends from each centrosome During prometaphase, some spindle microtubules attach to kinetochores (protein compleses associates with centromere) of chromosomes and move chromosome At methaphase, chromosomes are all lined up at the metaphase plate, imaginary structure in between spindles 2 poles In anaphase, sister chromatids separate and move along kienteochore microtubules toward opposite ends of the cell Microtubules shorten depolymerizing ate their kinetochore ends (pacman mechanism) Nonkinetochore microtubules from opposite poles overlap and push against each other, elongating cell In telophase, genetically identical daughter nuclei form at opposite ends of the cell In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by cleavage, forming a cleavage furrow In plant cells a cell plate forms during cytokenesis Plant cell mitotic division - no centrosome - cell plate formation (part of current cell wall carried through vesicles to make new cell wall, also cytoplasm which cause plasmadesmata) Prokaryotes (bacteria and archea) reproduce by a type of cell division called binary fission In binary fission, chromosome pelicates (beginning at the origin of replication), and the two daughter chromosomes actively move apart Plasma membrane pinches inward, dividing cell into two Since prokaryotes evolved first, mitosis probably evolved from binary fission Certain protest exhibit types of cell division that seem intermediate between binary fission and mitosis Frequency of C varies with the type of cell Differences result from regulation at the molecular level Cancer cell manage to escape the usual controls on the cell cycle Cell cycle appear to be driven by specific chem. signals present in cytoplasm Evidence for hypotheses comes from experiment in which cultured mammalian cells at different phases of the cell cycle were fused to form a single cell with two nuclei

Binary fission

Evolutions of Mitosis

C 12.3: the eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system Evidence for cytoplasmic signals

Cell cycle control system

Sequential everts of the C are directed by a distinct cell cycle control system, which is similar to a clock C control system is regulated by both internal and external controls Clock has specific checkpoints where the C stops until a go-ahead signal is received For many cells, G1 checkpoint seems to be the most important one If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G1 phase checkpoint, it will usually complete the S, G2, and M phase and divide If a cell doesnt receive the signal, it will exit the cycle and switch into a non-dividng phase, G0 phase 2 types of regulatory proteins are involved in the C control: cyclings and cyclindependent kinases (Cdks) Cdks activity fluctuates during the C bcc its controlled by cyclins, so named bcc their concentrations vary with the C MPF (maturing-promoting factor) is a ci/clin-Cdk complex that triggers a cells passage past the G2 checkpoint into the M phase An example of an internal signal is that kinetochores not attached to spindle microtubles sen a molecular signal that delays anaphase Some external signal are groth factors, proteins releases by certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide For Ex: platelet-derived growth factors (PDGF) stimulates the of human fibroblast cells in culture Clear ex. of external signals- density-dependent inhibition, in which crowded cells stop Most animal cells also exhibit anchorage dependence, in which they must be attached to a substratum in order to Cancer cells exhibit neither density-dependence inhibition nor anchorage dependence Cancer cells do not respond normally to the bodys control mechanisms Cancer cells may not need growth factors to grow and -they may make their own growth factors - they my convey a growth factors signal without the presence of growth factors - they may have an abnormal C control system A normal cell converted to a cancerous cell by a process called transformation Cancer cells form tumors, masses of abnormal cells within otherwise normal tissue If abnormal cells remain at the original state, lump is called a begin tumor Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues and can metastasize, exporting cancer cells to other body parts of the body, where they may from secondary tumors

Cell cycle clock: cyclinis and cyclin-dependent kinases

anchor den.-dep.

cancer

Loss of C controls in cancer cells

You should now be able to: 1.Describe the structural organization of the prokaryotic genome and the eukaryotic genome 2.List the phases of the cell cycle; describe the sequence of events during each phase 3.List the phases of mitosis and describe the events characteristic of each phase 4.Draw or describe the mitotic spindle, including centrosomes, kinetochore microtubules, nonkinetochore microtubules, and asters 5.Compare cytokinesis in animals and plants 6.Describe the process of binary fission in bacteria and explain how eukaryotic mitosis may have evolved from binary fission 7.Explain how the abnormal cell division of cancerous cells escapes normal cell cycle controls 8. Distinguishable between benign, malignant, and metastatic tumors