Remote Sensing and Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing Digital Image Processing

Introduction

In Situ Data Collection In Situ Data Collection

Scientists formulate hypotheses and then attempt to Scientists formulate hypotheses and then attempt to accept or reject them in a systematic, unbiased fashion. accept or reject them in a systematic, unbiased fashion. The data necessary to accept or reject a hypothesis may The data necessary to accept or reject a hypothesis may be collected directly in the field, often referred to as in be collected directly in the field, often referred to as in situ or in-place data collection. This can be a timesitu or in-place data collection. This can be a timeconsuming, expensive, and inaccurate process. consuming, expensive, and inaccurate process.

Problems Associated with In Situ Data Collection Problems Associated with In Situ Data Collection
Scientists can collect data in the field using biased Scientists can collect data in the field using biased procedures often referred to as method-produced error. procedures often referred to as method-produced error. Such error can be introduced by: Such error can be introduced by:
sampling design does not capture the spatial sampling design does not capture the spatial

variability of the phenomena under investigation variability of the phenomena under investigation (i.e., some phenomena or geographic areas are (i.e., some phenomena or geographic areas are oversampled while others are undersampled); oversampled while others are undersampled); improper operation of in situ measurement improper operation of in situ measurement instruments; or instruments; or uncalibrated in situ measurement instruments. uncalibrated in situ measurement instruments.

In situ Measurement In situ Measurement In Support of Remote In Support of Remote Sensing Measurement Sensing Measurement

In situ spectroradiometer In situ spectroradiometer measurement of soybeans measurement of soybeans

In situ ceptometer leaf-areaIn situ ceptometer leaf-areaindex (LAI) measurement index (LAI) measurement

Ground Reference Information Ground Reference Information

It is a misnomer to refer to in situ data as ground truth It is a misnomer to refer to in situ data as ground truth data. Instead, we should refer to it simply as in situ data. Instead, we should refer to it simply as in situ ground reference data, and acknowledge that it also ground reference data, and acknowledge that it also contains error. contains error.

Remote Sensing Data Collection Remote Sensing Data Collection

ASPRS adopted a combined formal definition of ASPRS adopted a combined formal definition of photogrammetry and remote sensing as (Colwell, photogrammetry and remote sensing as (Colwell, 1997): 1997): the art, science, and technology of obtaining the art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and reliable information about physical objects and the environment, through the process of the environment, through the process of recording, measuring and interpreting imagery recording, measuring and interpreting imagery and digital representations of energy patterns and digital representations of energy patterns derived from noncontact sensor systems. derived from noncontact sensor systems.

A remote sensing instrument A remote sensing instrument collects information about an collects information about an object or phenomenon within the object or phenomenon within the instantaneous-field-of-view instantaneous-field-of-view (IFOV) of the sensor system (IFOV) of the sensor system without being in direct physical without being in direct physical contact with it. The sensor is contact with it. The sensor is located on aasuborbital located on suborbital or satellite platform. or satellite platform.

Observations About Remote Sensing Observations About Remote Sensing

Is Remote Sensing a Science? Is Remote Sensing a Science?
A science is defined as the broad field of human knowledge A science is defined as the broad field of human knowledge concerned with facts held together by principles (rules). concerned with facts held together by principles (rules). Scientists discover and test facts and principles by the scientific Scientists discover and test facts and principles by the scientific method, an orderly system of solving problems. Scientists method, an orderly system of solving problems. Scientists generally feel that any subject that humans can study by using generally feel that any subject that humans can study by using the scientific method and other special rules of thinking may be the scientific method and other special rules of thinking may be called aascience. The sciences include 1) mathematics and logic, called science. The sciences include 1) mathematics and logic, 2) the physical sciences, such as physics and chemistry, 3) the 2) the physical sciences, such as physics and chemistry, 3) the biological sciences, such as botany and zoology, and 4) the biological sciences, such as botany and zoology, and 4) the social sciences, such as geography, sociology, and social sciences, such as geography, sociology, and anthropology. anthropology.

Interaction Model Depicting the Relationships of the Mapping Sciences as they Interaction Model Depicting the Relationships of the Mapping Sciences as they relate to Mathematics and Logic, and the Physical, Biological, aandSocial Sciences relate to Mathematics and Logic, and the Physical, Biological, nd Social Sciences

Observations About Remote Sensing Observations About Remote Sensing

Remote sensing is a tool or technique similar to Remote sensing is a tool or technique similar to mathematics. Using sensors to measure the amount of mathematics. Using sensors to measure the amount of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) exiting an object or electromagnetic radiation (EMR) exiting an object or geographic area from a distance and then extracting geographic area from a distance and then extracting valuable information from the data using valuable information from the data using mathematically and statistically based algorithms is a mathematically and statistically based algorithms is a scientific activity. It functions in harmony with other scientific activity. It functions in harmony with other spatial data-collection techniques or tools of the spatial data-collection techniques or tools of the mapping sciences, including cartography and mapping sciences, including cartography and geographic information systems (GIS) (Clarke, 2001). geographic information systems (GIS) (Clarke, 2001).

Observations About Remote Sensing Observations About Remote Sensing

Is Remote Sensing an Art? Is Remote Sensing an Art? Visual image interpretation brings to bear not only scientific Visual image interpretation brings to bear not only scientific knowledge but all of the experience that aaperson has obtained knowledge but all of the experience that person has obtained in aalifetime. The synergism of combining scientific knowledge in lifetime. The synergism of combining scientific knowledge with real-world analyst experience allows the interpreter to with real-world analyst experience allows the interpreter to develop heuristic rules of thumb to extract information from the develop heuristic rules of thumb to extract information from the imagery. Some image analysts are superior to other image imagery. Some image analysts are superior to other image analysts because they 1) understand the scientific principles analysts because they 1) understand the scientific principles better, 2) are more widely traveled and have seen many better, 2) are more widely traveled and have seen many landscape objects and geographic areas, and/or 3) have the landscape objects and geographic areas, and/or 3) have the ability to synthesize scientific principles and real-world ability to synthesize scientific principles and real-world knowledge to reach logical and correct conclusions. Thus, knowledge to reach logical and correct conclusions. Thus, remote sensing image interpretation is both an art and aascience. remote sensing image interpretation is both an art and science.

Observations About Remote Sensing Observations About Remote Sensing

Information about an Object or Area Information about an Object or Area Sensors can be used to obtain specific information Sensors can be used to obtain specific information about an object (e.g., the diameter of a cottonwood tree about an object (e.g., the diameter of a cottonwood tree crown) or the geographic extent of a phenomenon crown) or the geographic extent of a phenomenon (e.g., the boundary of a cottonwood stand). The EMR (e.g., the boundary of a cottonwood stand). The EMR reflected, emitted, or back-scattered from an object or reflected, emitted, or back-scattered from an object or geographic area is used as a surrogate for the actual geographic area is used as a surrogate for the actual property under investigation. The electromagnetic property under investigation. The electromagnetic energy measurements must be calibrated and turned energy measurements must be calibrated and turned into information using visual and/or digital image into information using visual and/or digital image processing techniques. processing techniques.

Advantages of Remote Sensing Advantages of Remote Sensing

Remote sensing is unobtrusive if the sensor passively records Remote sensing is unobtrusive if the sensor passively records the EMR reflected or emitted by the object of interest. Passive the EMR reflected or emitted by the object of interest. Passive remote sensing does not disturb the object or area of interest. remote sensing does not disturb the object or area of interest. Remote sensing devices may be programmed to collect data Remote sensing devices may be programmed to collect data systematically, such as within aa9 9 in. frame of vertical aerial systematically, such as within 9 9 in. frame of vertical aerial photography. This systematic data collection can remove the photography. This systematic data collection can remove the sampling bias introduced in some in situ investigations. sampling bias introduced in some in situ investigations. Under controlled conditions, remote sensing can provide Under controlled conditions, remote sensing can provide fundamental biophysical information, including x,y location, zz fundamental biophysical information, including x,y location, elevation or depth, biomass, temperature, and moisture content. elevation or depth, biomass, temperature, and moisture content.

Advantages of Remote Sensing Advantages of Remote Sensing

Remote sensingderived information is now critical to the Remote sensingderived information is now critical to the successful modeling of numerous natural (e.g., water-supply successful modeling of numerous natural (e.g., water-supply estimation; eutrophication studies; nonpoint source pollution) estimation; eutrophication studies; nonpoint source pollution) and cultural (e.g., land-use conversion at the urban fringe; and cultural (e.g., land-use conversion at the urban fringe; water-demand estimation; population estimation) processes water-demand estimation; population estimation) processes (Walsh et al., 1999; Stow et al., 2003). (Walsh et al., 1999; Stow et al., 2003).

Sun

External Forcing Functions

Volcanoes

Stratospheric Chemistry and Dynamics

Remote Remote Sensing Earth Sensing Earth System Science System Science

Physical Climate System Ocean dynamics Atmospheric physics and dynamics

Hydrologic Cycle

Biogeochemical Cycles

Marine biogeochemistry Global moisture

Tropospheric chemistry

Terrestrial energy and moisture

Terrestrial ecosystems Soil and water chemistry

Climate Change

Carbon Dioxide and Other Trace Gases

Water pollution

Air pollution

Land use

Human Activities

Limitations of Remote Sensing Limitations of Remote Sensing

The greatest limitation is that it is often oversold. Remote The greatest limitation is that it is often oversold. Remote sensing is not a panacea that provides all the information sensing is not a panacea that provides all the information needed to conduct physical, biological, or social science needed to conduct physical, biological, or social science research. It provides some spatial, spectral, and temporal research. It provides some spatial, spectral, and temporal information of value in aamanner that we hope is efficient and information of value in manner that we hope is efficient and economical. economical. Human beings select the appropriate remote sensing system to Human beings select the appropriate remote sensing system to collect the data, specify the various resolutions of the remote collect the data, specify the various resolutions of the remote sensor data, calibrate the sensor, select the platform that will sensor data, calibrate the sensor, select the platform that will carry the sensor, determine when the data will be collected, and carry the sensor, determine when the data will be collected, and specify how the data are processed. Human method-produced specify how the data are processed. Human method-produced error may be introduced as the remote sensing instrument and error may be introduced as the remote sensing instrument and mission parameters are specified. mission parameters are specified.

Limitations of Remote Sensing Limitations of Remote Sensing

Powerful active remote sensor systems that emit their own Powerful active remote sensor systems that emit their own electromagnetic radiation (e.g., LIDAR, RADAR, SONAR) can electromagnetic radiation (e.g., LIDAR, RADAR, SONAR) can be intrusive and affect the phenomenon being investigated. be intrusive and affect the phenomenon being investigated. Additional research is required to determine how intrusive these Additional research is required to determine how intrusive these active sensors can be. active sensors can be. Remote sensing instruments may become uncalibrated, Remote sensing instruments may become uncalibrated, resulting in uncalibrated remote sensor data. resulting in uncalibrated remote sensor data. Remote sensor data may be expensive to collect and analyze. Remote sensor data may be expensive to collect and analyze. Hopefully, the information extracted from the remote sensor Hopefully, the information extracted from the remote sensor data justifies the expense. data justifies the expense.

The Remote Sensing Process The Remote Sensing Process

The remote sensing data-collection and analysis The remote sensing data-collection and analysis procedures used for Earth resource applications are procedures used for Earth resource applications are often implemented in a systematic fashion referred to often implemented in a systematic fashion referred to as the remote sensing process. as the remote sensing process.

The Remote Sensing Process The Remote Sensing Process

The hypothesis to be tested is defined using aaspecific type of The hypothesis to be tested is defined using specific type of logic (e.g., inductive, deductive) and an appropriate processing logic (e.g., inductive, deductive) and an appropriate processing model (e.g., deterministic, stochastic). model (e.g., deterministic, stochastic). In situ and collateral data necessary to calibrate the remote In situ and collateral data necessary to calibrate the remote sensor data and/or judge its geometric, radiometric, and sensor data and/or judge its geometric, radiometric, and thematic characteristics are collected. thematic characteristics are collected. Remote sensor data are collected passively or actively using Remote sensor data are collected passively or actively using analog or digital remote sensing instruments, ideally at the same analog or digital remote sensing instruments, ideally at the same time as the in situ data. time as the in situ data.

A Taxonomy of Models A Taxonomy of Models used in Remote Sensing, used in Remote Sensing, GIS, and Environmental GIS, and Environmental Science Research Science Research

The Remote Sensing Process The Remote Sensing Process

In situ and remotely sensed data are processed using a) analog In situ and remotely sensed data are processed using a) analog image processing, b) digital image processing, c) modeling, and image processing, b) digital image processing, c) modeling, and d) n-dimensional visualization. d) n-dimensional visualization. Metadata, processing lineage, and the accuracy of the Metadata, processing lineage, and the accuracy of the information are provided and the results communicated using information are provided and the results communicated using images, graphs, statistical tables, GIS databases, Spatial images, graphs, statistical tables, GIS databases, Spatial Decision Support Systems (SDSS), etc. Decision Support Systems (SDSS), etc.

Remote Sensing Data Collection Remote Sensing Data Collection

The amount of electromagnetic radiance, L (watts m-2 sr-1;; The amount of electromagnetic radiance, L (watts m-2 sr-1 watts per meter squared per steradian) recorded within the watts per meter squared per steradian) recorded within the IFOV of an optical remote sensing system (e.g., aapicture IFOV of an optical remote sensing system (e.g., picture element in aadigital image) is aafunction of: element in digital image) is function of:

L f , s x , y , z , t , , P,

where, where, = wavelength (spectral response measured in various bands = wavelength (spectral response measured in various bands or at specific frequencies). Wavelength (()and frequency (() or at specific frequencies). Wavelength ) and frequency ) may be used interchangeably based on their relationship with may be used interchangeably based on their relationship with the speed of light ((c)where .. the speed of light c) where

Remote Sensing Data Collection Remote Sensing Data Collection

ss = x, y, zzlocation of the picture element and its size ((x,yy) x,y,z = x, y, location of the picture element and its size x, ) x,y,z tt= temporal information, i.e., when and how often the = temporal information, i.e., when and how often the information was acquired information was acquired = set of angles that describe the geometric relationships = set of angles that describe the geometric relationships among the radiation source (e.g., the Sun), the terrain target of among the radiation source (e.g., the Sun), the terrain target of interest (e.g., aacorn field), and the remote sensing system interest (e.g., corn field), and the remote sensing system P = polarization of back-scattered energy recorded by the P = polarization of back-scattered energy recorded by the sensor sensor = radiometric resolution (precision) at which the data (e.g., = radiometric resolution (precision) at which the data (e.g., reflected, emitted, or back-scattered radiation) are recorded by reflected, emitted, or back-scattered radiation) are recorded by the remote sensing system. the remote sensing system.

Spectral Spectral Resolution Resolution

Airborne Visible Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Infrared Imaging Spectrometer Spectrometer (AVIRIS) Datacube (AVIRIS) Datacube of Sullivans Island of Sullivans Island Obtained on Obtained on October 26, 1998 October 26, 1998

Color-infrared color composite on top of the datacube was created using three of the 224 bands at 10 nm nominal bandwidth.

Spatial Spatial Resolution Resolution

Temporal Resolution Temporal Resolution

Remote Sensor Data Acquisition Remote Sensor Data Acquisition
June 1, 2004 June 1, 2004 June 17, 2004 June 17, 2004 July 3, 2004 July 3, 2004

16 days 16 days

Radiometric Resolution Radiometric Resolution

0 77-bit -bit (0 --127) (0 127) 88-bit -bit (0 --255) (0 255) 99-bit -bit (0 --511) (0 511) 10-bit 10-bit (0 --1023) (0 1023)

Angular Information Angular Information

Remote sensing systems record very specific angular Remote sensing systems record very specific angular characteristics associated with each exposed silver halide characteristics associated with each exposed silver halide crystal or pixel. The angular characteristics are aafunction of: crystal or pixel. The angular characteristics are function of: location in aathree-dimensional sphere of the illumination location in three-dimensional sphere of the illumination source (e.g., the Sun for aapassive system or the sensor itself source (e.g., the Sun for passive system or the sensor itself in the case of RADAR, LIDAR, and SONAR) and its in the case of RADAR, LIDAR, and SONAR) and its associated azimuth and zenith angles, associated azimuth and zenith angles, orientation of the terrain facet (pixel) or terrain cover (e.g., orientation of the terrain facet (pixel) or terrain cover (e.g., vegetation) under investigation, and vegetation) under investigation, and location of the suborbital or orbital remote sensing system location of the suborbital or orbital remote sensing system and its associated azimuth and zenith angles. and its associated azimuth and zenith angles.

Angular Information Angular Information

There is always an angle of incidence associated with the There is always an angle of incidence associated with the incoming energy that illuminates the terrain and an angle of incoming energy that illuminates the terrain and an angle of exitance from the terrain to the sensor system. This bidirectional exitance from the terrain to the sensor system. This bidirectional nature of remote sensing data collection is known to influence nature of remote sensing data collection is known to influence the spectral and polarization characteristics of the at-sensor the spectral and polarization characteristics of the at-sensor radiance, L, recorded by the remote sensing system. radiance, L, recorded by the remote sensing system.

Remote Sensing Data Analysis Remote Sensing Data Analysis

The analysis of remotely sensed data is performed using aa The analysis of remotely sensed data is performed using variety of image processing techniques, including: variety of image processing techniques, including: analog (visual) image processing, and analog (visual) image processing, and digital image processing. digital image processing. Analog and digital analysis of remotely sensed data seek to Analog and digital analysis of remotely sensed data seek to detect and identify important phenomena in the scene. Once detect and identify important phenomena in the scene. Once identified, the phenomena are usually measured, and the identified, the phenomena are usually measured, and the information is used in solving problems. Optimum results are information is used in solving problems. Optimum results are often achieved using aa synergistic combination of both visual often achieved using synergistic combination of both visual and digital image processing. and digital image processing.

Image Image Analysis Analysis Tasks Tasks

Earth Resource Analysis Perspective Earth Resource Analysis Perspective

Digital image processing is used for many applications, Digital image processing is used for many applications, including: weapon guidance systems (e.g., the cruise missile), including: weapon guidance systems (e.g., the cruise missile), medical image analysis (e.g., xx-raying aa broken arm), broken arm), medical image analysis (e.g., -raying nondestructive evaluation of machinery and products (e.g., on nondestructive evaluation of machinery and products (e.g., on an assembly line), and analysis of Earth resources. This class an assembly line), and analysis of Earth resources. This class focuses on the art and science of applying remote sensing focuses on the art and science of applying remote sensing digital image processing for the extraction of useful Earth digital image processing for the extraction of useful Earth resource information. resource information. Earth resource information is defined as any information Earth resource information is defined as any information concerning terrestrial vegetation, soils, minerals, rocks, water, concerning terrestrial vegetation, soils, minerals, rocks, water, certain atmospheric characteristics, and urban infrastructure. certain atmospheric characteristics, and urban infrastructure.

Earth Resource Analysis Perspective Earth Resource Analysis Perspective

Such information may be useful for modeling: Such information may be useful for modeling: the global carbon cycle, the global carbon cycle, biology and biochemistry of ecosystems, biology and biochemistry of ecosystems, aspects of the global water and energy cycle, aspects of the global water and energy cycle, climate variability and prediction, climate variability and prediction, atmospheric chemistry, atmospheric chemistry, characteristics of the solid Earth, characteristics of the solid Earth, population estimation, and population estimation, and monitoring land-use change and natural hazards. monitoring land-use change and natural hazards.

Digital Digital Image Image Processing Processing