Causes of Negative

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

“I’m not good at math”, “I hate math” or “math is too hard” are

common phrases heard by teachers and parents. “One of the curious

aspects of our society is that it is socially acceptable to take pride in

not being good in mathematics” (National Council of Teachers of

Mathematics [NCTM], 1991, ¶16). Where do these attitudes and beliefs

come from? Can they be changed? Through reviewing literature, three

main ideas surfaced as possible reasons students dislike math: math

anxiety, lack of motivation in mathematics, and a negative attitude

toward mathematics.

Math Anxiety

Math anxiety is a condition in which students experience negative

reactions to mathematical concepts and evaluation methods (Cates &

Rhymer, 2003). Math anxiety can lead to several consequences. For

example, Suinn and Richardson (1972) found that mathematics anxiety

may prevent students from pursuing higher-level math courses and

HO, Senturk, Lam, Zimmer, Hong, Okamoto, Chui, Nakazawa, & Wang

(2000) stated, “math anxiety has been found to have a negative

relationship with mathematics performance and achievement” (p.362).

Anxious individuals may avoid mathematics classes, may be more

likely to have negative attitudes toward mathematic related activities,

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or if they become elementary teachers, may not spend as much time

teaching mathematics as their less anxious colleagues (Ho et al.,

2000). Several studies have proposed that math anxiety has two

dimensions: affective (nervousness, tension, dread, fear) and cognitive

(worry) (Meece, Wigfield, & Eccles, 1990; Wigfield & Meece, 1988; Ho

et al., 2000).

Ho et al. conducted a study across three nations consisting of

671 sixth grade students from China (211, 92 girls and 119 boys),

Taiwan (214, 106 girls and 108 boys), and the United States (246, 111

girls and 135 boys). The focus in this study was to address the

differential predictions of the affective and cognitive factors of math

anxiety for mathematics achievement. For the anxiety measure the

MAQ (Math Anxiety Questionnaire) was used. It contained 11 items

using a Likert scale and contained items in the cognitive and affective

dimensions. For the math achievement dimension, two similar tests

were given 4 to 6 weeks apart with reliability coefficient of .82. One

third of the items were from textbooks, one-third from another cross-

national study, and the other third developed by the researchers. The

relationship between the affective math anxiety factor and

achievement showed a strong negative effect (p<.05). Cognitive

anxiety was inconsistent across the samples. China and U.S. samples

were not significant, whereas, Taiwan had significant and positive

effects (p<.05) from cognitive anxiety. Analysis of the gender

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interaction showed only Taiwan had significant effect with girls having

higher affective anxiety (p<.05). Taiwanese and U.S. girls had higher

cognitive anxiety (p<.05) than Taiwanese and U.S. boys. Gender

differences in China were not significant. In mathematics achievement

only the main effect for nation was significant (p<.05). Gender and

interaction of gender by nation were not significant. The results

suggest that the affective factors of math anxiety are consistently

related to mathematics achievement, while the cognitive factors yield

inconsistent results. Ho et al. (2000) conclusion is that the affective

dimension of math anxiety correlates more strongly with negative

performance than does the cognitive dimension.

Meece, Wigfield, & Eccles (1990) conducted a 2-year long

longitudinal study that focuses on the influence of math anxiety on

students' course enrollment plans and performance in math. The study

had two goals; to identify important predictors of math anxiety and

assess the predictive influence math anxiety has on enrollment plans.

The sample included 250 students in 7th through 9th grade at

predominantly white middle-class suburban communities. The 7th and

8th grade students were enrolled in classes of approximately equal

difficulty. Ninth grade students were enrolled in regular algebra or

advanced algebra. Seven students were enrolled in a slow-paced

algebra class. Questionnaires were administered in the spring of year

one and two. The Student Attitude Survey (SAQ) was used which

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contains items to assess students expectancies for success, perceived

values, perceived ability, perceived effort, perceived task difficulty in

both math and English, and several other items. Most items were

assessed using two or more 7 point Likert scale items. Predictor

variables were divided into three factors. The perceived math ability

measure consists of three items tapping students' sense of their math

ability and how well they were doing in math. The expectancies

measure consists of two items asking students how well they expected

to do in their current math class. The importance measure consists of

items asking students to rate how important it is for them to do well at

math and to get good grades. The SAQ also includes an item asking

students to indicate whether they would take more math classes in the

future if they were not required. A measure of math anxiety was

included in the second year of the study. It contained 11 items to

assess cognitive (concern about doing well in math) and negative

affective dimensions of math anxiety. Math achievement information

was collected on each student for both years from school records. The

final grade for each year was used. The study suggests those students'

current performance expectancies in mathematics (highly significant at

p<.01) and to a lesser extent perceived importance of mathematics

have the strongest direct effect on their anxiety and are stronger

predictors of performance and course enrollment than math anxiety.

Their findings also support the idea that it is the students’

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interpretations of their achievement outcomes and not the outcomes

themselves that have the strongest effects on students' affective

reactions to achievement.

Other studies have focused on the effect anxiety has on

achievement. In one such study, Ma (1999) conducted a meta-analysis

consisting of 26 individual studies that investigated the relationship

between math anxiety and achievement in math. The population

correlation for the relationship between math anxiety and math

achievement between the studies was significant (p<.01). The U3

statistic corresponding to the population correlation is .71. This

indicates that “the measures (or treatments) that resulted in

movement of a typical student in the group of high anxiety into the

group of low anxiety would be associated with improvement of the

typical students level of achievement from the 50th percentile to the

71st percentile” (Ma, 1999, p. 528). This study suggests that there is a

significant relationship between anxiety and achievement. It also

quantified the potential improvement when anxiety is reduced. Most

studies have emphasized addressing affective factors, but the

significance of the relationship indicates the value of addressing

cognitive based treatments such as skill development (Ma, 1999).

Cates & Rymer (2003) conducted a study that builds on MA’s

(1999) meta-analysis study, by connecting it to the learning hierarchy.

The learning hierarchy suggests that there are four stages of learning:

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acquisition, fluency, generalization, and adaptation. Their purpose was

to investigate the extent to which level of math anxiety may be related

to a more advanced stage of the learning Hierarchy than to the initial

acquisition stage by assessing fluency as opposed to overall accuracy.

The study involved fifty-two college students taking an introductory

psychology. They were given the FSMAS (a mathematics anxiety test)

and divided into a low anxiety group and a high anxiety group. These

groups were then given a timed math probe with multiple operations

including addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and linear

equations. The results showed a significant difference (p<.05) on

fluency between high and low anxiety groups. “Students with lower

anxiety completed more digits correct per minute an all probes. There

was no significant difference in error rates between high and low

anxiety groups. Both groups were equally accurate on basic

mathematics operations” (Cates & Rymer, 2003, p 30). These results

suggest that fluency in math may be more related to math anxiety

than overall performance. In other words, math anxiety may increase

with problem complexity. One implication is that as students progress

through high school and classes become more complex their anxiety

level will increase.

Motivation

Motivation can be divided into two categories: extrinsic and

intrinsic. Extrinsic motivation is desire to obtain rewards for academic

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tasks, such as grades, or avoid punishments. "Academic intrinsic

motivation is the drive or desire of the student to engage in learning

‘for its own sake’” (Middleton & Spanias, 1999, p. 66).

Schiefele & Csikszentmihalyi (1995) conducted a study to

answer questions related to motivation. First, is quality of experience

when doing mathematics more dependent on ability or motivational

characteristics? Second, are subject-matter-specific measures of

motivation more predictive of quality of experience and achievement

than general measures of motivation? Third, do motivational

characteristics and quality of experience when doing mathematics

predict achievement in mathematics independently of ability? The

study included 108 freshman and sophomores from two suburban high

schools. From the 108 students, teachers nominated students they

thought were talented in one or more subject matters. Students were

given a questionnaire to gauge interest in mathematics and

achievement motivation. Ability was measured by scores on the PSAT

(Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test). Quality of experience was

measured using the Experience Sampling Method (ESM). This method

provides the subject a pager and throughout the day whenever the

subject is signaled they fill out the questionnaire. Semester grades

were used as an indicator of mathematics achievement. Students who

were talented in mathematics had significantly higher (p<.001) values

for mathematic ability, better grades for the first four years, and a

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higher course level than those talented in other subjects. The results

clearly indicate that interest was the strongest predictor of quality of

experience in the mathematics class (Schiefele & Csikszentmihalyi,

1995). Specifically, interest showed significant relations to potency

(p<.01), intrinsic motivation (p<.05), self-esteem (p<.01), and

perception of skill (p<.001). “Surprisingly, level of mathematic ability

was not related to experience at all” (Schiefele & Csikszentmihalyi,

1995, p. 173). This study suggests that teachers should create more

interest in order to improve motivation. Wiess (cited in Schiefele &

Csikszentmihalyi, 1995), for example, found that teachers tend to

emphasize learning facts and principles and to develop a systematic

approach to problem solving. Their methods were lecture, discussion,

and seatwork. These approaches however, may not create much

interest in mathematics.

Anderson (2007) conducted a qualitative study to address “the

notion of identity, drawn from the social theories of learning as a way

to view students as they develop as mathematics learners” (p. 7). The

students in this study were participants in a larger study of students’

enrollment in advanced mathematics classes. Fourteen students were

selected from one high school for semi-structured interviews. Two

groups were formed: students enrolled in Precalculus or Calculus and

students not taking a mathematics course that year. All of the students

had taken the two required and any elective high school mathematics

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in the same high school. “One teacher taught most of these courses.

When interviewed, this teacher indicated the ‘traditional’ nature of the

curriculum and pedagogy: ‘We’ve always stayed pretty traditional… We

haven’t really changed it to the really ‘out there’ hands-on type of

programs.’” (Anderson, 2007, p. 7-8) Anderson (2007) describes the

four faces of mathematics identity (how we define ourselves and how

others define us as mathematics learners) as engagement (direct

experiences in the classroom), imagination (envisioning how activities

fit into the big picture), alignment (how the curriculum fits with future

plans), and nature (abilities we’re born with). From the interviews, the

social learning theory, and previous studies conclusions are drawn

about how the four faces impact a students’ mathematic identity.

“Some students may not identify themselves as being a ‘math person’.

Students may mistakenly believe that they are unable to learn

mathematics or they weren’t born with the genetics needed to be good

at math, but scientific evidence does not support these ideas”

(Anderson, 2007, p. 8).

While all four faces contribute to the formation of students’

identities as mathematics learners, the nature face provides the

most unsound and unfounded explanations for students’

participation in the mathematics community. To allow for the

development of all students to identify as mathematics learners,

students and teachers must discount the nature face and build

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on the other three faces of identity (Anderson, 2007, p. 11).

“Mathematical tasks that engage students in doing mathematics,

making meaning of mathematics, and generating their own solutions

to complex mathematical problems can be beneficial in engaging

students and supporting their identity as mathematics learners” (NCTM

as cited in Anderson, 2007, p.12). Anderson (2007) suggests that to

increase interest, instruction should involve more active and student-

centered activities. “Teachers can reinforce the idea that mathematics

is an interesting subject, used in other disciplines, and is an admission

ticket for colleges and careers. Teachers could have working

professionals to visit the classes and share how they use mathematics

in their profession” (Anderson, 2007 p. 12).

Stipek, Salmon, Givvin, & Kazemi (1998) ask the question: What

are the associations between teaching practices, student motivation

and mathematics learning? In their study, twenty-four 4th through 6th

grade teachers were selected from schools in a large urban ethnically

diverse area. Three groups were formed. Two groups had expressed a

commitment to implementing reforms and agreed to teach using a

reform-oriented unit on fractions. One of those groups was given

training on implementing reforms. The third group taught using

standard methods and textbooks and expressed no interest in reforms.

Six hundred ninety four (694) students of diverse ethnic backgrounds

participated. Each teacher was videotaped for at least two periods and

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evaluated for teaching practices and a questionnaire was given asking

teachers about their assessment practices. Students completed a

questionnaire twice: once before the intervention and once after the

unit on fractions related to motivational dimensions. Students were

also evaluated from the videotapes of the classroom. Students were

assessed on fractions from routine to conceptually challenging. Tests

were given at the beginning of the year and after the fractions unit.

The effects on student motivation based on teacher practices were

significant between help seeking (p<.001) and enjoyment (p<.05) with

the positive affective practices of the teacher. The effects were also

significant for positive emotions (p<.05), enjoyment (p<.05) and

learning conceptual items (p<.05) with the learning orientation

practices of the teacher. The learning orientation of the teacher refers

to the teacher giving timely and substantive feedback and focuses on

improvement and mastery over grades. The study suggests that the

affective climate is a strong predictor of students’ motivation and

fosters mastery orientation in students.

“Students’ feeling of relatedness to their teachers was strong

predictors of their cognitive, behavioral, and emotional engagement in

classroom activities” (Stipek et al., 1998, p. 483). Davis, Maher, and

Noddings (1990) gave this example:

Jaime Escalante, the real-life hero of the film Stand and Deliver,

insists that he must teach his students for three years if they are

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to succeed in AP calculus. He conscientiously builds relations of

care and trust with each student. He shows steady concern for

the integral development of his students – how they are doing in

English, how their home lives are going, what jobs and sports

they participate in. This attitude and effort that accompanies it

are part of teaching mathematics. As we build such relations, our

students learn to trust us. When the work is not as exciting as

we’d like it to be or when they have low moments (as we all do),

students will often persist in mathematical endeavors for their

teacher. “Okay, if you say so. I’ll do it - just for you” (p. 191).

Middleton & Spanias (1999) conducted a review of literature to

“describe theoretical orientations guiding research in mathematics

motivation and to discuss findings in terms of how they facilitate or

inhibit achievement" (Middleton & Spanias, 1999, p. 65). The

conclusions are as follows: “students' perception of success in

mathematics are highly influential in forming their motivational

attitudes” (Middleton & Spanias, 1999, p. 79); “motivations towards

mathematics are developed early, are highly stable over time, and are

influenced greatly by teacher actions and attitudes" (Middleton &

Spanias, 1999, p. 80); “providing opportunities for students to develop

intrinsic motivation in mathematics is generally superior to providing

extrinsic incentives for achievement” (Middleton & Spanias, 1999, p.

81); and “Last, and most important, achievement motivation in

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mathematics, though stable, can be affected through careful

instructional design” (Middleton & Spanias, 1999, p. 82).

Attitude

“Attitude toward mathematics is defined as a general emotional

disposition toward the school subject of mathematics” (Haladnya et al.,

1983, p. 20). Maple and Stage (as cited in Schiefele &

Csikszentmihalyi, 1995) found that “attitude toward mathematics

significantly influenced choice of mathematics major” (p. 177). “One of

the most important reasons for nurturing a positive attitude in

mathematics is that it may increase one’s tendency to elect

mathematics courses in high school and college and possibly to elect

careers in a math related field” (Schiefele & Csikszentmihalyi, 1995, p.

177). One important factor in students’ attitude toward mathematics is

the teacher and classroom environment.

Haladnya et al. (1983) conducted a study designed to examine

teacher and learning environment variables that were believed to be

the most powerful causal determinants of attitude toward

mathematics. Over 2,000 students in grades 4, 7, and 9 participated in

the study. The students were given the Inventory of Affective Aspects

of Schooling (IAAS) that addressed student motivation, teacher quality,

social-psychological class climate, management-organization class

climate and attitude toward math. The correlations of each

independent variable with attitude and motivation were all significant

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(p<.05) using a one-tailed test. A path analysis was also conducted to

determine causal relationships. The findings suggest that teacher

quality (enthusiasm, respect, commitment to help students learn,

fairness, praise and reinforcement) seems to be consistently related to

attitude toward mathematics.

Wilkins & Ma (2003) conducted a study to answer questions

about how student attitudes changed from middle school to high

school. Data came from Longitudinal Study of American Youth (LSAY), a

national study, which tracked over 3,000 seventh-grade students for

six years. Information about student affect was collected (via

questionnaires) and three measures created: attitude toward

mathematics, social importance of mathematics (usefulness of math in

daily lives and on the job), and nature of mathematics (whether

changes in science theory over time cause more good than harm). The

findings show that mathematical beliefs and attitudes change

gradually. “However, the important trend highlighted in this study is

that students in secondary school become increasingly less positive

with regard to their attitude toward mathematics and their beliefs in

the social importance on mathematics” (Wilkins & Ma, 2003 p. 58).

Students’ notions of the nature of science showed little change. In

regard to middle school changes, attitude and social importance of

mathematics declined at a significantly slower rate (p<.001) for

students with positive teacher push and positive peer influence.

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Parental push was also a significant (p<.05) influence. In high school,

positive peer influence (p<.001), positive teacher push (p<.05), and

curriculum (students taking higher math) (p<.001) were related to

slower rates of decline in attitude and social importance. Wilkins and

Ma (2003) make several observations and suggestions such as: “If

teachers hold high expectations and present students with challenging

mathematics, then students may be more likely to enjoy mathematics

and recognize it usefulness” (p. 59) and “teachers’ choice of activities

and mathematics problems can have a strong impact on the values

that are portrayed in the classroom and on how students view

mathematics and its usefulness” (Wilkins and Ma, 2003, p. 59).

Supporting positive peer networks and involving parents in school

activities involving mathematics can help slow decline of students’

negative attitude toward mathematics (Wilkins & Ma, 2003).

Ma & Kishor (1997) conducted a meta-analysis of 113 studies to

examine the relationship between attitude toward math and

achievement in math. Although the study produced no significant

results, there was an indication that junior high may be the most

important period for students to understand and shape their attitude

as it relates to their achievement in math. Therefore, the junior high

years may provide teachers an opportunity to treat negative attitudes

toward math and foster high achievement.

Summary

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It is clear from the research reviewed that math anxiety, motivation,

and attitude all play important roles in whether or not students will

pursue advanced mathematics courses and careers in math related

fields. As the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1991)

suggests, it has not only become acceptable to not be good at

mathematics, but acceptable to be proud of not being good in

mathematics. Many suggestions have been offered to address the

problem, for example: change teaching methods, get students actively

involved in learning mathematics, show students the relevance of

mathematics in their lives, build relationships with the students,

promote a positive affective environment, and create interest in the

mathematics field are just a few. In any case, the affective

environment can play a large role in reversing the trend of negative

attitudes about mathematics, lack of motivation, and the adverse

effect of math anxiety on our students.

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