The Kronecker-Weber Theorem

Lucas Culler
Introduction
The Kronecker-Weber theorem is one of the earliest known results in class eld theory. It says:
Theorem. (Kronecker-Weber-Hilbert) Every abelian extension of the rational numbers Q is con-
tained in a cyclotomic extension.
Recall that an abelian extension is a nite eld extension K/Q such that the galois group Gal(K/Q)
is abelian, and a cyclotomic extension is an extension of the form Q(), where is an n
th
root of
unity.
This paper consists of two proofs of the Kronecker-Weber theorem. The rst is rather involved, but
elementary, and uses the theory of higher ramication groups. The second is a simple application
of the main results of class eld theory, which classies abelian extension of an arbitrary number
eld.
An Elementary Proof
Now we will present an elementary proof of the Kronecker-Weber theoerem, in the spirit of Hilberts
original proof. The particular strategy used here is given as a series of exercises in Marcus [1].
Minkowskis Theorem
We rst prove a classical result due to Minkowski.
Theorem. (Minkowski) Any nite extension of Q has nonzero discriminant. In particular, such
an extension is ramied at some prime p Z.
Proof. Let K/Q be a nite extension of degree n, and let A = O
K
be its ring of integers. Consider
the embedding:
A R
r
C
s
x (
1
(x), ...,
r
(x),
1
(x), ...,
s
(x))
where the
i
are the real embeddings of K and the
i
are the complex embeddings, with one
embedding chosen from each conjugate pair, so that n = r + 2s. It is easily checked that this
embeds A as a lattice in R
n
, whose fundamental parallelogram has volume
Vol(R
n
/) = 2
s
_
disc(K)
In terms of this embedding, the norm of an element x A is given by:
1
N(x) = [
1
(x)[ [
r
(x)[[
1
(x)[
2
+. . . [
s
(x)[
2
which can easily be extended to a function on all of R
n
. Now consider the following convex,
symmetric region in R
n
:
C
t
= x R
r
C
s
[
r

i=1
[x

i
[ + 2
s

j=1
[x

j
[ < t
A straightforward computation shows that the volume of this set is given by:
Vol(C
t
) = 2
r

s
t
n
n!
If x C, then N(x) <
t
n
n
n
, because the geometric mean is bounded above by the arithmetic mean.
If we choose t such that
t
n
> n!
_
4

_
s
_
disc(K), (1)
then
Vol(C
t
) > 2
n
Vol(R
n
/)
Therefore C contains a point x for any such t. Since we can choose t arbitrarily close to the
right hand side of (1), and since there are only nitely many points of in C, we may assume that
equality holds in (1). Thus
1 N(x) <
t
n
n
n
=
n!
n
n
_
4

_
s
_
disc(K)
And therefore:
_
disc(K)
n
n
n!
_

4
_
s
>
n
n
n!
_

4
_
n/2
Now consider the sequence:
a
n
=
n
n
n!
_

4
_
n/2
.
The ratio of successive terms in this sequence is:
a
n+1
a
n
=
_

4
_
1 +
1
n
_
n
.
(1 + 1/n)
n
is an increasing sequence, and
_

4
(1 + 1) > 1, so the ratios are always greater than 1.
Hence the sequence is increasing. Since its second term is

2
> 1, we see that
_
disc(K) a
n
> 1
This completes the proof, because the primes that ramify in the extension K/Q are precisely those
that divide disc(K).
2
Higher Ramication Groups
Next we show that it is enough to prove the Kronecker-Weber theorem in the case where all primes
are wildly ramied. In this section, L/K is a nite extension of number elds, A = O
K
and B = O
L
are the rings of integers, P is a prime of A, and Q is a prime of B lying over P.
First we recall the denition of tame and wild ramication:
Denition. We say that Q/P is tamely ramied if the ramication index e(Q/P) is relatively prime
to the characteristic of the residue eld O
K
/P. Otherwise, we say that Q/P is wildly ramied.
This proof of the Kronecker-Weber theorem makes extensive use of the higher ramication groups,
which we now dene:
Denition. The nth ramication group E
n
(Q/P) is dened as follows:
E
n
(Q/P) = Gal(L/K) [ (x) x (mod Q
n+1
) x B
In particular, if n = 0 we recover the inertial group E(Q/P). If the context is clear, the Q and P
will often be omitted.
It is clear that each E
n
is a normal subgroup of the decomposition group D = D(Q/P), so in
particular E
n+1
is normal in E
n
. Also note that

n1
E
n
= 1.
One of the most fundamental facts about higher decomposition groups is the following:
Proposition. There is a natural injective homomorphism
n
: E
n
/E
n+1
U
(n)
/U
(n+1)
, where
U
(0)
=

B

and U
(n)
= 1 +

Q
n

for n > 0.
Proof. For convenience, we will work in the completions

A and

B at P and Q, respectively. This
is justied by the isomorphism D(Q/P) Gal(

L/

K), which takes E
n
(Q/P) isomorphically onto
E
n
(

Q/

P).
Let be any uniformizer for

B. For any E
n
(Q/P), we have:
() =
for some

B

. Since E
n
, we have (for n > 0):
() (mod Q
n+1
)
Thus U
(
n). Now let u B be any unit. We have
(u) = u
for some

B

. Then
(u)u
1
uu
1
1 (mod Q
n+1
),
so the map

n
() = ()/
is a well dened homomorphism from E
n
/E
n+1
to U
(n)
/U
(n+1)
, and does not depend on the choice
of uniformizer . It is injective, because if
3
1 (mod Q
n+1
)
then for any x = u
k

B, we have:
(x) (u
k
) (u)(
k
) u
k

k
u
k
x (mod Q
n+1
)
This fairly simple observation has several useful corollaries:
Corollary. Q/P is tamely ramied if and only if all the higher decomposition groups are trivial.
Proof. () Simply note that, for n > 1, [U
(n)
/U
(n+1)
[ = [B/Q[, since it is isomorphic to 1 +
Q
n
/Q
n+1
(R/Q
n+1
)

. Hence, if e(P/Q) is prime to p, the injective homomorphism

n
must be
0, hence E
n
= 0 for all n > 1.
() Similarly, since [U
(0)
/U
(1)
[ = [R/P

[, the order of E/E

1
must be prime to p. Hence, if p
divides [E[, at least one higher ramication group must be nonzero.
4
Corollary. D(Q/P) is solvable for any P and Q
Proof. D/E is isomorphic to a subgroup of Gal(k
Q
/k
P
), where k
Q
and k
P
are the residue elds
at Q and P respectively. Thus it is abelian, and by the proposition, E
i
/E
i+1
is isomorphic to a
subgroup of an abelian group. Hence the ramication groups form a ltration of D, and each of
the quotients are abelian, so D is solvable.
In the following sections, we will need the following stronger version of the proposition above:
Proposition. Suppose D/E
1
is abelian. Then the image of the homomorphism
0
: E/E
1

(B/Q)

is contained in (A/P)

.
Proof. Suppose that
0
() = . Then we have:
() (mod Q
n+1
)
for any uniformizer . Replacing with
1
() for any D, we see that:
(
1
())
1
() (mod Q
n+1
)
And thus
() ((
1
())) () (mod Q
n+1
)
Since any element of Gal(k
Q
/k
P
) is the restriction of an element of D, this shows that is invariant
under every element of Gal(k
Q
/k
P
). Hence A/P, as desired.
Eliminating Tame Ramication
We now prove that it suces to prove the Kronecker-Weber theorem in the case where no primes
are tamely ramied.
Proposition. Suppose a prime p Z is tamely ramied in an abelian extension K/Q. Then there
exists an extension K

/Q and a subeld L Q(), for some nth root of unity , such that:
1. Any prime that is unramied in K is also unramied in K

.
2. p is unramied in K

3. LK = LK

Proof. Fix a prime P of K lying over p. Then E

1
= E
1
(P/p) is trivial, so E is isomorphic to a
subgroup of (F
p
)

. Since K/Q is abelian, the ramication index e divides p 1.

Let be a pth root of unity, and let L Q() be the unique subeld of order e. Since p is totally
ramied in Q(), it is totally ramied in L also, and since p is prime to the order of L/Q, p is
tamely ramied in L. Let Q be the unique prime of L lying over p.
Now consider the composite KL. Let U be a prime of KL lying over Q, and let K

be its inertial
eld, that is, the xed eld of E(U/P). We claim that K

is the extension described above.

Say q Z is unramied. Then q does not divide the discriminant of K, and since q ,= p, q does not
divide the discriminant of L. Thus it does not divide the discriminant of KL, hence it is unramied
in KL, hence it is unramied in K

. This shows that K

satises property 1 above.

5
Since any prime is unramied in its inertia eld, property 2 is automatic. Thus it suces to show
that K

satises property 3.
First note that U is tamely ramied, since E(U/p) injects into Gal(K/Q) Gal(L/Q), which
has order prime to p. Thus E(U/p) injects into the cyclic group Z/p

. Thus E(U/p) is cyclic.

But if we look at the image of E(U/p) in Gal(K/Q) Gal(L/Q), we see that it is contained in
E(Q/p) Gal(L/Q), which has exponent e. Thus E(U/p) is a cyclic group of order at most e.
Since p is ramied in L with ramication index e, it must be ramied in K

L with ramication
index at least e. But p is unramied in K

, so [LK

: K] e. But [LK : K] = e, so LK = LK

, as
desired.
Thus we have reduced the Kronecker-Weber theorem to the case where all primes are wildly rami-
ed. In fact, we can do better:
Proposition. It suces to prove the Kronecker-Weber theorem in the case where [K : Q] = p
k
for
some prime p Z, Gal(K/Q) is cyclic, and p is the only ramied prime.
Proof. Since any abelian group is a direct sum of cyclic group of prime power order, any abelian
extension is a composite of cyclic extensions of prime power degree. The proposition above allows
us to assume that p is the only ramied prime in each of these cyclic extensions.
Reduction to the Crucial Case
We now reduce further to the case where [K : Q] is a prime p and disc(K) is a power of p. In
particular, we show that the Kronecker-Weber theorem is implied by the following two results:
Proposition (1). Let p be an odd prime. Then there is a unique extension K/Q of order p such
that disc(K) is a power of p.
Proposition (2). The only quadratic extensions of Q with discriminant a power of 2 are Q(i),
Q(

2), or Q(

2).
Note that the second statement is obvious, since the discriminant of K = Q(

d), where d is a
squarefree integer, is given by:
disc(K) =
_
d d 1(mod 4)
4d d 2, 3(mod 4)
The rst statement is more dicult, so we postpone its proof to the following section. For now, we
shall use it, along with the reductions achieved in the previous section, to deduce the Kronecker-
Weber theorem:
Theorem. Assuming proposition 1, any cyclic extension K/Q of degree p
n
whose discriminant is
a power of p is contained in Q(), where is a p
n+1
st root of unity if p is odd and a 2
n+2
nd root
of unity if p = 2. By the results of the previous section, therefore, any abelian extension of Q is
contained in a cyclotomic extension.
Proof. We dene an extension L of Q as follows: if p is odd, let L be the unique subeld of Q()
of order p
n
; otherwise, let L be Q() R. KL is again an extension whose order is a power of p.
We will show that KL is contained in Q().
In both cases, Gal(L/Q) is cyclic. Let be a generator, and let be any automorphism of KL
extending . Let F be the xed eld of . Since the xed eld of is Q, L F = Q. There
6
is an injection Gal(LK/Q) Gal(L/Q) Gal(K/Q), which has exponent p
n
, so has order at
most p
n
. On the other hand, it extended , which had order p
n
, so has order exactly p
n
. Thus
[KL : F] = p
n
. We will show that [FL : F] = p
n
, hence KL = FL, and that FL Q(), hence
K Q()
For the case p = 2, consider the automorphism of F given by complex conjugation. Its xed eld
is a subeld of R of degree 2
k
, and thus contains a quadratic subeld. By Proposition 2, this
must be Q(

2). Similarly, L must contain Q(

2), but this is a contradiction, since we had proved

that L F = Q. Thus the xed eld of complex conjugation, acting on F, must be Q. But then
the fundamental theorem of Galois theory shows that F is a quadratic extension, since complex
conjugation has order 2. Hence F = Q(i) or Q(

2), so FL = Q() and [FL : F] = 2

n
, as desired.
For the case where p is odd, note that if F ,= Q, then both L and F contain the unique cyclic
extension of degree p with discriminant a power of p. This is a contradiction, since F was dened
to be the xed eld of an automorphism that generates Gal(L/Q), which by Galois theory implies
that L F = Q. Thus F = Q, and FL = L Q(), so [FL : F] = [L : Q] = p
n
, as desired.
The Crucial Case
Now we have proved the Kronecker-Weber theorem, modulo proposition 1 of the previous section.
We now recall the statement and provide the missing proof. Note that we depart from Marcus in
the proof of this fact; instead we are following the proof given by Hilbert in his Zahlbericht. [2]
Proposition (1). If p is an odd prime, then there is a unique extension K/Q of degree p with
discriminant a power of p; in particular, it is the unique subeld of Q() of degree p over Q, where
is a p
2
th root of unity.
Proof. Let K be the unique subeld of the p
2
th cyclotomic eld of order p. Then K is ramied
only at the prime p, which shows existence of an extension with the desired properties.
Now suppose that K

is another such extension. We want to show that K = K

. To do this, rst
take the composite K

L with the pth cyclotomic eld L = Q(). Since L contains the pth roots
of unity, the standard results of Kummer theory apply, so K

L = L(
p

) for some L. For

example, if K = K

, then could be , or a number of the form

k

p
for some k Z not divisible
by p and some L.
Let = 1 . Then N() = p, so generates the unique prime ideal of L lying over p. We will
now show that can be chosen to be an algebraic integer satisfying
1(mod
p
).
First we can choose to be prime to p. To see this, we use the fact that K

L is abelian. Consider
a generator for Gal(L/Q), and extend it to an automorphism Gal(K

L/Q). Also consider a

generator for Gal(K

L/L). Since and commute, we have:

((
p

)) = ((
p

)) = (
p

) =
l
(
p

)
for some primitive root l modulo p. This shows that
p

is an eigenvector of with eigenvalue

l
.
Hence
() = (
p

)
p
=
_
c
p

l
_
p
= c
p

l
.
7
Now it is clear that can be chosen to be prime to p. Simply replace by
()

. Since the ideal

generated by is invariant under , any factor of dividing cancels out, leaving something prime
to p. Note that once is prime to p, we can also force to be congruent to 1 mod by raising
to a suitable power, since the multiplicative group of a nite eld is cyclic. Also, using the fact
that

a
1 a(mod
2
)
we can force to be congruent to 1 mod
2
by multiplying by a suitable power of . Finally, we
use induction to obtain the desired congruence. Say we have already shown that
1 +a
e
(mod
e+1
).
Now we again use the fact that K

L is abelian. We have the congruence

() c
p

l
(mod
e+1
)
which, given our assumption, implies that
c c
p
1(mod)
and therefore
c
p
1(modp).
As a consequence we have
1 +a(l)
e
()
l
1 +al(
e
)(mod
e
)
and hence
l
e
l(mod).
But l was supposed to be a primitive root modulo , and e was greater than 1. The inductive step
works as long as e is less than p, so we have shown
1 +a
p
(mod
p+1
),
or in other words,
1(mod
p
),
as desired. That K = K

follows immediately from this. To see why, consider the number

=
1
p

.
It is a root of the polynomial
f(x) =
_
x
1

_
p

p
.
It is clear that this polynomial is monic, and that all but the constant term are algebraic integers.
But by the preceding argument, 1 is divisible by
p
. Hence the constant term is also an algebraic
integer. Hence is an algebraic integer.
8
Since O
KK

L
, the discriminant of KK

L over KL must contain the ideal generated by

N
_
f

()
_
= N
_
p(
1

)
p1
_
=
p1
for some unit . In particular, this discriminant is prime to p, so p is unramied in the extension
KK

L/KL. Hence p is unramied in the inertial eld T/Q, and this extension is nontrivial. But p
was the only ramied prime in K, K

, and L, and therefore no prime other than p can be ramied

in T. Hence T/Q is unramied. But this is a contradiction, since there are no nontrivial unramied
extensions of Q.
This lemma completes the proof of proposition 1, and thereby also completes the proof of the
Kronecker-Weber theorem. It is somewhat interesting to note that none of the elementary proofs
of the Kronecker-Weber theorem I was able to nd in modern literature make use of the argument
above, despite how truly elementary it is.
Class Field Theory
The proof of the Kronecker-Weber theorem presented above is very similar to Hilberts orginal
proof, which he gave in 1895, completing the work of Kronecker (1853) and Weber (1886). Some
decades later, class eld theory emerged, which gave a classication of the abelian extensions of an
arbitrary number eld. We now turn to a summary of the main results of class eld theory. Once
these results have been stated, we will use them to reprove the Kronecker-Weber theorem.
For a more detailed account, see Neukirch [3] or Cassels and Frohlich [4]. Everything in the following
sections has been taken from one of these sources, except the proof of the Kronecker-Weber theorem.
Ad`eles and Id`eles
Let K be a number eld, and let R = O
K
be its ring of integers. We dene the ad`eles of K to be
the restricted direct product
A
K
=

K
P
where

K
P
denotes the completion of K at the (possibly innite) prime P of R. By restricted direct
product we mean that an element of A
K
is a tuple (a
P
) such that a
P


K
P
for all P and a
P


R
P
for all but nitely many P. We give A
K
the restricted direct product topology, meaning that we
take as a basis the set of all products

P
U
P
, where U
P


K
P
is an open subset and U
P


R
P
for
all but nitely many P. Note that under this topology, A
K
becomes a locally compact topological
ring.
Note that K embeds in A
K
as a discrete additive subgroup, because the standard product formula

P
[a[
P
= 1,
which holds for all a K

, implies that [a[

P
cannot be simultaneously small for all primes P.
Thus there is a neighborhood of 0 that contains no nonzero elements of K.
9
The group of units of A
K
is denoted I
K
and is called the group of id`eles. Thus an id`ele is an ad`ele
such that all but nitely many of its coordinates are units in

R
P
. Note that I
K
is also a locally
compact topological group. Perversely, however, it is not given the subspace topology inherited
from its inclusion into A
K
. Rather, it is given the restricted product topology with respect to
the open sets U
P
=

R

P
. One reason for this is that otherwise the inversion map would not be
continuous. To see this, note that in the adeles, a neighborhood basis for 1 is given by all sets of
the form

PS
V
P

PS
W
P
where S is a nite set, V
P
is an open subset of

K
P
containing 1, and W
P
is the set of nonzero elements
of

R
P
. Each of these sets contains a sequence that tends to zero in A
K
, so any neighborhood of
1 must contain such a sequence. However, the inverse image of any of the basic open sets under
inversion contains no such sequence, so inversion cannot be continuous.
In the topology described above, a neighborhood basis for 1 is given by all sets of the form:

PS
V
P

PS
U
P
where S is any nite set containing the innite primes, V
P
is an open subset of

K
P
containing 1,
and U
P
is the group of units of

R
P
. Keeping in mind the counterexample above, it is clear that
this new topology gives the id`eles the structure of a locally compact topological group.
The construction of the ad`eles and id`eles may seem pointlessly formal, but it is important to keep
in mind that these tools were developed only after the main results of class eld theory had been
proven several times over. Thus they are an historically inaccurate starting point for any treatment
of class eld theory, and are not strictly necessary to communicate the ideas of the subject. On
the other hand, they provide a convenenient language in which to state the classication of abelian
extensions, and that is all that will be attempted in this exposition.
The Id`ele Class Group
As in the case of the ad`eles, K

embeds in I
K
as a discrete subgroup. The image of the inclusion
is called the group of principal id`eles. In analogy with the usual class group, we dene the id`ele
class group to be the quotient of the id`eles by the principal id`eles:
C
K
= I
K
/K

Since the principal id`eles are a discrete subgroup, the id`ele class group inherits the structure of a
locally compact group.
It is worth noting that the usual class group can be recovered from the id`ele class group. In
particular, there is a surjective homomorphism
I
K
Div(K)

p
P
v
P
()
which descends to a surjective homomorphism
10
C
K
Cl
K
where Cl
K
is the usual class group of K.
In some sense, nite quotients of the id`ele class group can be thought of as generalized class groups.
The main idea of class eld theory is that each of these generalized class groups is the galois group
of an abelian extension of K, and furthermore, that every abelian extension arises in this way. One
of the original constructions preceding the development of class eld theory was the discovery of
the Hilbert class eld: a maximal unramied abelian extension H
K
/K such that every real place
of K remains real in H
K
. As it turns out, Gal(H
K
/K) is isomorphic to Cl
K
, and under the
correspondence indicated above, the Hilbert class eld corresponds to Cl
K
.
The Norm Map
Recall that for a nite eld extension L/K, we have the norm map
N
L
K
: L K
det(l

)
where l

: L L is the linear transformation given by multiplication on the left by .

Now let L and K be number elds. We dene a map, also called the norm map,
^ : A
L
A
K
by simply taking the product of all the local norm maps:
^
_
_

Q
_
_
=

Q|P
N

L
Q

K
P
(
P
)
where Q runs over all primes of L and P runs over all primes of K. Since the norm of a unit is a
unit, and all but nitely many coordinates of are units for all in I
L
, the map ^ takes I
L
to
I
K
. Furthermore, when we restrict ^ to the principal id`eles, we obtain the usual norm map N
L
K
.
In particular, the norm map descends to a map
^ : C
L
C
K
Given any nite extension L/K, we can form the corresponding norm subgroup:
^
L
= ^(C
L
) C
K
This is a closed subgroup of nite index in C
K
, although this is not trivial to prove. One can ask to
what extent the norm subgroup determines the extension L/K. The answer is that it determines,
and is determined by the maximal abelian subextension L
ab
/K, as we shall see below.
Abelian Extensions and the Kronecker-Weber Theorem
We can now state the main theorem on abelian extensions. This is not the only result of class eld
theory - for example, there is also Artin reciprocity but it directly generalizes the Kronecker-Weber
theorem, so it is the only result from class eld theory that we shall be interested in.
11
Theorem. If L/K is any nite extension of number elds, then we have the following:
1. The norm subgroup ^
L
is a closed subgroup of nite index in C
K
.
2. There is a natural isomorphism Gal(L/K)
ab
C
K
/^
L
.
3. The map F ^
F
is a 1-1 correspondence between the nite abelian extensions F/K and
closed subgroups of nite index in C
K
.
If we restrict our attention to abelian extensions, we can restate these results in a concise, appealing
manner:
Corollary. The Galois group of the maximal abelian extension K
ab
/K is canonically isomorphic
to the pronite completion of the id`ele class group.
This theorem evidently generalizes the Kronecker-Weber theorem to an arbitrary number eld.
Conversely, if we calculate the id`ele class group of Q, and compute the norm subgroups corre-
sponding to the cyclotomic elds, then we should be able to deduce the Kronecker-Weber theorem.
Proposition. The id`ele class group of Q is isomorphic to

Z

+
.
Proof. Let = (
p
) I
Q
be an id`ele. Consider the rational number
=

p=
p
vp()
Then is an id`ele with the property that each of its nite coordinates is a unit in Q
p
. Multiplying
by 1, we can assume that its innite coordinate is positive. Noting that any id`ele class can be
written uniquely in this way, and checking a few details, we see that
C
Q

p=
Z

p
R
+

By the chinese remainder theorem,

p=
Z

p
so we obtain the desired conclusion.
We can now easily prove the Kronecker-Weber theorem.
Theorem. (Kronecker-Weber-Hilbert) Every abelian extension of Q is contained in a cyclotomic
extension.
Proof. Let x = (t, u
2
, u
3
, u
5
, . . . ) be any element of C
K
. We will show that if not all u
p
are equal
to 1, then there is a cyclotomic extension L/K such that x , ^
L
.
Say u
p
,= 1. Then u
p
= n+p
k
x for some integer n, relatively prime to p, and some x Z
p
pZ
p
. Let
K/Q be a a subextension of a cyclotomic extension such that p is totally ramied with ramication
index p
k+1
. Let

K be its completion at the unique prime lying over p, and let be a uniformizer
for the ring of integers of

K.
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If u

K is a unit, then u = m + y for some integer m, relatively prime to p, and some y R.
Then
N(u) = m
p
k+1
+p
k+1
Tr(y) + terms higher order in p
Thus N(u) ,= u
p
, since either they are distinct mod p or u
p
is farther from n in the p-adic metric.
Thus u
p
is not a norm of any element of

K, hence x is not a norm of any element of I
K
.
Thus the complements of norm subgroups of I
Q
coming from cyclotomic extensions completely
exhaust

p=
Z

p
. In other words, the intersection of the norm subgroups of all cyclotomic ex-
tensions is R

+
. But R

+
is contained in the norm subgroup of any abelian extension. Since the
bijection between abelian extensions and norm subgroups reverses containment, this shows that
any abelian extension of Q is contained in a cyclotomic extension.
References
[1] Marcus, Daniel. Number Fields
[2] Hilbert, David. The Theory of Algebraic Integers. Trans. I.T. Adamson.
[3] Neukirch, J urgen. Algebraic Number Theory. Trans. Norbert Schappacher.
[4] Cassels and Frohlich. Algebraic Number Theory.
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