Bonding

Electrons are the key to the formation of bonds.

11-08-18 5:49 PM

Ionic Bonding
The group number in the Periodic Table is equal to the number of electrons in the outer shell of atoms of all elements in that group Elements that have a small number of electrons in their outer shells (groups 1, 2 and 3) will lose electrons and form positive ions. These elements are metals Elements that have a higher number of electrons in their outer shells (groups 5, 6 and 7) will gain electrons and form negative ions. These elements are non-metals. Example Sodium Calcium Alumium Carbon Phosphorous Oxygen Bromine # of valence Electrons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lost/Gained # of transferred electrons Lost 1 Lost 2 Lost 3 Gained 3 Gained Gained 2 1 Charge 1+ 2+ 3+ 321Type of Elemen t Metal Metal Metal Metal Non Metal Non Metal Non Metal

Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

It is hard to predict the ion that will form from the transition metals. Atoms that are made up of more than one atom which have lost or gained electrons and carry a charge are called polyatomic ions. Charge on ion 1112231+ Symbol NO3 OHHCO-3 CO23 SO4-2 PO4-3 NH4+ Example of compound containing this ion Lead Nitrate Barium Hydroxide Potassium Hydrogen Carbonate Magnesium Carbonate Copper Sulfate Calcium Phosphate Ammonium Chloride

Polyatomic ion Nitrate Hydroxide Hydrogen Carbonate Carbonate Sulfate Phosphate Ammonium

Ionic compounds form when oppositely charged ions attract Transfer of electrons can only occur when an atom that loses electrons passes them to an atom that gains them. NA 2.8.1 + Cl 2.8.7 Na 2.8 Cl 2.8.8

Oppositely charged ions from ionization are attracted to each other and are held together by electrostatic forces. These forces are known as ionic bond. The ions held together are known as ionic compounds. Ionic compounds must be electrically neutral. Writing the formula involves balancing the total number of positive and negative charges. Calcium Hydrogen Carbonate Carbonate Ca2+ HCO3= Calcium Hydrogen = Ca(HCO3)2

Electronegativity Electronegativity is the measure of the attraction between the nucleus and its outer electrons. An element with high electronegativity has strong electron pulling power An element with low electronegativity has weak electron pulling power. Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period due to the increase in nuclear charge resulting in increased attraction between the nucleus and the bond electrons Electronegativity decreases down a group. Bond electrons are furthest from the nucleus so there is reduced attraction. Can also be used to determine whether an ionic compound will result from any two specific elements reacting together. The difference is the demining factor. A difference of 8 units or more on the Pauling scale will give an ionic compound

Covalent Bonding
A covalent bond forms by atoms sharing electrons When two non meta0l atoms react together to seek gain a noble gas structure, they can do so by sharing a pair of electrons. As these atoms come near their outer electrons are attracted to the nucleus of both atoms and become shared by the atoms.

The shared electrons count towards the shells of both atoms and therefore help fill up incomplete electron shells. The electrostatic attraction that holds the atoms together is known as covalent bond A group of atoms held together by covalent bonds forms a molecule. Example

Two chlorine atoms= A molecule of chlorine Cl2

Sometimes just a few atoms join together in this way. This produces small covalent molecules often known as simple molecular structures.

Sometimes millions of atoms are joined together by covalent bonds. This produces a rigid 3-D network called a giant lattice. The driving force for covalent bonding is again the attainment of outer electron shells that are completely full. This is achieved by sharing electrons where the shared electrons count towards the outer shells of both atoms.

Flourine+Chlorine Chloride

Fluorine

Hydrogen (1) needs 1 more electron but oxygen (2.6) needs 2 more. Therefore, we need 2 hydrogen atoms.

Carbon atoms form giant structures. There is more than one possible arrangement for the atoms. Although this does not affect the chemical properties it can make a huge difference to the physical properties such as hardness, slipperiness, melting point and density.

Dative Bonds Sometimes the bond forms by both the electrons in the pair originating from the same atom. This is called a dative bond In a dative covalent bond, both of the shared electrons in the bond have come from one atom.

This type of bonding can occur between molecules with a pair of electrons to donate Once dative bonds are formed they are no different from other covalent bonds.

Metallic Bonding Metal atoms form a giant lattice similar to ionic compounds. The outermost electrons on each metal are free to move throughout the structure and form a sea of electrons. Having released electrons into this sea the metal atoms are left with a + charge.

Bond Lengths Bond length is a measure of the distance between the two bonded nuclei. Bond strength is a measure of the energy required to break the bond. Multiple bonds have a greater number of shared electrons so they have a stronger force of electrostatic attraction between the bonded nuclei. Therefore there is a greater pulling power on the nuclei bringing them closer together which result in bonds that are shorter and stronger than single bonds.

Polar Bonds If electron pairs spend more time with one atom than the other then they are not equally shared This occurs when there is a difference in the electronegativities of the bonded atoms. The more electronegative atom exerts a greater pulling power on the shared electrons and so they gain more possession of the electron pair. The bond is now unsymmetrical and unequal and is said to be polar. Dipole is a term used to indicate that this type of bond has two separated opposite electric charges. The more electronegative atom with the greater share of electrons has become partially negative or - and the less electronegative atom has become partially positive or + For example, in HCl the shared electron pair is pulled more strongly by the Cl than the H resulting in a polar molecule Bonds are more polar when the difference in electronegativity between the bonded atoms is greater. H-F is more polar than H-Cl as F is more electronegative than Cl. Polar bonds introduce ionic nature into covalent bond due to their partial separation of opposite charges They are therefore related to non-polar bonds and ionic bonds. Molecules with polar bonds are not always polar Polarity of a bond depends on the charge separation between its two atoms Polarity of a molecule depends on: - Polar bonds it contains - The shape of the molecule Bonds with equal polarity (involving same elements) and are arranged symmetrically, their charge separations(dipoles) will cancel each other out. Therefore the molecule will be non polar although it contains polar bonds. Bonds with different polarity, or with unsymmetrical bonds, then the polarities wont cancel out and the molecule will be polar.

Electronegativity difference between bonded atoms Examples

Type of bond Non-polar covalent Polar Covalent Atoms are the same Atoms differ in or have almost no electronegativity difference in by up to about electronegativity 1.8. H-H, Cl-Cl, C-H H-Cl, O-H, C-Cl

Ionic Atoms differ in electronegativity by more than about 1.8. Na+Cl-, Ca2+O2-

VSEPR Theory Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion The repulsion applies to both bonding and non bonding pairs of electrons Double and triple bonded electron pairs are oriented together and so behave as a single unit known as negative charge center The total number of charge centers around the central atom will determine the geometrical arrangement of the electrons The shape of the molecule is determined by the angles between the bonded atoms Because nonbonding pairs are not shared between two atoms they case more repulsion than bonding pairs. The repulsion decreases in the following order; lone pair-lone pair> lone pair- bonding pair> bonding pair- bonding pair As a result molecules with lone pairs on the central atom have some distortion in their structure which reduce the angle between the bonded atoms Two negative charge centers - 180 to each other - Linear shape

BeCl2 CO2

Three negative charge centers 120 to each other Planar triangular

BF3

C2H4 Four negative charge centers 109.5 to each other Tetrahedral shape

If one or more of the charge centers is a non-bonding pair, this will influence the shape of the molecule

Allotropes Graphite Each C atom is covalently bonded to 3 others, forming hexagons in parallel layers, held together by weak van der Waal forces so they can slide over each other Diamond Each C atom is covalently bonded to 4 others tetrahedrally arranged in a regular repetitive pattern. Fullerene C60 Each C atom is bonded in a sphere of 60 carbon atoms consisting of 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons. Structure is a closed spherical cage in which each carbon is bonded to 3 others.

Density 2.26 g cm-3 Contains one non bonded delocalized electron per atom; conducts electricity

Density 3.51 g cm-3 All electrons are bonded; nonconductor of electricity

Density 1.72 g cm-3 Easily accepts electrons to form negative ions

Intermolecular forces Bonds between molecules are called intermolecular forces. Strength of intermolecular forces will determine the volatility of a substance Van der Waals Forces Non polar molecules have no permanent separation of charge between their bonds because the shared electrons are pulled equally. They do not have a permanent dipole. Since electrons behave like mobile clouds of negative charge, the density of this cloud may at any one moment be greater over one atom than the other. This creates a weak dipole known as a temporary or instantaneous dipole This will not last as electron density is constantly changing, but it may influence the electron distribution of a neighboring molecule causing an induced dipole. Van der Waals forces will occur between opposite ends of the two temporary dipoles in the molecule. Van der Waals forces are the weakest form of intermolecular force. Their strength increases as the number of electrons within a molecule increases Substances held together by van der Waals forces generally have low melting and boiling points, because relatively little energy is required to break the forces and separate molecules from each other. Dipole-Dipole attraction Some molecules have a permanent separation of charge within their bonds as a result of the difference in electronegativity of the bonded atoms. One end of the molecule has a partial positive charge while the other end has a partial negative charge. This is called a permanent dipole. It results in opposite charges on neighboring molecules attracting each other, creating a force called dipole-dipole attraction Strength depends on the degree of polarity within the bond. Dipole-dipole forces have higher melting and boiling points of polar compounds than those of non polar substances of similar molecular mass.

Hydrogen Bonding Elements of high electronegativity, bonded to a hydrogen atom causing a special dipole-dipole interaction called Hydrogen bonding This is important in determining solubility, melting and boiling points and stability of crystal structures. As the electron pair is drawn away from the hydrogen atom of the electronegative element, the proton remains in the nucleus because there are o inner electrons The proton attracts a non bonding pair of electrons from the electronegative element resulting in a strong dipole-dipole attraction. Physical Properties Ionic compounds have high boiling and melting points as the forces of electrostatic attraction between the ions are strong and require more energy to break. Giant covalent structures have high melting and boiling points as covalent bonds must be broken for changes of state to occur. Structure Metallic Ionic Giant Covalent Small Covalent High Melting/ Boiling Point Yes Yes Yes No Solid conduction Yes No No No Liquid conduction Yes Yes No No