PHYTOPLANKTONS

Dr. Subhendu Datta

Senior Scientist
Kolkata, India

Ref. Books.

1. The Algae, by V. J. Chapman, Macmillan & Co. Ltd.

2. Strasburger’s Text Book of Botany. Translated from German to English by W. H.
Lang. Macmillan & Co. Ltd.
3. Freshwater Biology- edited by W. T. Edmondson, John Wiley and Sons Inc.

Classification:
Starts with division, which is equivalent to phylum. The older phycologists placed all
the chlorophyll bearing organisms in a single sub-division called algae under the division
Thallophyta. Such a grouping implies that these series of organisms are closely related. On
this basis, they recognized 11 classes, which are Cyanophyceae (earlier Myxophyceae),
Chlorophyceae, Xanthophyceae, Dinophyceae, Chloromonadineae, Euglenineae,
Phacophyceae, Cryptophyceae, Chrysophyceae, Bacillariophyceae and Rhodophyceae.
However, the modern phycologists don’t recognize any close relationship between the
members of different classes of algae. During the second and third decades of the twentieth
century a number of fundamental differences among the several series of algae were found.
These convinced the modern phycologists that the different series of algae, in fact, denote a
number of parallel lines of development. This viewpoint resulted in the dismemberment of the
former division Thallophyta and sub-division Algae and the elevation of its classes to the rank
of division. The modern algologists, therefore, classify these plants of algal organisms into 11
divisions, namely Cyanophyta, Chlorophyta, Xanthophyta, Pyrrophyta, Charophyta,
Euglenophyta, Phacophyta, Cryptophyta, Chrysophyta, Bacillariophyta and Rhodophyta.
The committee on the International code of Botanical Nomenclature has
recommended certain suffixes for use in classification of Algae. These are ‘phyta’ for
division, ‘phyceae’ for class, ‘phycidae’ for sub-class, ‘ales’ for order, ‘inales’ for sub-order,
‘aceae’ for family, ‘oideae’ for sub-family, Greek name for genus and Latin name for a
species.

Plant kingdom Plant kingdom

Division: Thallophyta Divisions: Cyanophyta, Chlorophyta,

Xanthophyta, Pyrrophyta, Charophyta,
Euglenophyta, Phacophyta, Cryptophyta,
Sub-division: Algae Chrysophyta, Bacillariophyta and Rhodophyta.

Modern classification
Classes: e.g. Cyanophyceae, Chlorophyceae,
Xanthophyceae, Dinophyceae, Chloromonadineae,
Euglenineae, Phacophyceae, Cryptophyceae,
Chrysophyceae, Bacillariophyceae and Rhodophyceae.

Old classification

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 Characteristic differentiation between four main divisions of algae

Characte- Cyanophyta Chlorophyta Bacillariophyta* Euglenophyta

ristics (Blue green algae) (Green algae) (Golden brown
algae)
Cell Procaryotic (simplest cell, true Eucaryotic (The Eucaryotic Eucaryotic
structure nucleus absent, lack a nuclear nucleus is (Gullet present)
membrane, mitochondria, plastid separated from
and don’t divide by mitosis, during cytoplasm by a
cell division cell wall extends distinct nuclear
inwards like a diaphragm) membrane, it has
mitotic figures
and divide by
mitosis).
Cell Chlorophyll-a & blue c- Chlorophyll-a, Chlorophyll-a, Chlorophyll-a,
pigments phycocyanin (main pigments), c- chlorophyll-b, β- chlorophyll-c, β- chlorophyll-b, β-
phycoerythrin, β-carotene, carotene, α- carotene, ε-carotene, carotene and
myxoxanthin and xanthophylls carotene, lutein, fucoxanthin or xanthophylls
zeaxanthin, diatomin (brown),
violaxanthin neofucoxanthin,
diatoxanthin and
diadinoxanthin
Stored Myxophycean starch, cyanophycin Starch, fats and Fats, lucosin Paramylum
food (a proteinaceous material) oils (large lipid
globules outside
the chloroplast),
fats
Nature of Hemicellulose, pectin and Cellulose, pectin Cell wall in two Absent,
cell wall mucopeptide and rarely hemi- halves, outer layer of periplastic
cellulose hydrated silica and
inner layer
composed of pectic
substances. The cell
thus present in two
altogether different
views, girdle or side
and valve or top
view
No. of Lacking 2 or 4, equal, Absent or 1, anterior 1, rarely 2 or 3,
flagella & anterior, (only in male gamete anterior, tinsel
whiplash of some), tinsel
their
insertion
Sexuality Absent Isogamy to Isogamous, Rarely sexual
Oogamy anisogamous and (isogamous)
Oogamous
Sterols Absent (responsible for absence of Sitosterol, Fucosterol _
sexual reproduction) fucosterol, ergo
sterol, and
chondullosterol
*Produce diatomaceous earth in seabed.

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 General characteristics of the division Cyanophyta (Blue-Green Algae)

Characteristics of all algae: The algae are chlorophyll-bearing organisms with thallus like
plant body. Thallus shows little differentiation of true tissues. Even the complex thalli lack
vascular tissue and epidermis with stromata. It shows no differentiation into true root, stem
and epidermis. For this reason the plant body of the algae is called a thallus.
a. The blue green algae are predominantly freshwater, few species are marine. Often some of
the planktonic (free-floating) fresh-water forms form dense bloom in ponds and lakes in
summer and attract attention.
b. Each plant is composed of either of individual cells surrounded by gelatinous materials,
which is made of pectic substances which they secrete and called sheath or of chains of
cells (trichomes) encased in most species in more or less cylindrical sheaths. The trichome
and its sheath comprise filament, which in several families becomes branched.
c. With light microscope the cell contents (protoplast) appear to be divided into two regions
a centrally located clear area surrounded by a denser portion. The former is called
centroplasm and latter is called chromoplasm. The regions are not separated from each
other by any membrane or other structure.
d. The chromoplasm contains a considerable amount of imbibed water and sticks to the wall.
The osmotic pressure of the cell is low. This feature along with absence of vacuoles
account for the great resistance of blue-green algae to dessication and of cyanophyte cell
to plasmolysis. Chromoplasm contains a number of non-living inclusions in the form of
small, spherical or irregularly shaped granules. They are reserved food (Myxophycean,
starch and protein cyanophycin), oil droplets, lipids, pigments and pseudovacules. The
membrane bound organelles such as the vacuoles, plastids, endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria and the dictyosomes are absent.
e. In some planktonic species such as Anabaena and Polycystis the chromoplasm contains
clusters of gas or pseudovacules, which appear black in transmitted light and red in
reflected light. The gas-filled pseudovacuoles make the algal thallus buoyant and thus rise
to the surface of water. These pseudo-vacules also serve as a screen against intense light.
They collapsed at high light intensities. Therefore, they account for diurnal variations in
depth distribution of blue-green algae.
f. Blue-green algae are obligate photoautotrophs.
g. Filamentous blue-green algae (e.g. Nostoc, Anabaena) produce enlarged, thick-walled,
pale yellowish, specialized cells in addition to the vegetative cells. These large empty
looking specialized cells are called heterocysts. Some algologists, opined that they serve
to separate the trichomes into sections called the hormogonia or hormogones. The
trichomes dissociates into several small fragments or hormogonia with death of
intervening cells in the filaments or weakening of some cells.
h. Certain cells in several families develop thick walls enlarges in size and becomes akinetes
(reproductive bodies) or heterocysts. The akinetes have walls of equal thickness
throughout and the heterocysts have nodular thickenings inside the walls adjacent to the
attached vegetative cells. The akinetes are spore-like structure and highly modified resting
cells, which are developed singly or in succession next to heterocysts.
i. In the genus Oscillatoria, in few species the apical cell may be swollen into a cap-like
structure and called capitate or may be tipped with a thickened membrane, the calyptra.
The mucilage filled dead cells from where the breaking of trichomes takes place is called
necridium/necridia.
j. In Chamaesiphonaceae, the cells divide internally into endospores (undifferentiated
reproductive cells). In Chamaesiphon the cell wall rupture at the distal end of the
vegetative cell. The spores (called exospore) are successively pinched off at the exposed
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 end of the extruded protoplast. Some non-filamentous blue-green algae such as
microcystis the cell contents divide repeatedly without any cell enlargements. The
successive divisions follow closely one upon another. These are called nanocytes.
Pseudohormogonia, hormocysts or hormospores are modified hormogone, multicellular
spore like structure at the tip of the trichromes or shortside branch (of Westiella lanosa)
which become invested by thick, lamellated, pigmented sheath. They function as
perennating bodies.
k. Reproduction: vegetative reproduction by binary fission (primitive type of mitosis),
fragmentation and formation of hormogonia. Asexual reproduction by formation of
asexual spores like akinetes, endospores and nannocytes.

N.B. Blue-green algae are also called Cyanobacteria by some Phycologists because of many
resemblances to bacteria e.g. prokaryotic cell structure, reproduce mainly asexually 9fission).
However, blue-green algae possess chlorophyll, which bacteria lacks.

Characteristics of individual genus of the division Cyanophyta:

1. Nostoc: Division- Cyanophyta

Class- Cyanophyceae
Order- Nostocals
Tribe- Hormogoneae
Family- Nostocaceae
Genus- Nostoc
a. A blue-green algae, colonial, gelatinous thallus comprised of several intertwined and
contorted monoliform filaments having heterocyst or big cells in midway of each filament.
Each cell has a pigmented portion called chromoplasm with a central, colourless region called
centroplasm.
b. Each filament is provided with gelatinous sheath.

Fig 1a. Nostoc Colony Fig 1b. Nostoc Filaments

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 Fig 1c. Nostoc bloom at the edge of the lake

2. Anabaena: Class- Cyanophyceae

Order- Nostocals
Tribe- Hormogoneae
Family- Nostocaceae
Genus- Anabaena
a. Filaments are small, single like Nostoc but never colonial.
b. Filaments having heterocyst in midway of each trichome but each trichome is without outer
sheath not in a common gelatinous mass.
c. Primitive type of blue-green algae.

Fig. 2b. Anabaena Filament

Fig. 2a. Anabaena Colony

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 Fig 2c. Anabaena bloom-1

3. Gloeotrichia: Class- Cyanophyceae Fig 2d. Anabaena bloom-2

Order- Rivularicales
(or, Rivulariales)
Tribe- Hormogoneae
Family-Rivulariaceae
Genus- Gloeotrichia
a. A blue-green algae, colonical form, soft, spherical or eclisoidal to an irregular lobed
gelatinous firmed mass.
b. The cells are broad at the base but gradually taper in the upper part.
c. The lower mass cell of trichome is modified into heterocysts with spore directed towards
the trichome base.

Fig 3a. Gloeotrichia filament Fig 3b. Gloeotrichia Colony

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 Fig 3c. Gloeotrichia bloom

4. Oscillatoria: Class- Cyanophyceae

Order- Oscillatoriales
Tribe- Hormogoneae
Family-Oscillatoriaceae
Genus- Oscillatoria
1. It is a filamentous blue-green algae containing necridia. 2. Small forms of filaments are
called hormogonia (only method of reproduction). 3. Thallus consists of trachoma, which is
free living, smooth, sometimes constricted at the crosswalls, straight and rigid. 4. Filaments
long, with more than 20 cells, commonly without sharp-pointed ends, unbranched and not
surrounded by wall like sheath, loosely aggregated not in clusters and may show movements.

Fig. 4a. Oscillatoria filament

Fig 4b. Oscillatoria filament

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Fig. 4a & 4b. Oscillatoria filament at 20 & 40 microns

5. Microcystis: Class- Cyanophyceae

(or, Anacystis) Order- Chroococcales
Tribe- Coccogoneae
Family- Chroococcaceae
Genus- Microcystis
A blue-green algae. Unicellular, cells variable in shape, often colonial

Fig. 5a. Microcystis colony Fig. 5b. Microcystis bloom-1

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 Fig. 5c. Microcystis bloom-3 Fig. 5d. Microcystis bloom-4

5e. Microcystis bloom - bird eye view

Filamentous blue green algae are grown in wide variety of habitat They are common in
freshwater ponds, pools, ditches, damp soils, floating channels, rice fields, sewers etc. They
grow in large colonies of closely packed trichomes embedded in a firm matrix of gelatinous
materials and thus formed a mucilaginous lump or thallus which occurs floating or attached.

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 Some highlights of the Division Chlorophyta (Green-algae)

a. The pigment containing bodies in chlorophyceae are called chloroplast, but in all other
algal divisions except Euglenophyta, they are referred to as chromatophores. The plastid
which contains both chlorophyll a and b are usually termed chloroplasts and where
plastids which contain chlorophyll a but not chlorophyll b and have carotenoids in excess
over chlorophyll are known as chromatophores.
b. Embeded in chloroplasts are rounded, proteinaceous bodies are one or more in number,
the pyrenoids. The pyrenoids are intimately associated with the elaboration of starch,
which is the principle storage product.
c. The cytoplasm contains vacuoles. Some of these may be contractile (in simple unicellular
form as in chlamydomonus, chlorella).
d. Certain motile, unicellular green-algae (e.g. chlamydomonus) posses a small bright
reddish or brownish red spot or streak like the shape of eye. It is called stigma or eye-spot.
This is a photoreceptive organ.
e. The presence of membrane bound chloroplasts, a sap cavity, a definite nucleus in the cell,
occurance of sexual reproduction, production of motile reproductive bodies generally
furnished with two to four flagella (flagella are of equal length and whiplash type and
inserted in the anterior end) and production of starch as reserve food are the chief
characteristics, which distinguish the chlorophyceae from cyanophyceae.

Characteristics of individual genus of the division Chlorophyta

6. Chlorella: (non-motile unicellular thallus)

Class- Clorophyceae
Order- Clorococcales
Family- Oocystaceae
Genus- Chlorella
(a). Occurs in freshwater ponds , ditches and in
moist soil. (b). Cells are some what round,
isolated or tightly grouped in a small colony, lacks
flagella. (c). Cell wall smooth and evenly thick
throughout. (d). Cell with one cup or bell-shaped
chloroplast, filling 2/3rd of the space in cell. Fig. 6a. Chlorella
It lies in cytoplasm just internal to the cell wall
and thus parietal in position (such non-motile unicellular forms are called coccoid
chlorophyta).

Fig. 6c
Fig 6b. Chlorella colony

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7. Chlamydomonas: (motile unicellular thallus)
Division - Chlorophyta
Class- Clorophyceae
Order- Volvocales
Family- Chlamydomonadaceae
(or Chlamydomonadinae)
Genus- Chlamydomonas
(a). This is found in standing water.
(b). Microscopic, unicellular green algae.
(c). Spherical, oval or pear in shape. Anterior end pointed and bear two flagella.
(d). It has single, massive cup-shaped chloroplast, which almost fills the body of the cell at its
blunt posterior end and parietal in position.
(e). Contents of the cell are close to cell wall as chloroplast occupies 2/3rd of the space in cell.

Fig. 7a & 7b

8. Volvox: (motile colonial thallus)

Class- Clorophyceae
Order- Volvocales
Family- Volvocaceae
Genus- Volvox

(a). It occurs as minute, green balls just the size of a small

pin-head (about ½ mm in diameter) in freshwater ponds
and pools, very common during rainy season and one of Fig. 8a
the many organisms which can help to colour the water of the pond green.
(b). Unicellular, colonial green algae. Round colony, more than 500 (500-60000) cells per
colony, marginal cells pyriform, and center cell round in shape. Cell separated from one
another by space.
(c). Several flagella are coming outside the gelatinous mass.
(d).Volvox has thus carried the Chlamydomonas cell into highly complex colony in which the
Chlamydomonas types of cells are arranged in the form of a hollow sphere.

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 Fig. 8b to 8d

9. Pandorina: (motile colonial thallus)

Class- Clorophyceae
Order- Volvocales
Family- Volvocaceae
Genus- Pandorina
(a). It is found in freshwater ponds, pools and lakes.
(b). The Coenobia are oblong or sub-spherical.
(c).The cells in the in the Coenobium are closely packed and radially arranged.
(d). Usually there are 16 cells in the coenobium sometimes 32 and rarely 8.
(e). Cells are biflagellate and nucleus is centrally located.
(f). The chloroplast is cup-shaped and has a pyrenoid (plastid green).
(g). Colony rounded, more than one cell thick (Common for Volvox and Eudorina too).

Fig. 9. Pandorina Fig. 10. Eudorina

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10. Eudorina: (motile colonial thallus)
Class- Clorophyceae
Order- Volvocales
Family- Volvocaceae
Genus- Eudorina
(a). It is found in freshwater ponds, pools and lakes during the rainy season.
(b). The Coenobia are ellipsoidal or spherical and larger than Pandorina.
(c). The cells in the in the Coenobium are not crowed, separated from one another by space
and radially arranged.
(d). Usually there are 32 globose cells in the coenobium sometimes 64 or even 16.
(e). Cells are biflagellate and nucleus is centrally located.
(f). The chloroplast is cup-shaped and has one or more pyrenoid (plastid green).
(g). Colony rounded, more than one cell thick.

Non-motile colonial thallus: 11. Pediastrum, Hydrodictyon- they are free floating colonies.

Fig. 10. Pedia

Fig. 11. Pediastrum Fig. 12a. Spirogyra

Multicellular filamentous thallus:

12. Spirogyra: Class- Clorophyceae

Order- Zygnemales (or, Zygnematales)
Family- Zygnemaceae
Sub-family- Spirogyroideae
Genus- Spirogyra

(a). It is one of the commonest green algae found in green Fig. 12b
floating masses of still water of freshwater ponds, pools, ditches and lakes and slow flowing
streams during spring. Because of slippery feel of threads, spirogyra is often called the pond
scum or water-silk.
(b). Cells attached end to end (with distinct conjugation tube) in a silky thread like
unbranched filaments forming scum or mat.
(c). Each cell linearly elongated with one or more ribbon shaped spiral, band like chloroplasts.
(d). Cell walls consist of two layers.
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(e). Filament is green coloured.

13. Ulothrix: (Ulo-shaggy; thrix-hair)

Class- Clorophyceae
Order- Ulotrichales
Family- Ulotrichaceae
(or Ulotrichasceae)
Genus- Ulothrix Fig 13. Ulothrix

(a). It is one of the common freshwater green algae found in rather cold, flowing water.
Usually it is found attached to the substratum such as rocks or stones or other solid objects.
(b). As in spirogyra the simple filament of ulothrix consists of similar cells but it is attached to
the substratum at one end by a rhizoidal cell specifically modified for this purpose.
(c). Multicellular long filaments, unbranched algae.
(d). Cells shorter than wide (brick-shaped) or dimensions equal.
(e). Single girdle, ring or collar shaped chloroplast as an accurate marginal band.

14. Oedogonium: (Oedo- swelling; gonium- vessel)

Class- Clorophyceae
Order- Oedogoniales
Family- Oedogoniaceae
Genus- Oedogonium

(a). It is one of the common submerged freshwater green algae

often found on leaves, petioles, stems of aquatic plants in ponds,
tanks, lakes and quite streams. The mature filaments are free floating
but younger ones are attached. It is less common in the running water.
(b). Filamentous unbranched algae, cells linearly elongated with
reticulated (irregular net) chloroplast.
(c). Some cells with walls having transverse wrinkles near one end, Fig. 14. Oedogonium
these are called cap cell, which is used for cell division.
(d). Rounded cell is female gametangium called oogonium and flat, short, disc-like filament
segment below the oogonium are male gametangia (called antheridia) are present in the
filament.
(e). Some times very special small stalk-like arranged filaments below the oogoniums are
produced which act as male gametangia and called dwarf male.

15. Zygnema:
Class- Clorophyceae
Order- Zygnemales (or, Zygnematales)
Family- Zygnemaceae (or, Zygnemataceae)
Sub-family- Zygnemoideae
Genus- Zygnema
(a). It is a common grey-algae.
(b). Simple fine unbranched thread or filament consisting of
cylindrical cells.
(c). Cells are longer than wide.
(d). Each cell has a pair of very characteristic stellar (like star)
chloroplasts. Fig. 15. Zygnema
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16. Closterium: (enclosed space)
Class- Clorophyceae
Order- Zygnemales (or, Zygnematales)
Family- Desmidiaceae
Genus- Closterium
(a). Microscopic, unicellular, bow- or crescent-shaped.
(b). Cloroplast many and star shaped.
(c). Highly perforated cell wall composed of two parts.
(d). The curved cells have attenuated apices with a vacuole in
each apex.
(e). Unpigmented area across center of cell.

Fig. 16. Closterium

Others

Fig. 17. Halotheca Fig. 18. Micrasterias Fig. 19. Ulva

General characteristics of the division Bacillariophyta (Diatoms)

1. unicellular algae.
2. Occur, usually as colonial forms, in both fresh and salt water and also on damp soil. They
form a large proportion of the bottom flora of lakes and ponds.
3. The cells display a great diversity of shape; this is based either bilaterally symmetrical or
on a centric type.
4. Cell walls, with outer layers silicified while the inner layers are composed of pectic
substances, are very characteristic. The wall is formed of two essentially similar halves or
valves, one of which placed over the other as a cover like the lid of a box. The cells thus
present two altogether different views, according to the position in which they are
observed, whether from the girdle or valve side.
5. Cell wall permanently rigid (never showing evidence of collapse) and with regular pattern
of fine markings (striations etc.).
6. Plastid (brownish-yellow) and pyrenoid are often present. The pigments are chlorophyll a,
c; yellow phycoxanthin and numerous carotenoids, which give the diatoms their golden-
brown colour.
7. Flagella absent.
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8. The cell has always a central nucleus.
9. The cells in the colonial form are enclosed in a common mucilaginous envelope.
10. Pennate diatoms: Bilaterally symmetrical, not circular, the striations are arranged in a
pinnate manner. They appear in two regular rows or series, one on either side of the axial
strip. Naviculla, Pinnularia are freshwater pennate diatoms. Naviculla is boat shaped in
valve view (top view) and rectangular in girdle view (side view). It has elongate valve
which may be boat or needle shaped.
11. Centric diatoms: The striations are arranged radially. They are radially symmetrical.
Valves are circular. They are marine diatoms.

Fig. 20a & b. Diatoms

Fig. 20d. Pinnate Diatom - Pinnularia

Fig 20c. Centric Diatom

Fig. 20e. Pinnate Diatom

- Naviculla

Fig. 20f. Naviculla - Valve View

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Fig. 20g. Satellite view: Toxic algal Bloom off the Coast of Norway
(Red coloured are Diatom)

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 Division –Euglenophyta

Euglena: Division – Euglenophyta

Class- Euglenineae
Order- Euglenales
Family- Euglenaceae
Genus- Euglena
1. Microscopic, unicellular.
2. Cell elongate, blunt anterior and posteriorly.
3. Flagellum arises at the anterior end from a gullet-like depression (tube going from mouth to
stomach).
4. The pure green chromatophores (chloroplasts), a number of which are present in the cell,
form a starch-like substance called paramylon.
5. The green scum or “water-bloom” frequently seen in village ponds may consist of Euglena.

Fig. 21b. Euglena 10µm

Fig. 21a. Euglena

Fig. 21c. Euglena

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