Instructor: Oscar Au

3-D Objects
Objects are virtual entities in a continuous environment Include points, lines, shapes in 2-D and volume in 3-D 3-D modeling involves representation, position, manipulation, lighting, and rendering

Co-ordinate systems
The object is located in the World Coordinate System (WCS) which is normally a righthanded Cartesian system Camera defines its Camera Coordinate System (CCS)
Camera y y left-handed view-point system z x

right-handed system

Operation on OCS
Each object has an anchor point (origin) and all its vertices are defined in the object coordinate system Matrix operation can be performed on the OCS
(x2,y2,z2)

(x1,y1,z1)

x z

Rotation by roll about the z-axis

y

x' cos(roll ) sin(roll ) 0 x y ' = sin(roll ) cos(roll ) 0 y z' 0 0 1 z

(x2,y2,z2)

(x1,y1,z1) roll

Rotation by yaw about the y-axis

x' cos(yaw ) 0 sin(yaw ) x y y ' = 0 1 0 z' sin(yaw ) 0 cos(yaw ) z

y (x1,y1,z1) (x2,y2,z2) x z yaw

Rotation by pitch about the x-axis

pitch

y (x1,y1,z1)

0 0 x x ' 1 y ' = 0 cos(pitch) sin( pitch) y z' 0 sin( pitch) cos(pitch) z

(x2,y2,z2) z

Scaling by (Sx, Sy, Sz)

x' SX y ' = 0 z' 0 0 SY 0 0 x 0 y SZ z
(x2,y2,z2) z

y (x1,y1,z1) x

Note: scaling should not be performed on rigid body

Translation by (tx, ty, tz)

x' x t x y ' = y + t y z ' z t z
y (x ,y ,z ) 1 1 1 (x2,y2,z2) (tX,tY,tZ) z x

Note: translation cannot be done by matrix multiplication

General matrix operation

x ' AXX y ' A = YX z' AZX 1 0 AXY AYY AZY 0 AXZ TX x AYZ TY y AZZ TZ z 0 1 1

Rotation, scaling and translation all by matrix multiplication

Deformation
Cannot be done by linear matrix operation General principle:
y ' = FY (x, y , z ) z' = FZ (x, y , z ) x' = FX (x, y , z )

 Tapering

y ' = yF2 (z )

x' = xF1(z )

z' = z

Axis Twisting

x' = x cos[F (z )] y sin[F (z )] y ' = x sin[F (z )] + y cos[F (z )] z' = z

Bending x' = x

y ' = sin (z 1/ k ) + y 0

z' = cos (z 1/ k ) + y 0
= k(y-y0)

1/k: curvature of the bending y0: center of bending

Object representation in WCS

The place where objects are assembled Objects usually represented by a pointer to their origins A WCS can become another OCS in a new WCS
yWCS (1) xWCS (2)

Rotation and scaling in WCS

(1) is obtained by simple rotation To obtain (2), either convert all points in the OCS to WCS, or calculate the necessary rotation in OCS

zWCS

Scaling can also be done in WCS or OCS (preferred) Hierarchy and object-oriented approach preferred

Simple approach
Assume the camera is located at the origin of the WCS facing the z-direction Assume also a projection screen is located at a distance d behind the camera on the x-y plane
y Note that physically, the projected image is in the left-handed coordinate system (x1,y1,z1) y d x (x1,y1) x camera projection screen coordinate of projected image

Calculating new coordinates on the projection

Using similar triangles
(x1,y1,z1) y1 z z1 (x1,y1,z1) x1 z z1 x d y

d y1

y1 = y1d/z

x1 = x1d/z
x1

Perspective information
The distance d of the screen serves as a scaling factor The new coordinates are divided by the z value of the old system. Thus the further away the object, the smaller it is on the projection screen. The new coordinate system needs another variable z = z for each point to determine the front and back relationship. If 2 points at different distance results in the same (x,y), only the one with smaller z is displayed.

Field of viewing
The distance d also defines the viewing angle
y l

Viewable region

tan() = l/d

Camera position
Camera can be considered as an object and be placed at any location in the WCS by matrix transformation Question: for a point (x, y, z) in the WCS, what is its new position in CCS after camera motion?

Converting points in WCS to CCS

Assume camera is at the origin of WCS at beginning Camera is then moved to a new location by a series of matrix transformation in the form of
A ( , , )XX A ( , , ) YX A ( , , )ZX 0 A ( , , )XY A ( , , )YY A ( , , )ZY 0 A ( , , )XZ A ( , , )YZ A ( , , )ZZ 0 TX TY TZ 1

This can be viewed as WCS moved w.r.t. CCS. We can perform the following transforms in same sequence A ( , , )XX A ( , , )XY A ( , , )XZ T X A ( , , ) A ( , , )YY A ( , , )YZ TY YX A ( , , )ZX A ( , , )ZY A ( , , )ZZ T Z
0 0 0 1

Zooming and camera position

Zooming is equivalent to moving the screen away from the camera lens (increasing magnification factor d). Moving camera closer to the object also results in the object enlarged. But they result in different distortion
camera position zoomed screen
Viewable region

original screen

closeup screen

 Example:

reference image

placing camera closer to object

zoom in object

Depth of focus
In real situations, objects far from the focal planes should be blurred simulate this by applying blurring function that depends on z value

Edge represented object

Objects formed by lines defined by vertices Used for quick visualization and transparent view
1
Index Point Line 0 (0,0,0) (0,1) 1 (1,0,0) (0,3) 2 (1,0,1) (0,4) 3 (0,0,1) (1,2) 4 (0,1,0) (1,5)

5 z1

y 4 6 0 0 3

1 2

Difficult to remove lines masked by other surfaces Not very common for modeling

Planar polygons
Formed by a chain of straight lines
Index Vertices Polygons 0 (0,0,0) (1,2,5, 4,1) 1 (0,0,2) (2,3,6, 5,2) 2 (4,0,2) (4,5,8, 9,4) 3 (3,0,0) (5,6,8, 5) 5 (0,1,2) (0,3,6, 7,0)

y 4 z 1

8 6 5 3 x 2

Difficult in representing curved surface Points are not free to move along different axes Example: reducing the z-coordinate of vertex (2) destroy the planar property on polygon (0)
4 5 ? 1 2

Planar triangles
Try to resolve the point motion in planar polygons by breaking it down to triangles
y
Index Vertices triangles 0 (0,0,0) (1,2,4) 1 (0,0,2) (2,4,5) 2 (4,0,2) (4,5,9) 3 (3,0,0) (5,8,9) 5 (0,1,2) (2,3,5)

8 6 5 3 x

4 z 1

Easier to edit object Still a problem: how to represent disjoint boundaries such as holes? Breakdown to more triangles Subtraction space may be needed
Boundary 2 Boundary 1

Sectional polygons
Slice a 3-D object into cross-sections, and store each cross-section in polygon form Object surface mesh is reconstructed by connecting contours with those above and below Require a central axis to align planes
Object Sectional representation Central axis 2 planes are necessary to represent a simple object like this

 Number of planes can be varied depending on the complexity of an object Polar coordinates with the central axis as origin provide an easy description of planner polygons

holes

back-curving edges

X-Section in polar coordinate

X-Section with holes and back curving edges

Still difficult to represent holes and back-curving lines

Extrusion
One of the short-cut to overcome the tedious crosssection in building up complex models A 2-D cross-section is extended to create a cylinder-like 3-D object
y X-Section extrusion direction z z x x y result

Can re-define size and rotation in extrusion

z

Object of revolution
Begin with a cross-section of an object and then rotate the cross-section around a central axis Can represent a complicated object with very few data points The cross-section can be off-axis to form torus-like objects y

x z

Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

Intend to construct complicated objects from a set of simple primitives such as cube, cone, sphere etc. Mathematical equations used to describe geometry
e.g. sphere is given by x2 + y2 + z2 = r2

To allow object interaction such as addition and subtraction

Mathematical construction
A set of inequalities is used to determine if a point is inside or outside the solid boundary
points outside sphere: x2 + y2 + z2 > r2 points inside sphere: x2 + y2 + z2 < r2

More complex geometry can be constructed by logical operations of the inequalities

e.g. points of hollow sphere with inner radius r1 and outer radius r2 have to satisfy both x 2 + y 2 + z 2 > r1 2 and x 2 + y 2 + z 2 < r2 2

Spatial subdivision
Concept similar to a 3-D bitmap, where objects are divided into small cubes Larger cubes are identified to save storage space

More advanced models (will not be covered)

Spine objects (you may regard it as extrusion with curved central axis) Fractals Soft objects interacting with neighboring objects

Definition of rendering
Viewing algorithm of how objects are drawn and visualized by a viewer Usually objects are rendered in order Different algorithms to handle different representations

Wire frame or line rendering

Simplest for rendering for quick visualization Only required to figure out the vertices and connect related pairs Overlapping/depth information need not be considered Sometimes difficult to understand the object

Opaque surface rendering

Define the color of a polygon/surface and color the entire surface with the single color Relatively simple, except that the visual order of the surface has to be calculated Project each object onto the cameras viewing screen and determine the paint color by comparing order with existing points

Complex surface rendering

Need to consider texture, perspective, lighting and other factors Interaction between objects also needs to be considered

Ray tracing
Traces light backward from eye to scene to light source Take into account perfect specular interaction Ray-traced examples:

http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/pub/WWW/povray/

Ray tracing
Use analogy from thermal heat diffusion to model the energy emitted from each surface patch Handle diffused interaction

http://freespace.virgin.net/hugo.elias/radiosity/radiosity.htm

Difficulty in simulating realistic illumination

Illumination of an object consists of many sources from multiple reflection of surrounding surfaces (similar to reverberation in audio) It is very difficult to trace all the sources to calculate the right color and luminosity or the resulting surface Need to develop models to achieve trade-off between realism and efficient rendering

www.siggraph.org/education/materials/ HyperGraph/radiosity/overview_1.htm

Point light source

The simplest source with parameters of position, color and intensity The illumination intensity at a certain point is calculated by inverse square law and angle of incident
normal vector n = [0, 1, 0]

(px,py,pz) s = [px-x, py-y, pzz] Recall vector dot product -s n = |s||n| cos()

(x,y,z)

cos() = -s n / |s|

r r I (s n ) illumination at (x, y, z) = r3 s

where I is the intensity at the source

Spot light
Similar to point source except that intensity falls off rapidly at location outside the cone of illumination
(px,py,pz)

n u s (x,y,z) (x0,y0,z0)

- Position: (px,py,pz) - Direction: s - Cone angle: A point given by u is within the illumination cone if < /2
r r (s u ) cos( ) = r r su

illumination can be calculated as a function of and distance from source

r r I source (u n ) cos g example: Illumination = r3 4 u

g control the fading sharpness of the sport

Multiple light sources

Superposition principle can be used to calculate final equalization necessary to prevent saturation

Shadows
Need a model to handle the interaction between light sources and objects Simple method: treat opaque objects as negative light sources to subtract out illumination The magnitude of the negative light source defines the transparency of the object surface to a third object

Ambient light reflection

It refers to constant illumination naturally exists due to multiple reflections that enable us to see objects No light source is associated with it and independent of orientation and distance Simply calculated by multiplying the light source color component and the reflection coefficient
Observed color R = IR-source x RR-object G = IG-source x RG-object B = IB-source x RB-object

Note that the source color and surface color is in the subtraction color space

Diffused reflection
It simulates reflection by rough surfaces that incident lights are reflected in all directions Similar to ambient light reflection, perspective info due to distance and orientation w.r.t. light sources are included Easier to be represented using the HSV model such that the positional data can be represented by the intensity components without affecting the color
Example: surfaces are rendered by same color with different brightness

Specular reflection
Reflection generated by polished surfaces creates a highlight of the illuminating light source and surrounding environment Surface brightness is the sum of its ambient reflection together with specular highlight Perfectly reflected light follows the law of reflection with incident angle equal to the reflected angle Depending on different material, some small amount of diffusion due to micro-surface roughness may occur resulting in slightly blurred surface

(px,py,pz) s

- specular reflection component is modeled by r

(x,y,z)

R = IsourceK s cosg ( )
Isource is the source intensity KS is the specular coefficient g is the gross surface factor

(x,y,z)

Example: g=10 gives a rough plastic effect while g=150 gives metallic-like surface with small highlight Have to find in term of vectors in the Cartesian system calculated from relative coordinates, we have

r r r r r r g R = IsourceK s [2(n s )(n v ) (v s )]

Examples in surface rendering

Render order
In 2-D, the bottom-most plane is colored first and then color is applied upward towards the top In 3-D, there are different orders to color the scene Object order:
for each primitive P do for each pixel q within P do update frame buffer based on color and visibility of P at q

Image order:
for each pixel q do for each primitive P covering q do compute Ps contribution to q, outputting q when finished

Back-face removal
Assume solid objects with no 2-D plane exist Only one side of a surface will be displayed, indicated by the direction of its normal vector Remove all planes that face away from the camera Can be tested by the dot product or the normal vector and the view vector The plane is facing away if angle between the vectors are > 90 degree
y

back facing z forward facing

Painters algorithm
Sort the planes in order like 2-D given a camera position Paint the furthest one first and then the closer one Problem: how to handle intersecting planes? Possible solution: break the planes into 2 smaller ones

Z-buffer algorithm
For each pixel in the display plane, assign a memory space with a large initial value (maximum depth) When an object is rendered to that pixels position, compare its depth with the stored depth The pixel will only be rendered if the value is smaller than the stored value and the stored value is updated

Bitmap surface representation

Some surface texture can only be described by bitmap but not object Assume the texture is represented by a bitmap with u-v coordinate Can be mapped to any surface in WCS by complicated 3-D mathematical transforms The texture map defines the background ambient color and additional effects are added by superposition principle

Scaling problem
A distance from the camera which the texture map and the object plane align must be defined When the plane is very close to the camera, the entire plane may be mapped only to 1-2 pixels in the texture Similarly when the plane is very far, the entire texture may will be scaled to a few pixels

Example: cylindrical mapping

Assume a texture map with U-V coordinate is mapped to a cylinder with radius r and height h A point Pi(xi,yi,xi) will be mapped into T(u,v) in the texture space

V 1 T(u,v) v 0 1 U z u

y r P(xi,yi,zi) h x

Vertical coordinate:

v = yi/h u = / 2 = cos-1(zi/r)/ 2

Horizontal coordinate: = cos-1(zi/r)

The portion of the arc is:

Note: reflection of nearby objects can be considered as texture mapping from camera screen

Further info
Alan Watt, 3D Computer Graphics, 3rd Ed., Addison-Wesley 2000 Olin Lathrop, The Way Computer Graphics Works, John Wiley & Sons, 1997 http://www.embedinc.com/book/index.htm Ray-tracing examples: http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/pub/WWW/povray/ RadiosityReference: http://www.siggraph.org/education/materials/HyperGraph/radiosity /radiosity.htm http://freespace.virgin.net/hugo.elias/radiosity/radiosity.htm Polygonal representation and rendering: http://cis.csuohio.edu/~arndt/graphics.ppt Bezier Curves: www.moshplant.com/director/bezierwww.math.ucla.edu/~baker/java/hoefer/Bezier.htm Parametric Patches: http://www.cs.wpi.edu/~matt/courses/cs563/talks/surface/bez_surf .html