The Changing Roles of Women in Southeast Asian Politics

A Comparative Paper of the Cases in the Philippines and Indonesia

Submitted to: Mr. Michael Ang Submitted by: Carpio, Maria Stephanie Del Mundo, Maria Fe December 08, 2010

THE APPROVED TOPIC: Carpio, Maria Stephanie Del Mundo, Maria Fe Topic: A Comparative Study of the Changing Roles of Women in Southeast Asia: The Case of the Philippines and Indonesia Primary References: Andaya, B. W. (2008). Women in South East Asia. Retreived October 20, 2010 from http://asiasociety.org/countries-history/traditions/women-southeast-asia Boudreau, Vincent (1995). Corazon Aquino: Gender, Class, and the People Power President. Bergin & Garvey, 88 Post Road West, Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. Inc. DAmico, F. & Beckman, P .R. (Eds.). (1995). Women in World Politics: An Introduction. Bergin & Garvey, 88 Post Road West, Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. Inc. pp. 1-15. Robinson K. & Bessell, S. (Eds.) (2002). Women in Indonesia: Gender, Equity and Development. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore. Sen, Krishna (2002). The Mega Factor in Indonesian Politics: A New President or a New Kind of Presidency. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore. Others: Hega, M. (2003). Participation of Women in Philippine Politics and Society: A Situationer. Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Philippine Office. Retrieved October 20, 2010 from library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/philippinen/50067.pdf Parawansa, K. I. (n.d.) Case Study: Indonesia- Enhancing Womens Political Participation in Indonesia. Women in Parliament: Beyond Numbers. Retrieved October 20, 2010 from www.idea.int/publications/wip2/upload/Indonesia.pdf Report on the State of Women in Urban Local Government Philippines. Philippines Report. Retrieved October 20, 2010 from http://www.unescap.org/huset/women/reports/philippines.pdf Silvestre, Jaylyn. (n.d.) The Rise of Women Leaders in the Philippines: A Study of Corazon Aquino and Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. The Berkeley McNair Research Journal. Retrieved October 20, 2010 from www.capwip.org/readingroom/silvestre.pd Sitasari, Arnita. (n.d.) Indonesian Women and Politics: Challenges and Promises. Department of Political Science, West Virginia University. Retrieved October 20, 2010 from www.allacademic.com/meta/p137666_index.html

When talking about politics, specifically the hold of political power, the common notion is that it is male predominance. Women find it difficult to enter in the world of politics. But as the world become more and more diverse, the social roles of the women are said to be changing, is the same trend applied with the roles of women in politics?

In comparison with other regions, Southeast Asia (SEA) is exemplified by the fairly encouraging position of women in the society. As discussed by Barbara Watson Andaya (2000), there are several factors why the place of women in SEA is quite better and they are as follows: customarily, kinship was traced in both maternal and paternal lines; a daughter was not a financial burden because of the widespread practice of bride price; a married couple often lived with or near the wifes parents; women had prominent roles in indigenous ritual; their labor was essential in agricultural, and they dominated local markets (Andaya, 2000). When the SEA region was colonized, except from Thailand, the position of women was affected, nonetheless at times women led anti-colonial rebellions and still influential in community life. In the contemporary SEA, the number of women holding political seat is increasing, particularly in the local offices. However, when women were able to enter in the political world, they still are considered as marginalized and under the male-dominated society. And whenever women managed to enter the highest position in the government like in the case of the Philippines and Indonesia, they were able to do so because they are at least related to a famous man in the country. Basically, the focus of the essay is on the political roles of women in South East Asian countries particularly in the Philippines, and Indonesia. The paper will discuss the political participation of women in general. The paper will try to examine the different events that gave way to the women to enter in the political arena. Also, it will name some of the prominent female leaders and will try to make assessments on their leadership. At this point, I will provide the history up to the present of the place of the Philippine and Indonesian women in politics and society. According to Miguel Flores (1984), date back from the ancient Malay tradition the Filipino women were given the same treatment as men. The roles and status of the women show that there was equality between the opposite genders. They held a honored position, with inheritance and property rights equivalent to those of men and with a reputable position of authority in family, social and political life as noted by some pre-Spanish

historians. In political life for instance, women were treated as consultants of men or their husbands when making important decisions. The woman can also be the successor of her father or husband in case no male heir is available in the leadership of their tribe (Flores, 1984). But when Spain colonizer came in the Philippines during sixteenth to nineteenth century, the women were treated differently. They were viewed as someone inferior to those of men. The Spanish rule brought the Code of Laws of Spain and stated on it was to confine woman at home, dont allow her to perform business without the legal guidance of her husband, and give her the social and political rights same with the minors and mentally disabled person (Flores, 1984). Also, education was mainly for men only. When finally the Spanish rule ended and American colonizer took over, it brought changes on the roles of women but its more on the social changes. Women were given equal opportunities as men to study and go to school and have an access to information. In terms of the political position, the society was very much maledominated and patriarchal; women at that time were seen as home keeper. But by 1937, the Filipino women were given the right to suffrage. From then on, their roles in the political sphere became much visible. The triumph of women in the Philippine politics was significantly shown when the late Corazon Aquino became the first female president of the country and gave birth to the Philippine democracy once again. More about the case of former President Aquino will be discuss later. The People Power Revolution in 1986 that brought Corazon Aquino to power also gives progress to the laws regarding gender equality. In the 1987 Constitution Article II Section 14 it is avowed that the State recognizes the roles of women in nation-building and shall ensure the fundamental equality before the law of women and men. Also, Article 13 Section 14 is a part of constitution protecting the welfare of the women because as stated State shall protect working women by proving safe and healthful working conditions, taking into account their mater functions, and such facilities and opportunities that will enhance their welfare and enable them to realize their full potential in the service of the nation. In the legislature, Constitution included women as one of the marginalized sector that can be represented in the Congress through the party-list system.

Moving on, there are times when the voter-turnout of women is higher than the men. For instance, in the local and national election of 1995, the turnout rate for women was 71.0% while the rate for men was 70.3% though the number of registered male voters, 18.3 million was higher than female, 18.1 million (Philippines Report). Also, the number of aspiring women who ran for the office was not far from the number of who actually won the seats. In the 1998 election, there were 6 female candidates for senatorial position out of 28 candidates, 2 women won the seats of the 12 Senate position or a total of 16.67%, and 65 female candidates out of 611 for the district representative position, 25 women won for the 207 representative seats or a total of 12.08% (Philippines Report). Philippine Organization of Women Elected Representatives, Inc. (POWER) is an organization formed by the women in the legislature which main goal is to serve as a venue for interaction and talks regarding the general welfare of the women in the country. The organization is capable of providing laws that are needed by the women, and it can also support bill that is helpful to all Filipino women. Aside from the mentioned organization, under the Constitution women are given an opportunity to be represented through party-list representation and one of the prominent especially in the 1998 election is the Abanse! Pinay party. In the present time, the GABRIELA party is the most known party-list in terms of fighting and protecting for the rights of the women. Filipino women aside from being political participants by means of voting and running the election for the public offices, they also are given certain positions and roles in the bureaucracy. In 1997, according to the Philippines Report there are more women than men in the government bureaucracy, 53.81% out of the total 1.38 million government personnel. However, in the 2001 election it was said to be a watershed in the era of women in politics. No women party won and the women sector lost their representation. In the paper Participation of Women in Philippine Politics and Soceity: A Satuationer written by Mylene Hega (2003), presented the study conducted by Ateneo School of Government and the Friedrich-EbertStiftung. According to the study the amorphous sectoral association did not spare the womens sector that is supposed to be the most cohesive as it deal with a group defined biologically. The study concluded that obviously there exists no sectoral vote. Groups representing sectors cannot rely on their sectoral constituencies to win them seats. Certainly, the sectors have the numbers. Millions of peasants and workers can elect many representatives in the House. However, none of
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the sectors seem united enough or are aware of themselves as a sector with special interests and a point of unity in the electoral arena. Perhaps their votes are more oriented toward causes, personalities or parties (Hega, 2003). There are several reasons why though Philippines is the most advance country in terms of gender equality in the SEA, still not fully achieved the balance between the political roles of men and women. Women in political arena are still considered inferior than that of men. Leadership in the country is still associated with male. Women more often than not are seen as support to their husbands. They are the housekeeper and the main function as supposed is to take good care of the family. Nevertheless in general, the roles of the Filipino women are advancing in some aspects. In fact in the 2002 Human Development Report, 17.2 of all the legislative seats are occupied by women, 2.3 of the professional and technical workers are women and 35% of Filipino administrators and managers are women. The Philippines is the highest in the South East Asia region in terms of Gender Empowerment Measurement (GEM) having the measure of 0.523. Let us present here a table as an example that will show the advancement of the roles of women in Philippine political sphere:
Table I. Percentage of Women in Philippine Government, Congress, and Judiciary

Source: Participation of Women in Philippine Politics and Soceity: A Satuationer, Mylene Hega (2003)

Now we shift our focus on the political history of the Indonesian women but just like the history of women in Philippine political arena, women in Indonesia are having its own ups and downs. According to H.E. Mr Sudjadnan Parnohadiningrat, ambassador of the Republic of Indonesia (2002), the role of Indonesian women in shaping the very fabric of their society is integral to the history of their nation. Presently, the country is attempting to boost the involvement or participation of women in politics. Women are facing some difficulties in entering politics because of several factors as enumerated by Arnita Sitasari: firstly, the traditional social perspective of a womans role as a mother and a wife; second, an electoral system designed to favor men over women; third, a culture heavily influenced by Islam that reinforces womens status as second class citizens; and lastly, the influenced of military (Sitasari, 2006). By the year 1928 it was said to be a turning point in the history of Indonesian women because of the holding of the first Womens Congress, Kongres Perempuan. The Congress gave way to women to participate and be part in all phases of the countrys development. Moreover, the claim for independence became a major issue in the country and the role of women by that time was very crucial. They played a key role distinctively in the armed services. Conversely, after the independence was granted and men returned to the place from war, the patriarchal society then again emerged and the role of women was seen only for household. During 1952 despite the re-emergence of patriarchal society a law was passed granting women the freedom to vote and to be appointed and participate to the legislature and in all political position in the country. This was by the ratification of Indonesia of the UN Convention on Political Rights through Law No. 68/1958. The general election laws such as laws No. 15/1969, No. 4/1975, No. 29/1980, and No. 3/1985 permit women to actively partake in the political sphere and give rights to women to be part of the decision-making body in Indonesia (Women in Indonesia, 2002). Aside from the law passed as stated earlier, the government of Indonesia ratified the Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. The law passed regarding this was the Law No. 7/1984. Also, the government in its effort to ensure the removal of discrimination among women created on 1998 the National Commission on Violence against
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Women. The main goals of the commission are as follows: to promote public awareness about all forms of violence against women, to create advantageous environment for the ending of violence to women, to secure the human rights of women, and to advance the protective measure about the ending of violence against women. In addition, the Optional Protocol to the Convention in 1999 added to the legality of the rights of the women to be part of the growth of the country (Women in Indonesia, 2002). Another step taken by the government of Indonesia to secure the rights of the women was the establishment of the National Action Plan for the Elimination of Violence against Women. The policy about the non-tolerance of the mistreatment of women is under the action plan. Going back to the more political aspect, the first general election was held during 1955, the women made up the 6.5% of the total member elected in the Parliament. This election also gave way to the rise of the different patterns of womens representation. The increasing participation of women was evident and peaking at 13% by 1987 (Parawansa, n.d.). Likewise, during the first election of the reform era or the so-called New Order era, a single party system was dominant and the representation of the women was greatly affected by the national-level elites in the country. Also, during the new era the women get elected even if not actively participating in the election campaign because they were under the closed-list proportional representation, and they merely won because of the influential elite. In the 1999 election, some changes occurred like the recruitment of the party candidates for the legislature needs the approval of the regional party officials. During this time, women were actively doing the campaign and participating in the whole electoral process. The women were able to get 8.8% of the representative seats during 1999. Another turning point event happened in the Indonesian history was the appointment of the first woman president Megawati Sukarnoputri in 2001 which will be discuss more in the next part of the paper. According to Khofifah Indar Parawansa (n.d.), during the presidencies of Megawati Sukarnoputri and Abdurrahman Wahid (the one replaced by Megawati) a major process of constitutional amendment took place.
Indonesia changed from an integrationist state in which the Majelis Permusyawaratan (MPR,

Peoples Consultative Assembly) was the single highest institution of the nation to a conventional presidential system with separation of powers. As a result, Indonesia held elections for the national 8

legislature and for provincial and district legislatures in 2004, accompanied by the first election for the newly established second chamber of the legislature, the regional Dewan Perwakilan Daerah (DPD, Representatives Council). These elections were followed by Indonesias first-ever direct presidential election, conducted in 2004 using a Two-Round system (Parawansa, n.d.).

The results of the 2004 election showed an increase of womens electoral participation. Out of the 128 DPD there were 27 women won or 21%. And in DPR there were 11.5%. The new election process brought important changes that may affect the representation of women in both the national and regional legislature. One of the most important changes that affect the women is the new provision requiring parties to bear in their hearts the desirability of 30 percent of nominated candidates being women, which can be described as a maybe quota (Parawansa, n.d.). Though the provision is not fixed, many parties are trying to comply with the 30% women candidates in their list for the elected bodies at all levels. This shows that the rights of Indonesian women are atleast treated well during the modern times though still limited. At this point, let us show some of the statistics that will illustrate the trend of womens political involvement in Indonesia:

Table II. Women in the Formal Institution in Indonesia as of 2005

Source: Case Study: Indonesia. Enhancing Womens Participation in Indonesia by Khofifah Indar Parawansa.

Table III. Women in the House of Representatives (DPR), Indonesia

Source: Case Study: Indonesia. Enhancing Womens Participation in Indonesia by Khofifah Indar Parawansa.

As we can see from the tables above, women are given way to participate in the politics but still the figures clearly show that the Indonesian political arena is still male-dominated. From the year 1950 until this present era, no more than 14% constitute the women in every House of Representatives. Some of the reasons why it happens that way are presented in the Case Study of Indonesia authored by Parawansa. According to the said author, there are several obstacles preventing women to be part of the Parliament. The first one is that Indonesia is still largely patriarchal society and assumes that the political positions are for men and women can more likely are in the household or sometimes in the business. Second, the party leaders are always men and the selection of the party candidates mostly are bias and prefer men as political candidate more than women. Men have the final say over the party politics. Third factor is that the media in Indonesia doesnt give much importance to the information dissemination about the importance of women being part of the Parliament. Fourth, the Non-governmental organizations or the (NGOs) representing the women are present
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since 1999 but they lacked cooperation and networking which are important to achieve the common goal. They work individually and there is no social capital. The fifth factor is about the low educational attainment of the women. Only women coming from the upper sector of the society can afford education in Indonesia. Women in terms of education are inferior and since the qualification set by 2003 electoral law states that the electoral candidates should have attain at least senior high school degree, this become hindrance for women. The qualification set by the 2003 electoral law of Indonesia is opposite in the case of the Philippines and in this aspect Philippine electoral laws can offer much equal opportunities for both men and women to be electoral candidate. However, I find the electoral law regarding educational attainment in the Philippines not convincible because as stated on it, as long as the citizen is eligible to read and write can assume the candidacy for election in compliance with other qualifications stated in the electoral law. In my point of view, the low educational qualification can somehow threaten the matter of governance. Moving on, the sixth factor is that women play a vital role in the family and usually this becomes an issue when they will run for office. The issue of family versus political position turns out to be a big deal especially with their spouses. Seventh, money is always been an issue when running into office and women usually lacks the resources. Lastly, political parties received limited seats in the Parliament and men are always the priority.

Maria Corazon Aquino of the Philippines and Megawati Sukarnoputri of Indonesia After discussing the place of women in the Philippines and Indonesia, We will try to give a deeper understanding of the political roles of women by examining the two of the most wellknown female leaders in South East Asia, Corazon Aquino of the Philippines and Megawati Sukarnoputri of Indonesia. Mother of the Philippine democracy- this was title given to Maria Corazon Cory Sumulong Cojuangco-Aquino. Cory Aquino was the first woman president of the Philippines. Before the assassination of her husband Benigno Ninoy Aquino Jr., Mrs. Aquino was a plain housewife. But in 1983, Cory Aquino became visible and actively participated in the rallies and demonstrations against the Marcos regime. She assumed the responsibilities of her husband placing herself in the opposition and fighting for the freedom of the Filipino under the Marcos
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era. By that time, Ferdinand Marcos regime was accused of illegitimacy and his administration was being questioned by the nation. During November 1985, Marcos announced that there will be a snap election on February 1986 to satisfy the people questioning his rule. With the demand of the people and their signature campaign, Cory Aquino was asked to run as President against Marcos. The campaign happened before the snap election was said to be dirty and controversial. Marcos threw unacceptable accusations of Aquinos personality and her capability. One of the most controversial charges Marcos said about Aquino is her being a woman. According to Marcos, Aquino is just a woman whose place was in a bedroom. In this line, it was clearly shown the perception of woman, inferior that of a man. Nonetheless, Aquino handled the matter by saying that may the better woman win this election. Aquino tried not to be affected by the many charges of his opponent. The snap election held on February 7, 1986 was unforgettable in the political history of the country. It was bloody and full of violence. Many allies of Aquino were killed like the Governor of Antique, Evelio Javier. On February 15, 1986, Marcos was declared as the winner by the Batasang Pambansa. Aquino on the other hand, didnt believe the proclamation of the Batasan and called for a rally the following day. With this, many Filipino came out of their houses and became part of the rally which only shows that Filipino were longing for change and already tired of the Marcos regime. Moreover, on the 22nd day of February, Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and General Fidel V. Ramos announced that they were not convinced on the result of the snap election and gave their support on Aquino. This instance gave way on what we call now EDSA I or the People Power Revolution. On February 25, 1986, Corazon Aquino was proclaimed as the new president of the Philippines. As presented in the paper The Rise of Women Leaders in the Philippines: A Study of Corazon Aquino and Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo by Jaylyn Silvestre, there are four variables that affect the being in the power of the two female presidents: family ties, the Catholic Church, the context of corruption and gender symbolism. Aquino presidency was said to be impossible without her relation to the prominent politician, his husband Ninoy Aquino (Silvestre, n.d.). Being part of a prominent family, Cojuangco-Aquino was I think also help in bringing Cory Aquino in the position. Next about the role of Catholic Church, women being more religious than men at least
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in the view of the Church can suffice why they were able to get the support needed to be in the position. Filipinos are known for being religious and obedient to the Church and so most of the time when the Church says something the people easily accept it or follow it. It is deeply rooted in the culture. In addition, the context of corruption is seen as one variable affecting the rise of the two female presidents. Both the cases of Aquino and Arroyos rise to power were products of the ousted corrupt political leaders. Lastly, traditional Filipino woman is seen as someone with good morals and has the capacity of directing the family towards the right path and with this gender symbolism helped explain why the two presidents got the position. Aquinos administration faced a great challenges left by the Marcos era. Her first few months in the office were spent for democratic reforms. She abolished the Batasang Pambansa which was known for being pro-Marcos as well as the 1973 Constitution. She called for drafting a new Constitution and created Constitutional Commission whos in charged of it. While waiting for the amendment of the new Constitution, the Freedom Constitution of 1986 was used. When the Constitution was amended during 1987, the new Congress also opened. The important contributions of Aquino to the Philippine law are the legal codes as follows: Administrative codes of 1987 which is about the reorganization of the structure of the government executive branch, and Local Government Code of 1991 which is about decentralization of power from national government to the local government units (LGUs). Moving on, Aquinos presidency did affect the roles of the women in the Philippine politics and society. The creation of commission for the development of women in the society really helped to elevate the position of women. It was also evident that there was an increased in the womens representation in the public office. Under her administration, three women served in Aquinos cabinet and in Judiciary, the representation of women in key position increased from 7.5% to 9.6%, and in the Foreign Service it grew from 27.5% to 40% (Boudrea, 1995). The presidency of Aquino also gave way to other aspiring Filipino women and it made them feel that women can be political leaders and not just always be treated inferior than that of men.

In the case of Indonesia, Diah Permata Megawati Setiawati Sukarnoputri marked the political history of the country. Like Corazon Aquino, she was the first female president. But unlike
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Aquino, Megawati assumed other political position before being president. She became the vicepresident and leader of the opposition party named Indonesian Democratic Party-Struggle (PDIP). She was also a daughter of Sukarno, the first president of Indonesia and a part of political elite.

In 2001, Megawati was appointed as the fifth president of Indonesia. By the unanimous decision made by the Peoples Consultative Assembly, they removed Abdurrahman Wahid and replaced by her. When Megawati laid down her state of the nation address, her 6 point programs were said to be a motherhood statements and also in her speech included some of her personal life experiences. Megawati is accused of having intellectual shortcomings and for some this is not a good trait of president.

Before being appointed as president, Megawati was really planning then to run as president. When PDI-Ps Legislative election was a victory in 1999, the more it gave Megawati confidence to run for the office but it was opposed by United Development Party (PPP) because they dont want female president. This clearly depicted that Indonesian politics is still bias on women. Megawatis presidency became controversial and full of doubts on the part of many scholars and analysts. There were lot of governance challenges left to Megawati by the Soehrto, Habbie and Wahid government. Democracy is one of the issues faced by Megawatis presidency for almost 4 years. Megawati ran for the 2004 and 2009 presidential election but was defeated.

According to Krishna Sen (2002), democracy in Indonesia under Megawati is producing a new kind of politics- different from their own democracy which is the mass-based democracy and different too from the ideals of Indonesias reformist intellectuals. Overall, I think Megawatis presidency didnt show a great result in the political sphere of Indonesia and this was evident when she tried to run twice for the office but did not win.

In comparison, Cory Aquino and Megawati Sukarnoputri both became the first female presidents of their countries. They are both appointed and not really as a result of valid or legitimate election. However, the demand of the people for Cory Aquino to be the president was more visible than that of Megawati. Both of them also were related to the prominent men of the
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countries. Aquino was the wife of the known opposition leader against Marcos martial law while Megawati is a daughter of the first president of Indonesia. Moreover, Aquino and Megawati have the traits of being a housewife. In Aquinos case she was sometimes soft-hearted and easy to forgive while in the case of Megawati, her being a housewife is manifested in her state of the nation address. Despite the similarities, there also exist the differences among the two female leaders. Megawati have already a background of politics before being president on the other hand Aquino was just a plain housewife before appointed in the office. And after their terms in office, Aquino stepped down and not run for the office again while Megawati did. The cases of Aquino and Megawati show that indeed women can have a place in the political arena but obstructions and difficulties regarding gender-related issue are still inescapable especially in a male-dominated society like the Philippines and Indonesia.

Conclusion There are indeed changing political roles of women in the Philippines and Indonesia. In both countries at the present times, women are allowed to vote and actively participate in the electoral process. However, there are still some difficulties women encounters specially when assuming political position. These were rooted mainly from the culture of the region. Philippines and Indonesia are both patriarchal by nature and from this very fact, it can explain why women are treated somewhat inferior when compare to men. Different laws were passed in both countries protecting not only the political rights of the women but the general welfare as well. Both countries also show that having female political leaders is not impossible but its really challenging.

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References Andaya, B. W. (2008). Women in South East Asia. Retreived October 20, 2010 from http://asiasociety.org/countries-history/traditions/women-southeast-asia Boudreau, Vincent (1995). Corazon Aquino: Gender, Class, and the People Power President. Bergin & Garvey, 88 Post Road West, Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. Inc. DAmico, F. & Beckman, P .R. (Eds.). (1995). Women in World Politics: An Introduction. Bergin & Garvey, 88 Post Road West, Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. Inc. pp. 1-15. Hega, M. (2003). Participation of Women in Philippine Politics and Society: A Situationer. Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Philippine Office. Retrieved October 20, 2010 from library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/philippinen/50067.pdf Parawansa, K. I. (n.d.) Case Study: Indonesia- Enhancing Womens Political Participation in Indonesia. Women in Parliament: Beyond Numbers. Retrieved October 20, 2010 from www.idea.int/publications/wip2/upload/Indonesia.pdf Report on the State of Women in Urban Local Government Philippines. Philippines Report. Retrieved October 20, 2010 from http://www.unescap.org/huset/women/reports/philippines.pdf Robinson K. & Bessell, S. (Eds.) (2002). Women in Indonesia: Gender, Equity and Development. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore. Sen, Krishna (2002). The Mega Factor in Indonesian Politics: A New President or a New Kind of Presidency. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore. Silvestre, Jaylyn. (n.d.) The Rise of Women Leaders in the Philippines: A Study of Corazon Aquino and Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. The Berkeley McNair Research Journal. Retrieved October 20, 2010 from www.capwip.org/readingroom/silvestre.pd Sitasari, Arnita. (n.d.) Indonesian Women and Politics: Challenges and Promises. Department of Political Science, West Virginia University. Retrieved October 20, 2010 from www.allacademic.com/meta/p137666_index.html

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