Ultrasonic Levitator

Manual

In der Au 25
D - 61440 Oberursel

T el : +49 (0)6171 / 9758 - 0

Fax: +49 (0)6171 / 9758 - 50

email: sales@tec5.com
Internet: http:\\www.tec5.com

© 2004 tec5 AG
Contents

1 Introduction...................................................................................................3
2 Basics About Ultrasonic Levitation ............................................................4
2.1 General Working Principle ................................................................................................................4
2.2 Typical Effects Occurring with Ultrasonic Levitation .....................................................................8
3 Description of the Ultrasonic Levitator....................................................10
3.1 The Power Supply Unit.....................................................................................................................10
3.2 The Levitator with Process Chamber.............................................................................................. 11
3.3 Options ...............................................................................................................................................12
3.4 Maintenance and Service..................................................................................................................13
3.5 Safety Instructions ............................................................................................................................ 14
3.6 Technical Specifications....................................................................................................................15
4 Working with the Ultrasonic Levitator ....................................................16
4.1 Start, Tuning, and Calibration of the Levitator .............................................................................16
4.2 Deployment and Extraction of Liquid Samples ..............................................................................17
4.3 Experimenting with the Levitator and its Unique Features .......................................................... 21
4.4 Some helpful tricks for experimenting with the levitator .............................................................. 23
4.5 Potential Applications.......................................................................................................................24
5 Literature.....................................................................................................25

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 2

1 Introduction
The ultrasonic levitator is a powerful tool which facilitates the performance of a
variety of investigations on single particles or droplets. As it suspends the lev i-
tated object contactlessly in a fixed position, the process under investigation is not
disturbed by the influence of a contacting surface. The ultrasonic levitator with its
various optional features is designed to be applicable to manifold scientific disc i-
plines.

Note Before installation of the ultrasonic levitator, the present manual and in par-
ticular the safety and maintenance instructions should be read carefully.

Chapter 2 of the present manual gives a brief description of the basic working
principles of ultrasonic levitation. A more detailed description of the different
parts of the levitator and of the available optional accessories is given in Chapter
3. Instructions for using the ultrasonic levitator are provided in Chapter 4. To
gain a better and more detailed understanding of this levitation technique and its
applications, a selection of relevant literature is cited in Chapter 5.

We hope, you enjoy working with the ultrasonic levitator, and we wish you suc-
cess in your specific application. As we are continuously trying to improve the
general performance of the ultrasonic levitator and to increase its field of applica-
tions, any ideas or suggestions from our customers are highly appreciated.

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 3

2 Basics About Ultrasonic Levitation
2.1 General Working Principle
Standing wave As a result of multiple reflections between an ultrasonic radiator and a solid, flat
or concave reflector - which is adjusted concentrically at a distance of some mul-
tiple half wavelengths - a standing wave with equally spaced nodes and antinodes
of the sound pressure and velocity amplitude will be generated (see Figure 2-1).
Solid or liquid samples with effective diameters of less than half a wavelength
will be levitated without contact below the pressure nodes as a result of axial r a-
diation pressure and radial Bernoulli stress. Minimal acoustic power is required
for this levitation, when the sound wavelength is about three times the sample d i-
ameter (see Table 2-1).

Reflector
Sound-
radiation-
n ∗ λ0/2 pressure

Bernoulli-
λ0 stress

Droplet

Piezoelectric
transducer

Figure 2-1: Schematic set-up and pressure distribution in the resonator.

Ultrasonic frequency f [kHz] 20 30 45 58 100

Optimal drop diameter ds, opt [mm] 6.9 4.6 3.1 2.4 1.4
Optimal drop volume Vs, opt [µl] 120 36 11 5 1
Opt. sound pressure level Lmin [dB] 161 159 157 156 154

Table 2-1: Specifications for the levitation of water drops in ambient air.

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 4

58 kHz standard The tec5 AG ultrasonic levitator works at a standard frequency of 58 kHz
frequency (optional: 100 kHz) in ambient air with a standard wavelength of about 5.9 mm.
The largest drop diameter that can be suspended with the standard frequency,
without significant drop deformation, is about 2.5 mm, while the smallest diame-
ter is around 15 µm. The environmental temperature for operating the ultrasonic
levitator should be between 0°C and +70°C.

The levitator is designed for applications with liquid and solid samples with de n-
sities in the range 0.5 - 2 g/cm³. The large dynamic range of the levitation force of
1:10 allows, however, short time levitation experiments with heavy samples ha v-
ing a significantly higher density.

Figure 2-2 illustrates schematically the levitation of a spherical sample in a plane

standing ultrasonic wave between a piezoelectrically driven transducer and a co n-
centrically spaced flat or curved reflector.

z z z
+

-
stable
+ unstable

-
Pressure Velocity Force
under microgravity
"on earth"
Figure 2-2: Acoustic pressure, velocity and levitation force in an ultrasonic
standing wave.

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 5

 The axial profiles of the acoustic pressure and the sound particle velocity ampl i-
tudes (time average) of the standing wave

p$ = p$ max ⋅ cos kz

v$ = v$max ⋅ sin kz
with the well known nodes and antinodes result in respective profiles of the ki-
netic and potential energy densities:

2
p$ max
E pot = 2
2 cos kz
2 ρ 0 c0

ρ 0 v$max
2
Ekin = sin 2 kz
2
In the above equations, k represents the wave number : k = 2π / λ .

Levitation force These energy densities provide a pressure distribution around the sample which,
after integration over the sample surface, results in an axial acoustic levitation
force:
ρ0 2 π 2 π 3
Fac = cw,ac ⋅ ⋅ v$max ⋅ ⋅ ds = ⋅ ds ⋅ ρ s ⋅ g
2 4 6

This levitation force compensates the sample weight ρsVs g in the gravity field.
Under microgravity conditions (g ≈ 0 m/s²), the sample will be stably positioned
exactly at a pressure node, while under terrestrial conditions its weight is compe n-
sated at a downwards displacement of the sample center below the pressure node.

Due to the fact that the standing ultrasonic wave is not a perfect plane wave, but
shows a slight divergence, a radial profile of the sound particle velocity exists.
This results in a symmetrical radial force which is centering the levitated sample
on the levitator axis. The radial force is about one order of magnitu de smaller than
the axial levitation force.

Pressure nodes In the standard ultrasonic levitator, 4 to 5 pressure nodes exist which can be vis u-
alized by atomizing a drop of water at the transducer frontface. The atomized
aerosol will agglomerate in the pressure nodes. Only the inner 2 to 3 pressure
nodes can be used for stable levitation. The two outer nodes are influenced by d e-
stabilizing effects from the transducer and the reflector.

Droplets with diameters ds ≥ 2/3 λ can not be levitated. The optimal droplet di-
ameter, for which minimal ultrasonic power is required, is ds,opt = λ/3 . Table 2-2
gives an overview of different liquids, their surface tension and density, and the
corresponding maximal droplet diameters and volumes for ultrasonic levitation.
These values correspond to the critical Bond-number Bocrit. = 1.5 and are irrespec-
tive of the ultrasonic frequency, which means that these figures are absolute va l-
ues. Droplets with diameters larger than indicated in Table 2-2 are not acousti-
cally levitatable at all, for stability reasons.

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 6

 Medium σs [dyn/cm] ρs [g/cm³] dmax [mm] Vmax [ml]

Ethanol 22.3 0.7894 4.16 37.6

Acetone 23.3 0.7910 4.24 40.0
Benzene 28.9 0.8790 4.48 47.0
Glycerin 65.7 1.2610 5.64 94.1
Methanol 22.6 0.7915 4.17 38.1
Mercury 465 13.546 4.58 50.3
CS2 32.2 1.2630 3.95 32.2
CCl4 26.8 1.5940 3.20 17.2
Toluol 28.5 0.8669 4.48 47.0
Water 72.75 0.9982 6.67 155
Xylol 30.1 0.8802 4.57 50.0
Cyclohexane 25.0 0.7784 4.43 45.6

Table 2-2: Overview of different liquids and their max. droplet diameter and vol-
ume (for Bocrit. = 1.5) for ultrasonic levitation.

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 7

2.2 Typical Effects Occurring with Ultrasonic Levitation
2.2.1 Drop Deformation
The acoustic energy density profile around a levitated drop results in a drop d e-
formation by balancing the gravitation and capillary forces of the liquid sample.
With increasing sound intensity the drop will be spheroidally deformed with a
continuous growth of the horizontal diameter. Beyond a certain critical value , the
shape of the drop may change into a "donut". The center of the donut flattens
more and more with further increased acoustic power. Larger samples or drops
with small surface tension show a typical selfinflation or buckling until they f i-
nally explode.

Small drops of a liquid with high surface tension remain almost spherical.

Figure 2-3 shows the characteristic behavior of the acoustic power intensity and
the corresponding drop deformation. The left diagram shows the dynamic power
range between the minimum power for safe levitation and the maximum power for
a deformed droplet just before destruction. The right diagram represents the ratio
between the horizontal diameter d* of the deformed drop and the diameter d0 of
the non-deformed drop. It can be seen from both graphics that drops with Bond-
numbers larger than 1.5 can not be levitated.

Pac d*/d0

max.
2

min.

1
0 1.5 Bo 0 1.5 Bo

Figure 2-3: Acoustic power intensity and drop deformation as a function of Bond-
number.

2.2.2 Thermal Effects

Due to sound absorption, a radial and axial temperature profile exists, similar to
the energy density profile in the standing wave field. As a result thereof, a lev i-
tated drop will be heated up to the equilibrium temperature existing at the levit a-
tion position.

These temperature effects are usually small and negligible, but they should be
mentioned and possibly have to be taken into account for certain applications. The
sound absorption increases with lower ultrasonic frequencies. With the standard
58 kHz levitator, a temperature increase at the pressure nodes of less than 0.5°C
was measured.

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 8

2.2.3 Acoustic Streaming
The energy density distribution in the standing wave field induces an acoustic
convection flow. This streaming effect slightly enhances heat and mass transfer
phenomena, characterized by an increased Sherwood and Nusselt number. Sher-
wood number and Nusselt number are describing the resulting convective en-
hancement of heat and mass transfer between a drop and its environment, com-
pared to the non-convective transfer based on conduction and diffusion, respec-
tively.

The effective acoustic convection flow velocity can be used to define a corr e-
sponding Reynolds number. The resulting Reynolds number is rather low, like
e.g. Re = 1.83 for a 1 mm water droplet.

Slight asymmetries in the acoustically induced convective flow field might result
in mostly undesired and uncontrolled drop rotations.

2.2.4 Sample Oscillations

A levitated sample represents, together with the radial and axial levitation force
profile, a system which is able to perform damped oscillations. Such oscillations
might be self-induced or externally activated by low frequency amplitude modula-
tion of the ultrasonic carrier wave and are in general characterized by certain
resonance frequencies.

These resonance frequencies can be monitored by connecting the piezoelectric

sensor output to an oscilloscope. When the mass of the levitated sample changes,
the frequency of the resonant oscillation will also change and this can be deduced
by analyzing the monitor signal. This provides a means to determine e.g. diffusion
constants by measuring the mass variation of a droplet as a function of time.

Externally applied amplitude modulation of the ultrasonic wave can also be pe r-

formed in a way, that self-oscillations of a drop (oscillating drop deformations)
are induced. This enables investigation of droplet stability performance which is
important in connection with liquid atomization processes.

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 9

3 Description of the Ultrasonic Levitator
The standard ultrasonic levitator system comprises two subsystems:

• 13L10 Ultrasonic Levitator Power Supply Unit (ultrasonic generator)

and one of the following levitators:

• 13D10 Ultrasonic Levitator with single-walled process chamber

• 13D11 Ultrasonic Levitator with double-walled process chamber.

The system is further equipped with all required cable connections.

3.1 The Power Supply Unit

The ultrasonic generator has a standard operation frequency of 58 kHz (optional:
100 kHz) and radiates 0.65 - 5 Watt RF power. Other frequencies according to
Table 2-1 are available upon request.

Standard AC conditions are 220 V, 50 Hz and 110 V, 50-60 Hz respectively .

The generator housing measures 165 mm x 177 mm x 261 mm at a total weight of

approx. 2 kg.

The front panel contains an LED control (red for AC power and green for HF
power), a potentiometer for the continuous variation of the transducer amplitude
and a liquid crystal display of the tranducer voltage (displayed in arbitrary units).
The red LED is on when the AC power is properly connected and the power sup-
ply unit is switched on. The green LED is on when the phase-locked-loop (PLL) is
locked in and the transducer oscillates on its resonance frequency. A blinking of
the green LED indicates that the PLL is not locked in due to a too high damping
or an improper cable connection. The power supply unit enables the resonance
tuning control of the reflector distance at constant transducer amplitude setting.

The back side of the generator contains the AC power entrance safety plug, the
on/off switch and a 3-pole round socket for the connection of the ultrasonic trans-
ducer via a 2 m long shielded cable. A second socket allows the connection of a
commercial low frequency oscillator for modulation of the ultrasonic carrier
wave.

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 10

3.2 The Levitator with Process Chamber
The levitator is shown schematically in Figure 3-1 (without process chamber). It
consists of the reflector flange with integrated concave reflector and a micrometer
screw for the variation of the reflector distance, and the transducer flange with in-
tegrated ultrasonic transducer, shielding tube and round socket.

Both flanges are coaxially interconnected with 4 anodized spacing pins. The sta n-
dard distance between transducer frontface and reflector is about 2.5 times the
wavelength, which means 14.8 mm at the standard frequency of 58 kHz in air. The
micrometer screw allows a distance variation by ± 6 mm.

The standard version of the levitator is equipped with a single -walled processing
chamber. This chamber is a glass tube with 70 mm inner diameter and 2 mm wall
thickness. Three windows with Spindler & Hoyer Microbench adapters in the
sample plane provide access for manipulation, illumination and observation of the
sample. A sound absorber, around the transducer shaft eliminates undesired
acoustic reflections and resonances inside the process chamber. The levitator can
also be operated in an open version, without the process chamber, thus providing
better access to the levitated sample but also being more sensitive to und esired
disturbances induced from external air flows.

Micrometer
adjustment screw

Piezoelectric
sensor connector

Piezoelectric sensor

Reflector

Ultrasound transducer

Absorber

HF-connector

Figure 3-1: The ultrasonic levitator (shown without process chamber).

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 11

3.3 Options
3.3.1 Double-walled Process Chamber
An optional double-walled glass tube allows the connection of a commercial wa-
ter thermostat and a simple subsystem for a controlled external humidification or
dehumidification of the processing chamber gas. This turns the processing cha m-
ber into a "miniature climatic chamber" and enables measurements unde r exactly
defined environmental conditions.

3.3.2 Piezoelectric Sensor

An optional piezoelectric wide band sensor can be mounted behind the reflector,
which can be connected to an oscilloscope via a socket at the top flange. Its output
voltage is proportional to the acoustic pressure amplitude of the standing wave
and can be used for the resonance tuning control of the standing wave and for the
recording of low frequency sample resonances.

3.3.3 Free Jet Nozzle

As another option, a free jet gas nozzle can be integrated into the reflector, which
allows air or any other gas to be blown around the acoustically levitated sample.
This resembles an acoustic/aerodynamic "Hybrid" levitator with the unique fe a-
ture of extreme variation of the Reynolds-, Nusselt-, and Sherwood number. In
this configuration, the levitator is equipped with four additional support pins and
has to be operated in upside down position.

In the standard unit, without the optional free jet nozzle, the axial bore hole of the
ultrasound transducer can be used to apply a flow around the levitated sample.
This, however, is limited to gas temperatures below 70°C in order not to damage
the piezoelectric transducer element. The free jet nozzle integrated into the refle c-
tor allows hot gas, with temperatures up to a few hundred degrees Celsius, to be
blown around the levitated sample thus facilitating the investigation of fundame n-
tal processes of e.g. spray drying.

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 12

3.4 Maintenance and Service

The ultrasonic levitator is robust and easy to be maintained under proper operat-
ing conditions.

The processing chamber can easily be disassembled and its components, esp e-
cially the glass tube, should be cleaned frequently with ordinary dishwasher fluid.

The sound absorber (foam rubber) can be cleaned with water or replaced if nece s-
sary.

In case of algae deposits inside the water carrying section of the double wall pro c-
essing chamber tube, we recommend cleaning with some low concentrated acid.

In case of problems with the ultrasonic generator please send the power supply
unit together with the levitator back to tec5 AG for servicing.

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 13

3.5 Safety Instructions

• Switch off power before you change cables.

• Do not touch the vibrating ultrasonic transducer.

• Maintain operation temperature of the levitator below +70°C.

• Check compatibility of sample liquid and its vapor with critical levitator co m-
ponents

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 14

3.6 Technical Specifications
13L10 Power Supply Unit
Operation frequency (standard): 58 kHz or 100 kHz
Particle diameter range: ≈ 15 µm to ≈ 2.5 mm
Wavelength of standing acoustic wave: 5.71 mm
HF power: continuously variable 0.65 - 5 Watt
AC power: 220 V / 50 Hz or 110 V / 60 Hz
Fuse: 160 mA (220 V)
320 mA (110 V)
Modulation frequency 10 Hz - 2 kHz
Modulation amplitude 0 - 2 Vpp

Modulation input impedance 20 kΩ

Operation temperature range 0 – 70°C
Rel. humidity (non-condensing) 10 – 90 %

13D10 Ultrasonic Levitator with Single-walled Process Chamber

Material of process chamber: Duran-Glass
Connectors: 3 Linos Microbench adapters
1 GL 14 connector with septum
Diameter of process chamber: 75 mm ± 1 mm
Length of process chamber: 140 mm

13D11 Ultrasonic Levitator with Double-walled Process Chamber

Material of process chamber: Duran-Glass
Connectors: 3 conical openings (cone NS 24)
1 GL 14 connector with septum
2 GL 14 connectors for thermostat
Diameter of process chamber: 100 mm ± 1 mm
Length of process chamber: 140 mm

13K10 Reflector with Piezoelectric Sensor

Sensor output voltage: typ. 200 mVpp

13K11 Reflector with Free Jet Nozzle

Inner diameter of nozzle: 1 mm

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 15

4 Working with the Ultrasonic Levitator
4.1 Start, Tuning, and Calibration of the Levitator

• Make sure that all cables are properly connected.

• Start ultrasonic generator with switch on back side and adjust amplitude
with the potentiometer on the front side until LED-display on front side
reads about 3.8 - 4.0.
• Turn micrometer screw to the setting given in the data sheet until LED -
display or voltage of reflector sensor (via oscilloscope) shows the expected
resonance maximum.
• Increase reflector distance with micrometer screw by about 0.2 mm above
the optimum, in order to avoid possible self-excitation of sample oscilla-
tions.
• The levitator is now ready for "boarding".

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 16

4.2 Deployment and Extraction of Liquid Samples
The standing wave can be made visible before sample deployment by atomizing a
small amount of water from the transducer front face (contact with wet Q -tip).
The atomized fine aerosol will agglomerate at the 4 or 5 (standard) pressure
nodes. Only the inner 2 to 3 pressure nodes are suited for save levitation (see Fig-
ure 4-1). The other two nodes are distorted by "nearfield structures".

Figure 4-1: Levitated droplets in the 2nd and 3rd pressure node above the ultra-
sonic transducer.

Sample Liquid samples can be introduced from a µl-syringe (see Figure 4-2),
deployment either free handed or by using a commercial support sleigh. Detachment of a dro p-
let from the needle of a syringe can be facilitated by changing slightly the refle c-
tor distance. After detachment from the syringe needle, the levitated droplet may
perform oscillations which can be damped by changing the resonator distance and
/or the ultrasonic power level.

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 17

 Figure 4-2: Sample deployment using a µl-syringe.

Sample Stabilization of the levitated sample is achieved by adjusting the

stabilization distance between transducer and reflector and by proper setting of th e ultrasonic
power. Excessive power may result in disintegration of a large drop into smaller
droplets or at least yields a significant drop deformation (see Figure 4-3). With
optimal setting of the HF-power, a spherical shape of the levitated droplet (see
Figure 4-4) can be achieved. With insufficient power the drop will fall down.

The deployment of tiny droplets requires some experience. It is recommended to

start with atomized aerosols (see above) and to remove unwanted droplets from
some pressure nodes with a Q-tip. One can also start with a larger drop, which -
after controlled evaporation - shrinks down to the desired size.

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 18

 Figure 4-3: Drop deformation due to excessive HF-power.

Figure 4-4: Spherical droplet with optimal HF-power.

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 19

Power The required transducer amplitude increases with sample size and is
adjustment proportional to the sample density. A good control of the optimal power setting is
a resonance excitation of the sample by low frequency amplitude modulation,
where the resonance frequency should be near 20 Hz. Without this resonance
measurement the drop deformation provides a sufficient control of the proper
power setting. With insufficient power, too large drops might fall down; too flat
drops indicate excessive power.

Operating with "aggressive" liquids requires a compatibility test with the proces s-
ing chamber components which might come in contact with the fluid or its vapor.
The problem is only critical however, to the sound absorber of the lower process-
ing chamber flange, which can easily be replaced.

Possible self-excitation of sample resonances can be suppressed by increasing the

reflector distance and readjusting the amplitude setting. This variable deviation
from resonance provides a very large dynamic range of the levitation power.

Sample Sample extraction can be accomplished either with the syringe (see
extraction sample deployment) or by switching the levitator off and letting the drop fall
either onto the transducer frontface or onto an acoustically transparent, flexible
but stiff enough wire mesh, introduced slightly below the sample.

Solid samples can be introduced and extracted with the same, acoustically tran s-
parent wire mesh or by using tweezers.

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 20

4.3 Experimenting with the Levitator and its Unique Features
The "open levitator" as well as the "closed tube levitator" allow ideal access for
optical equipment through side windows in the sample plane. Coaxial access for a
laser beam for illumination or spot heating is possible through the axial bore hole
of the transducer.

The levitator has been designed mainly for experiments with liquid samples with
densities in the range 0.5 - 2 g/cm³, excluding mercury. The large power dynamic
range of 1:10 allows however a short time levitation of heavy solid samples (de n-
sity below 8 g/cm³), if the fast transducer heat up is considered and limited to T ≤
80°C.

4.3.1 Low-frequency Modulation

Many of the experiments with the ultrasonic levitator require a low frequency
resonance excitation of the levitated drop. This can be accomplished by ampl i-
tude modulation of the ultrasonic carrier wave with a commercial oscillator, co n-
nected to the generator via the BNC-socket at the back plate of the power supply
unit. The best modulation depth depends on the resonance frequency and physical
properties of the sample and must be found by trial and error.

To perform low frequency amplitude modulation of the ultrasonic wave, perform

the following steps:

• Connect a frequency generator (sine wave) to the BNC socket (modulation in-
put) at the back plate of the power supply unit.

• Choose the proper frequency range (approx. 10 Hz to 2 kHz) of the sine wave
generator.

• Set amplitude of the frequency generator to zero.

• For monitoring of low frequency resonance oscillations, connect the BNC

socket of the piezoelectric sensor (if available) at the top of the reflector flange
to an oscilloscope.

• Deploy and stabilize a droplet in the levitator.

• Switch on the sine wave generator.

• Change the modulation frequency slowly from 10 Hz to 2 kHz at a low ampli-

tude (50 mV - 100 mV).

• If axial or radial droplet oscillations occur, the modulation amplitude must be

reduced.

These vibration experiments may take advantage of the reflector sensor, which a l-
lows a simple recording and monitoring of resonance curves with a commercial
oscilloscope and might save costs for expensive optical recording equipment.

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 21

4.3.2 Double-walled Process Chamber
Several experiments will require exactly defined environmental conditions inside
the processing chamber, including temperature, humidity and chemical compos i-
tion of the carrier gas. This is possible by using the optional, double wall process
chamber, hooked up to a commercial thermostat and a simple external gas humid i-
fier/dryer (no tec5 AG product), which allows a gentle gas-stream of exactly de-
fined humidity and temperature to be blown into the processing chamber. The gas
inflow is released through the axial bore hole of the ultrasonic transducer.

Some experiments will require processing temperatures which might considerably

differ from room conditions. The recommended operating condition range of the
processing chamber is between –100°C and +80°C, with the obligation to main-
tain the resonance tuning of the levitator in consideration of the temperature d e-
pending sound velocity.

4.3.3 Additional Aerodynamic Levitation

The bore hole of the ultrasonic transducer can also serve as a jet nozzle, when a
gas stream is to be blown axially against the levitated sample. A separate and ex-
changeable gas nozzle, integrated into the reflector, provides a better defined free
jet flow and thus allows a combination of ultrasonic and aerodynamic levitation,
even at considerably increased temperatures. This unique feature is essential for
heat- and mass transfer experiments at extremely different Reynolds -, Nusselt-
and Sherwood numbers.

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 22

4.4 Some helpful tricks for experimenting with the levitator

• Small styrofoam spheres are ideal samples for getting familiar with the levita-
tor.

• Silver iodine is an ideal tracer material to make streams inside a levitated drop
visible.

• Air flows around a levitated drop can be made visible with tracing fume and
light-sheet illumination using a cylinder lens mounted in one window opening
of the processing chamber.

• The self-excitation of sample oscillations can be prevented by tilting the levit a-

tor axis by approximately 10 - 15 °. This is of particular importance for very
small samples (see comment below).

• Sulphur powder is an excellent tracer material for fluid currents at the sample
surface.

• Water drops with dissolved Sodium chloride or Lithium chloride can be used
to demonstrate the shrinking and growth of a levitated drop by condensation
and diffusion from the environment. Depending on the actual vapour pressure
of the solution and the environment, the evaporation-shrinking or condensa-
tion-growth can be stopped (stable equilibrium of the drop diameter).

• For stable positioning of very small droplets or particles, w ith diameters

smaller than ca. 100 µm, the following conditions are of importance:

− closed process chamber to avoid disturbing influence of external air

flows

− slightly tilted (10° - 15°) position of the levitator stabilizes the levitation
conditions

− the levitator should be mounted on a base plate which is isolated against

vibrations and oscillations

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 23

4.5 Potential Applications

The following list is a selection of experiments with the acoustic levitator:

• Experiments using low frequency modulation technique in order to find char-

acteristic sample resonances for :
− Calibration of the acoustic field or measurement of physical sample
properties.

• Experiments using the exactly defined environmental conditions inside of the

processing chamber for the study of:
− Controlled evaporation and condensation growth of drops (incl. multi
component liquids).
− Growth of single crystals from evaporating solution drops (oversatur a-
tion of solutions).
− Dissolution of solids and liquids in a liquid matrix.
− Diffusion of gases into a liquid matrix.
− Heat and mass transfer between drops and their environment at different
convection flow (incl. the influence of drop resonance vibrations).
− Melting and solidification processes.
− Overheating and supercooling of liquids and melts.
− "Critical point" phenomena in binary systems under controlled temper a-
ture variation.
− Spontaneous nucleation in supersaturated or supercooled drops by laser
spot heating.
− Marangoni currents, excited by polar laser spot heating of levitated
drops.
− Reaction kinetics of liquid/liquid and liquid/gas systems.
− Measurement of thermo-physical properties with extremely small sam-
ples.
− Investigation of biomedical cell cultures under ideal isolation conditions.

• Other experiments:
− Investigation of drop deformation and disintegration (atomization).
− Investigation of liquid shells.
− Combustion of single fuel drops.
− Micro- and trace analysis with small samples.
− Light scattering at droplets and non-spherical particles.
− Calibration os particle sizing instruments.

Ultrasonic Levitator Manual 24

5 Literature
Alekseev, V.N. Force Produced by the Radiation Pressure on a Sphere, Sov. Phys. Acoust., 29
(1983) 77-81.
Annamalai, O., Trinh, E.H., Wang, T.G. Experimental Study of the Oscillations of a Rotating
Drop, J. Fluid Mech., 158 (1985) 31.
Barmatz, M., Allen, J.L., Gaspar, M. Experimental Investigation of the Scattering Effects of a
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