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General Zoology Lecture

Functions of the Integuments Protection (from pathogenic invasion, ionizing radiation, desiccation or osmotic shock, and physical insult/injury) Excretion (wastes such as urea are excreted through the integument) Body temperature regulation (thermoregulation) Immune function (Langerhans cells recognize and ingest foreign substances that have found their way into the body) Synthesis of Vitamin D (modified cholesterol molecules in the epidermis are converted to vitamin D) Cutaneous sensation (sensory receptors provide organisms information about the external environmental condition) Integuments of Invertebrates Plasma membrane (outermost covering in some protozoa, where food uptake and exchange of respiratory gases also occur) Rigid pellicle (thick protein coat overlying the plasma membrane that provides additional protection in Paramecium sp.) Epidermis epidermis of sponges, jellyfish, flatworms, roundworms, and earthworms = also functions in respiration molluscan epidermis = secretes the calcium carbonate of the shell complex integument of cephalopod mollusks (squid and octopuses) consisting of cuticle, simple epidermis, layer of connective tissue, layer of reflecting cells (iridocytes), and thicker layer of connective tissue. Integument of Vertebrates: Skin 1. Epidermis (outermost layer) o Epidermal parts o Stratum corneum (variable rows of flat, keratinized, dead cells that are effective water-repellent barrier and protects underlying

layer; present in all vertebrates, except among fishes) o Stratum lucidum (several rows of clear, flat, dead cells that contain eleidin that eventually becomes keratin; occurs only in the thick skin of the palms and soles of mammals o Stratum granulosum (consists of 3-5 rows of flat cells containing keratohyalin which produce a lipid waterproof sealant present in reptiles, birds and mammals) o Stratum spinosum (prickle-cell layer of 8-10 rows of polyhedral cells with tiny bridges connecting them to adjacent cells; present in all vertebrates except in fishes) o Stratum germinativum (single row of cuboidal to columnar cells which undergo rapid cell division; o Cell types o Keratinocytes (most numerous epidermal cells) o Merkel cells (found in association with sensory neurons in the area where epidermis meets the dermis; sensory receptors) o Langerhans cells (macrophages derived from the bone marrow and migrate to the epidermis where foreign substances are ingested) o Melanocytes (located at the base of epidermis; for melanin production) 2. Dermis (inner, thicker layer beneath the epidermis) o Epidermal derivatives found in the dermis o Hair/pili (for protection; associated with sebaceous gland and hair follicle) o Nails (plates of very hard, keratinized and tightly packed cells) o Horn (paired growths on the head of certain ungulate animals
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o Beaks (horny outer parts of a birds mouth that stick out from its head) o Bills (two pointed jaws protected by a horny covering) o Claws (curved nail on the end of each toe in birds, some reptiles, and some mammals) o Scales (flat bony or horny overlapping plates that cover the bodies of some reptiles and birds) o Feathers (hollow central shaft with numerous interlocking fine strands on either side) o Hoof (horny material covering the feet of animals such as horses, deer, and cattle) o Glands (with important secretions) Sebaceous (secrete oil/sebum; lips, glans penis, labia minora, eyelid glands, skin of breasts, face, neck, upper chest) Sudoriferous or sweat glands [types are eccrine

(distributed almost all throughout the skin specially in the palms and soles), apocrine (skin of the armpit, pubic region, and areolae of breasts), and Ceruminous (ear) o Cutaneous Receptors Pacinian corpuscles (deep pressure) Meissners corpuscle (touch) Naked nerve endings (pain and light touch) Ruffinis corpuscle (heat) End bulb of Krausse (cold)
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3. Hypodermis also called subcutaneous layer or superficial fasci contains mostly fat cells and sensory nerves such as Pacinian corpuscles attaches skin to underlying bones or muscles

General Zoology Lecture

Types of Animal Skeleton Hydrostatic skeleton o fluid based skeleton, similar to a water-filled balloon. o o located internally in cnidarians (coral, jellyfish etc.) and annelids (leeches, earthworms etc.), among others, these animals can move by contracting the muscles surrounding the fluid-filled pouch, creating pressure within the pouch that causes movement. o Exoskeleton o external skeleton that is both water and gas proof o o may take the form of a shell in mollusks, brachiopods, foramineferans, and other sarcodine protozoa o o among vertebrates, exoskeleton takes the following forms: scales of reptiles, fishes andf birds; feathers of birds; hair,

horns and nails in mammals o Endoskeleton o internal skeleton o o consists of rigid or semi-rigid structures, within the body, moved by the muscular system o o components: Cartilages are found in parts of the endoskeleton requiring both stiffness and resiliency, such as the surfaces of joints Bones are living tissues which are formed from significant deposits of crystals of insoluble inorganic calcium salsts mainly hydrated calcium phosphate and protein which is mainly collagen. Functions of Bone Tissue Support The skeleton, which consists mainly of bone tissue, forms a supportive framework, giving shape and rigidity to the body. Locomotion The bone tissue forms a system of levers to which the voluntary muscles are attached. Protection It serves to protect the soft and delicate organs of the body such as the skull protects the brain. Manufacturing of Blood Cells Red blood cells are manufactured in the red bone marrow, which is situated in the spongy tissue at the ends of long bones. Homeostasis Bone plays a part in homeostasis because it helps to maintain a constant level of calcium in the blood. General Classifications of Bones o Long Bones -- "longer than they are wide:" clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, metatarsals, metacarpals. Purpose: provide support and serve as the interconnected set of levers and linkages that allow us to create movement. (formed from hyaline/articular cartilage) o

o Short Bones: carpals and tarsals: consist mainly spongy bone covered with a thin layer of compact bone. Purpose: allow movement, provide elasticity, flexibility, & shock absorption. o o Flat Bones: ribs, sternum and scapula. Purpose: protect and provide attachment sites for muscles. o o Irregular Bones: skull, pelvis, and vertebrae. Purposes: support weight, dissipate loads, protect the spinal cord, contribute to movement and provide sites for muscle attachment. o o Sesamoid Bones: a short bone embedded within a tendon or joint capsule, i.e. patella. Purpose: alter the angle of insertion of the muscle.
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Structure of a Bone o A long bone consists of a centre piece, the shaft (diaphysis) and a thickened head (epiphysis) at each end. o o The heads articulate with other bones in the joints and are covered with a thin layer of hyaline cartilage. o o The remainder of the bone is covered with a tough, strong membrane, the periosteum which is richly supplied with blood vessels. There is a small artery which penetrates the shaft near the centre to supply the bone tissue with blood. o o Beneath the periosteum is a layer of compact bone which is thicker in the shaft than in the two heads. The shaft encloses a hollow, the marrow cavity, which is lined with a thin soft membrane known as the endosteum. o o The marrow cavity contains a soft tissue richly supplied with fat cells and blood corpuscles, the yellow marrow. o

o The epiphysis of a long bone consist of spongy (or cancellous) bone covered with a thin layer of compact bone. This is made up of bony bars (or trabeculae) arranged in such a way that they are able to resist any force which a applied upon the bone. o o Between the bars are many tiny cavities filled with a red marrow which contains numerous red blood corpuscles in different stages of development. Microscopic Structure of Compact Bone o The ground substance of bone is arranged in concentrated layers (lamellae) round the small canals which run parallel to the long axis (shaft) of the bone. o o These canals, called Haversian canals, are interconnected with one another via Volkmann's canals and contain a blood vessel, a nerve and a lymph vessel. o o Each Haversian canal is surrounded by concentric layers of bone matrix (called lamallae) and concentric rings of bone forming cells (osteoblasts). o o Bone cells remain alive and once they have completely surrounded by the hard bone matrix, they are called osteocytes.
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o The osteocytes are embedded in fluid-filled cavities within the concentric lamellae. These cavities are known as lacunae and occur at regular intervals in these concentric layers of bone tissue. The lacunae are connected to one another and to the Haversian canals by a system of interconnecting canals known as canaliculi. o o Each Haversian canal, its concentric lamellae, lacunae with osteocytes and canaliculi forms a long cylinder and is called a Haversian system. Separate Haversian systems are joined to each other by means of interstitial lamellae.

Growth of Bone Tissue o In a child, a long bone has a layer of cartilage between the head (epiphysis) and the shaft (diaphysis). The cartilage grows actively which causes an increase in the length of the bone. o o The layer does not thicken since the edges (on both sides) are constantly replaced by bone (become ossified). The bone grows in the length until the child reaches its adult size. o o The cartilage then also ossifies and disappears. At the same time the bone increases in thickness as a result of the formation of bone tissue immediately beneath the periosteum. o o The innermost layer, nearest to the marrow cavity, are constantly absorbed, which enlarges the size of the marrow cavity. Classification of Joints o immovable (fibrous) joints, e.g. skull bones; o slightly movable (cartilagenous) joints, e.g. intervertebral discs; o freely movable (synovial) joints, e.g. limb joints. Synovial joints permit the greatest degree of flexibility and have the ends of bones covered with a connective tissue (synovial membrane) filled with joint (synovial) fluid. A typical synovial joint has four main features: o joint capsule - the joint enclosure, reinforced by and strengthened with ligaments o synovial membrane - a continuous sheet of connective tissue lining the capsule; its cells produce synovial fluid that lubricates the joint and prevents the two cartilage caps on the bones from rubbing together o synovial fluid - produced by the synovial membrane, the fluid lubricates the joint. In the normal joint, very little fluid (less than 5cc) exists in the cavity. o hyaline (articular) cartilage - where the bones actually "meet"
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Human Skeleton o Axial Skeleton (80 bones)

skull - consiting of 1) the cranium (which encloses and protects the brain) and 2) the facial skeleton. The upper teeth are embedded in the maxilla; the lower teeth, in the mandible. mandible (jaw) - the only freely movable bone of the skull ribs, sternum (breastbone) - comprising the "thorax"/thoracic cage, protecting the heart and lungs vertebral column - the "spine" o Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones, 64 in the shoulders and upper limbs and 62 in the pelvis and lower limbs) Upper Extremity - The arms (humerus - upper arm bone) are ultimately attached to the thorax, via synovial joints, at the collarbone (clavicle) and shoulder bone (scapula) (shoulder joint). The scapula is attached to the thoracic cage only by muscles. The elbow joint unites the humerus with the two lower arm bones - the ulna and radius. Three sets of joints connect the radius and ulna to the bones of the palm (metacarpals), via the eight small wrist carpals. Further, the knuckles (metacarpophalangeal, or MCP, joints) connect the metacarpals to the proximal phalanx of the fingers. Each finger has 3 phalanges (proximal, middle, distal), except the thumb which has only two. o shoulder/ scapula o arm and forearm, elbow o hand

Lower Extremity - The pelvis transmits the upper body weight from the sacrum (at the sacroiliac joint) to the legs. It begins as 3 hip bones (ilium, ischium, and pubis) which fuse together when growth is completed. The hip joint unites the pelvis to the thigh bone (femur); the knee joint, which includes the knee cap (patella), links the femur to the lower leg bones - the tibia and fibula. The ankle joint links the lower leg bones to the talus. The body weight is then transmitted to the heel (calcaneous) and to the balls of the feet via the tarsal and metatarsal foot bones. The toes have a phalangeal structure like the fingers. o pelvic girdle o thigh and leg. knee, o foot/ankle/toe