Bulletin of The John Rylands Library, Volume 4, April 1917-April 1918.

UNIV.
of
TOROHTO
BULLETIN
OF
THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY

VOLUME
4
PUBLISHED FOR THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY AT
THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

12
(H. M. MCKECHNIE, Secretary) LIME GROVE, OXFORD ROAD, MANCHESTER
LONGMANS, GREEN & COMPANY LONDON 39 PATERNOSTER ROW

:
NEW YORK
443-449 FOURTH AVENUE, AND THIRTIETH STREET CHICAGO PRAIRIE AVENUE AND TWENTY-FIFTH STREET BOMBAY: HORNBY ROAD CALCUTTA: 6 OLD COURT HOUSE STREET MADRAS 167 MOUNT ROAD
:
BULLETIN
OF

MANCHESTER
EDITED BY
THE LIBRARIAN
VOLUME
APRIL, 1917
4
/*
\
JULY, 1918
<&
MANCHESTER:
LONDON,
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS LONGMANS, GREEN & COMPANY NEW YORK, CHICAGO, BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, MADRAS
1917-1918
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Library Notes and
News
1,
179, 361
Steps towards the Reconstruction of the Library of the University . . .124 of Louvain
.
Classified List of Additions to the Library
....
.
318,467
312
Buckle (D.
P.).
Biblical References in a Sahidic
MS.
in
the John
Ry lands Library
Coptic Literature
in
the John
Ry lands Library
of
.119
.
Conway
Herford
(R. S.).
(C. H.).
The Venetian Point
View
in
Roman
History
369
The Poetry
of Lucretius
in
263
the
Some Early Judaic-Christian Documents Mingana (A.). John Rylands Library

Moulton (W. R) and Peake
(A. S.).
59
10
James Hope Moulton: 1863-1917

of Paulinism
Peake
(A. S.).
J.).
The Quintessence
....
.
285
411
Perry (W.
War
and
Civilisation.
Maps
. .
Poel (W.). A Chronological Table shewing what is proved and what is not proved about Shakespeare's Life and Works
465
Powicke (F. J.). Love Story

Rivers (W. H. R.).
Puritan
Idyll,
or the Rev. Richard Baxter's
434
Dreams and
Primitive Culture
Illustrated Illustrated
Smith (G.
Elliot).
Incense and Libations.
Tout
(T. F.).
Mediaeval
Town
Planning.
...
.387 .191
26
THE TRUSTEES, GOVERNORS, AND PRINCIPAL OFFICERS OF THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY.
TRUSTEES. WILLIAM CARNELLEY. The RIGHT HON. LORD COZENS-HARDY OF LETHERINGSETT,
P.C.
GERARD N. FORD, J.P. SIR ALFRED HOPKINSON,

WILLIAM
SIR SIR
A.
K.C., B.C.L., LL.D., etc.
LINNELL.
LL.D.
GEORGE WATSON MACALPINE, J.P., THOMAS THORNHILL SHANN, J.P.

EVAN SPICER, J.P. ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD,
Lirr.D.,
SIR SIR
LL.D.
WILLIAM CARNELLEY.
REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNORS.* SIR HENRY A. MIERS,

etc.
D.Sc., F.RS.,
GERARD N. FORD, J.P. CHARLES HAROLD HERFORD,

Lirr.D.
HENRY PLUMMER, J.P. THOMAS T. SHANN, J.P. L. E. KASTNER, M.A. THOMAS F. TOUT, M.A., F.B.A. SIR GEORGE WATSON MACALPINE, CHARLES E. VAUGHAN, M.A., LiTT.D.
M.A.
SIR
J.P.,
LL.D.
CO-OPTATIVE GOVERNORS.*
The REV. C. L. BEDALE, M.A. SIR ALEXANDER PORTER, J.P. The REV. ROBERT MACKINTOSH, M.A., The REV. F. J. POWICKE, M.A., PH.D. D.D. The REV. J. E. ROBERTS, M.A., B.D. The REV. J. T. MARSHALL, M.A., D.D. The RT. REV. BISHOP J. E. WELLDON,
A. S.
PEAKE,
M.A., D.D.
D.D.
HONORARY GOVERNORS.t
The RIGHT HON.
LORD COZENS-HARDY CANON H. D. RAWNSLEY, M.A. OF LETHERINGSETT, P.C. SIR A. W. WARD, Lirr.D., LL.D. The RT. REV. The BISHOP OF LIN- The LORD MAYOR OF MANCHESTER. The MAYOR OF SALFORD. COLN, D.D. SIR ALFRED HOPKINSON, K.C., LL.D., SIR WILLIAM VAUDREY, J.P.
etc.
CHAIRMAN OF COUNCIL
VICE-CHAIRMAN HON. TREASURER HON. SECRETARY LIBRARIAN SUB-LIBRARIAN CURATOR OF MANUSCRIPTS ASSISTANT-LIBRARIAN ... ASSISTANT-SECRETARY
*
...
SIR
GEORGE WATSON MACALPINE,

J.P.
J.P.,
LL.D.
...
...
WILLIAM CARNELLEY. SIR THOMAS T. SHANN,
...
...
GERARD N. FORD, J.P. HENRY GUPPY, M.A.

GUTHRIE VINE, M.A. RENDEL HARRIS, M.A.,
JULIAN PEACOCK. JAMES JONES.
of the Council.
...
...
D.LiTT., etc.
The Representative and Co-optative Governors constitute the Council.

f
Honorary Governors are not Members
RULES AND REGULATIONS OF
THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY.

1.
The use
of the Library
is
restricted to purposes of research
and
re-
ference, and under no pretence whatever must any Book, Manuscript, or Map be removed from the building.
2.
The Library is open to holders of Readers' Tickets daily, as follows Mondays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays, from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. Tuesdays and Fridays, from 10 a.m. to 9 p.m. Saturdays, from 10
:
a.m. to 2 p.m.
The Library
will
New
3.
Year's Day,
be closed on Sundays, Good Friday, Christmas Day, Bank Holidays, and the whole of Whit-week.
in the Library must apply the Librarian, specifying their profession or business, their place of abode, and the particular purpose for which they seek admission.*
Persons desirous of being admitted to read

in writing to
4.
Every such application must be made at least two clear days before admission is required, and must bear the signature and full address of a person of recognised position, whose address can be identified from the ordinary sources of reference, certifying from personal knowledge of the applicant that he or she will
make proper use of the
Library.
5.
If
such application or recommendation be unsatisfactory, the Librarian shall withhold admission and submit the case to the Council of
for their decision.
Governors
6.
The Tickets
of Admission, which are available for twelve months, are not transferable, and must be produced when required.
7.
No
special order
8.
person under eighteen years of age is admissible, except under a from the Council of Governors.
Readers may not write upon, damage, turn down the leaves, or make any mark upon any Book, Manuscript, or Map belonging to the Library nor may they lay the paper on which they are writing upon
;
any Book, Manuscript, or Map.

9.
The erasure
is strictly
of any
mark or
writing on any Book, Manuscript, or
Map
prohibited.
10.
No
tracing shall be allowed to be the Librarian.

in the
made without
express permission of
11.
Books
Open Reference Shelves may be consulted without any but after use they are to be left on the tables instead of formality, being replaced on the shelves.
12.
Other books may be obtained by presenting to the Assistant at the counter one of the printed application filled slips
properly
up.
*
Forms
of Application for Reader's Ticket
may
be had on application to the
Librarian.
RULES AND REGULATIONS

13.
given they held responsible for such Books, Manuscripts, or tickets remain uncancelled.
14.
Readers before leaving the Library are required to return to the Assistant at the counter all Books, Manuscripts, or Maps for which Readers are have tickets, and must reclaim their tickets.
Maps
so long as the
Books of great value and rarity may be consulted only of the Librarian or one of his Assistants.
Readers before entering the Library must deposit
umbrellas, parcels, etc., at the Porter's
receive a check for same.
in
the presence
15.
Lodge
in
all wraps, canes, the Vestibule, and
16.
Conversation, loud talking, and smoking are strictly prohibited in every part of the building.
17.
Readers are not allowed in any other part of the building save the Library without a special permit.
Readers and visitors to the Library are strictly forbidden to offer any fee or gratuity to any attendant or servant.
18.
19.
Any
The
infringement of these Rules will render the privilege of admission
liable to forfeiture.
20.
privilege of admission is
(a)
(b)
granted upon the following conditions
That That
it
may at any time be suspended by the Librarian. it may at any time be withdrawn by the Council
of
Governors.
21.
Complaints about the service of the Library should be made to the Librarian immediately after the occurrence of the cause for complaint, and if written must be signed with the writer's name and address.
22. All
communications respecting the use of the Library must be addressed to the Librarian.
HENRY GUPPY.
N.B.
earnestly requested that any Reader observing a defect damage to any Book, Manuscript, or Map will point out the same to the Librarian.
It is
in or
ADMISSION OF THE GENERAL PUBLIC AND VISITORS.

The general public are admitted to view the Library on Tuesday and Friday afternoons between the hours of two and six, and on the second Wednesday of each month between the hours of seven and nine in the evening. Visitors to Manchester from a distance, at any other time when the Library is open, will be admitted for the same purpose upon application to
the Librarian.
JAMES HOPE MOULTON

1863-1917
BULLETIN OF THE JOHN RYLANDS -LIBRARY
MANCHESTER
VOL. 4
MAY-AUGUST,
1917
No.
LIBRARY NOTES AND NEWS.
SINCE
the publication of the last issue of the BULLETIN, the library, in common with the whole world of scholar- PROFESSOR
ship,
has
sustained
loss
regarded as irreparable, in the death,

cumstances, of Professor James
the
pitiless barbarity of the
which can only be HOPE under grievous cir- MOULTON.
against
in
it,
which
his
Moulton, who fell a victim to on the 7th of April, in a war Germans, whole being revolted, though he gave to it, and lost
Hope
a son of great promise,
who was
killed in action.
Elsewhere
in the present issue,
through the kindness of the re-
take this opportunity of expressing our grateful thanks for their ready response to our request for help,
spective contributors, to
whom we
Biographical Professor Moulton], with some account of his literary legacies," from the pen of his brother, the Rev. W. Fiddian Moulton ;
we
are able to offer to our readers an authoritative

[of
"
Sketch
followed by
"A
its
;
Record
of Professor
Explanation of
Significance,"
by
his friend
Moulton's Work, with some and colleague, Professor

of a recent portrait
A.
S.
Peake
and accompanied by a reproduction
of the Professor.
We also
news
to reprint his letter
have the permission of Dr. Rendel Harris to the Rev. W. F. Moulton, in which was comto reach this country, apart
municated the
first
from the
tele-
gram, of the tragic death of his friend.

It
may appear
add any
attempt to
pens, but
further
almost like presumption on the part of the editor to words to these tributes from other and abler
we
claim the privilege of adding our
the halo of appreciation which already surrounds the

scholar, saint,
own modest tribute to name of the great

it
proud
privilege to
When
and gentleman, with whom for many years be on terms of the closest intimacy.
in those pathetic lines
is
was our
Milton
sang
For Lycidas
dead
dead ere
I
his
prime
peer
Young
Lycidas, and hath not
left his

for
and again when Tennyson poured out

tion
the sweetest soul that ever looked through human eyes," there were those who deemed such words the fantasy and extravagance
seen closely and felt intimately well beloved, especially if that soul be exceptionally pure, and lofty, and gifted, as was our friend, can appreciate the deep underlying significance of such splenjdid
of grief.
"
his passionate yearning
lamenta-
Yet, those of us
who have
is
the occult charm of a soul that
recognition.
Of James Hope Moulton

a
spirit
it is
the simple truth to say, that he
was
into
so exceptional that everything with
which he was brought
relation during his passage through this world,
came
to be, through that
contact, glorified
by a touch
of the ideal.
Whether he poscontemporaries he stood supreme. sessed the greatest genius we have ever known, is a question we will
Among
his
not undertake to determine.

genius of
itself
It is
of the
man we
desire to speak,
and
does not make the man.
When we
deal with
men
genius and character must be jointly taken into consideration, and the relation between the two, together with the effect upon the aggregate,
is infinitely
variable.
Dr. Moulton was endowed with a capacity for tenacious, loyal,
warm-hearted, and tender friendship, such as is rarely met with, and it is an interesting fact of human psychology, that there could be so
genuine an attachment of hearts where the mental powers lay severed from the first by a distance really immeasurable. Perhaps it was, as
in the case of sleep
occasionally to
and food, which within certain limits are supposed replace one another, that an unusual wealth in sympathy
may be made
to abate certain
demands
of intellect for correspondence
which would otherwise be inexorable.
What was said of Bishop Selwyn may be said with equal force of Dr. Moulton, that he was a man whose character is summed up from " Alpha to Omega in the single word noble ". His temper was as sweet as his manners were winsome, whilst his conduct was spotless. " Anima Indeed, he was that rare and beautiful and blessed personality
naturaliter Christiana ".
From
the time of his coming to Manchester Dr. Moulton took an
active interest in the affairs of the Library, being at once appointed to
a seat on the Council of Governors, in succession to the Rev. Dr.
Randies.
writer,
were constantly sought by the and never without advantage to the institution and its readers.
His advice and
assistance
LIBRARY NOTES AND NEWS

As
a lecturer he was ever ready to place his stores of learning at the service of the public, in a form at once attractive and illuminating,
and
for
many
years in succession he
was a valued
contributor to the
library series of lectures,
and always attracted large and appreciative
audiences.
a meeting of the Council of Governors, held at the library " The on the 23rd of April, the following resolution was passed
:
At
governors desire to place on record the profound sorrow with which they learned of the tragic death of their beloved colleague, Dr. James
Hope
Moulton.
The brilliant
scholarship of Dr. Moulton,
which had
him more than European fame, was placed unreservedly at won the service of the Library, and his loss can only be regarded as irrefor
parable.
distinction
Associated with that scholarship was a personality of rare
and
attractiveness, in
which strength and gentleness, courage

of
its
and modesty were amongst the most conspicuous governors mourn his loss, not only as a colleague
but also as one,
attributes.
The
of outstanding ability,
their highest
who by
to Dr.
his qualities of heart
had won
personal esteem and affectionate regard.
The
deepest sympathy
Moulton' s only brother, the Rev.
governors extend their W. Fiddian
and Helen, who thus

father."
Moulton, and to the son and daughter of their late colleague, Harold in twenty months have lost mother, brother and
cannot refrain from adding a word of congratulation to Dr. Rendel Harris upon his escape from the dreadful death
We
DR
exposure to which Dr. Moulton succumbed. RENDEL Twice within the space of a few months were the vessels, upon which Dr. Harris travelled, torpedoed and sunk, by the " self-constituted apostles of culture," and on each occasion he was
from
snatched, as
it
were, from the very jaws of death.
Dr. Harris was

first
on
his
way
to India to join his friend,
when he
suffered the
".
shock,
through the sinking of the
"
City of
Birmingham
His health
suffered
in consequence of exposure in
an open boat, and he decided not to continue his journey, but to remain in Egypt, there to await the return of Dr. Moulton, so as to make the journey back to England in com-
pany with him.

the
"
City of Paris,"
fated vessel,
Together they sailed for home from Port Said on and the few days preceding the sinking of the illwhich they spent together, were for them days of pure,
unalloyed happiness, during which there was an uninterrupted com-
4
munion
of

spirit,
and flow
of soul.
We
must
refer readers to
Dr.
Harris's letter for the sequel of events, during which these
two
scholars
the one to survive, whilst the other succumbed. together faced death, are profoundly grateful for the life that has been spared, and we are glad to be able to announce that Dr. Harris, who has recovered
We
back again at work, has promised to come to Manchester on Tuesday, the 23rd of October, to resume his " The lectures on the origin of the Greek cults, when he will deal with
from
this series of
shocks,
and
is
Origin and Meaning of Apple Cults ". It may not be out of place to add that during his stay in Egypt
Dr. Harris was actively engaged
in
hunting for papyri for this Library,
making what may prove to be some very Fortunately he did not attempt to bring these finds important finds. but left them in safe custody in Egypt, until such time as with him,
and that he succeeded
in
they can be transported to England without
risk.
is the sixth volume Amongst " the work entitled Mythology of all Races," the somewhat ambitious aim of which is a complete mythology of
the recent accessions to the library
of
the world in thirteen volumes.
The
present volume,
MYTHOOfY
I
dealing with Indian and Iranian mythologies, is furnished with a fairly full bibliography, a profusion of excellent plates, but no
index.
The
J.
Indian section
is
dealt with
by Professor Keith, a recogin the exiled University of
nized authority, whilst the Iranian section has been entrusted to Dr.
Albert
Carnoy, the Professor of Zend,
Louvain.
This reference to Iranian mythology reminds us that Professor
J.
H. Moulton,
just
before leaving India, completed the
PROFESSOR
8 manuscript of what unfortunately proved to be his last contribution to the studies he loved so well, which is to OF THE " The Treasure of the be published under the title Magi ". Dr. Moulton very wisely, as events have proved, took the
yS^^RF
precaution of having three typed copies of his manuscript made, one

of
which he
left
behind him
in India, the
second was sent
home
to his
brother the Rev.
Fiddian Moulton, whilst the third copy went down with many other papers in the ill-fated " City of Paris ". Sir Rabindranath Tagore's books continue to fall, as one of our
contemporaries describe them, like the leaves of Vallombrosa, and
W.
whatever
may be
said of
him otherwise, no one can dispute
his in-

dustry.
tains
One
of the latest
volumes
entitled
"
My Reminiscences" conRABIN DRAREMINIS-
an account
of the author's early life written in his
fiftieth
year, before
in
he started on
his trip to
Europe and
America
1912.
The book
presents an interesting pic-
ture of a boy's life in a large household before European It permits one to customs had encroached on the native manner.
understand the
sort of intellectual
the budding poet.
Some
of Tagore's
and moral atmosphere that enveloped comments on the influence of
English literature are particularly enlightening.

the young
The
literary
gods of
it
Hindu were Shakespeare,
Milton, and Byron, and
was
Readers will be the passion of these authors that most stirred him. to know that a complete set, at least, of this author's latest works glad
are to be found on the shelves of the library.
It
may
interest our readers to
know
that the war, according to a
statement of Sir Alfred
between thirty and
Mond, has produced a library of LITERA The war has TURE OF thousand volumes. forty already lasted nearly three years, and it seems difficult to realize that on an average between thirty and forty volumes relating
have been published every day, including Sundays, throughout that The National War Museum, which is now in course of period.
to
it
formation, will require a vast
amount
of space to
It is
accommodate the books
alone, to say nothing of engravings.

least eighty
thousand portraits of
computed that there are at Napoleon and engravings illustrating
his career, but the pictorial chronicles of this
war seem likely to run into millions by the time peace is signed. We do not profess to make anylike an exhaustive collection of this material, indeed much of it is of thing a purely ephemeral character, and one or two collections in the country will serve all purposes, but we are careful to add to our shelves the works
of outstanding importance,
which are
likely to
be
of service to students
of the future,
who
undertake research upon
In a recent issue of
"The
period of upheaval. " Manchester Guardian (June 16th)

this
there appeared an illuminating and timely article from " the pen of our colleague, Dr. Mingana, on the Aims of
THE AIMS OF TURKEY.
deep and subtle methods employed by the perfidious Young Turks, not only to debar Christians of all denominations in the Ottoman Empire from acquiring landed and in case they already held any to dispossess them of it property,
Turkey,"
in
for us the
;
which he has described
but to
make Constantinople
the nerve centre of a vastly extended
'cloak should be spread over all races and empire, in which the Islamic The significance of this Pancreeds within its extended borders.
Islamic policy will be. better understood when it is realized that the empire assigned to the Turks is most un-Turkish, in other words that
the vast majority of the inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire are not Turks, and that in some districts they are outnumbered by at least
twenty to one.
One
so
if it
barrier in the
way
to the realization of this plan

little
was Armenia,
the map, and
was decided
to eliminate that
country from
we do
not already
know how
ruthlessly they set to

in their
work
to
" Mingana has given from the Holy War" proclamation, circulated by the Turks, will at once dispel any doubts we may have had in our minds upon the subject.
remove not only that obstacle but any other that stood
way, the extracts which Dr.
We cannot
How
do
better than reproduce the translated passages of the
proclamation for the benefit of those of our readers who may not have " Manchester Guardian ". access to the " often have the savage Russians, the traitorous English, the
Frenchmen, born
planted their
impure parentage, yet proud of their baseness, How unclean flags upon your pure and holy mountains ?
of
often have they seized
you by your
lifeless, spiritless
feet
and hands
and
you in the mire ? Oh, you poor, helpless people of India Oh, Bokhara Oxus, and you wretched tribes of Turkey Go and Turkistan, dying under the bloody hand of Russia
rolled
and
of the
forth,
ye Moslems,
into the places of
blood and groans

.
.
there see the

history
!
ruined countries of Islam, and learn a lesson.
Read your
Look
at the despised graves of
your kings
all
If
you
desire honour
and
glory, houris
and damsels, behold
are waiting for you.
Eternal
joys, the shade of green trees, houris, angels are in the grasp of your
sword.
. '
Cause the minarets and mountains

!
to resound once
more
the cry,
Allah
Allah
"
!
Holy War
'
Oh, Moslems, blow the
trumpet everywhere " " This religious document written by the religious
speaks for itself.
Young
Turks,
An appeal was made a few weeks ago by a correspondent of the New York " Nation " on behalf of the Societe de Lin- LA SOCIT
guistique
its
de Paris, a body which has always had amongst GUISTIQUE members a number of scholars of real eminence. In DE PARISit
spite of the war,
has bravely kept up the publications of
"
its
Me-
LIBRARY NOTES AND. NEWS
moires," a collection of original investigations in nearly every field of " but, owing Bulletin/' or record of proceedings linguistics, and its
;
to military necessities, the treasury of this little

is
devoted band of scholars
studies is well-nigh depleted, whereas an abundance of excellent pass on this appeal in case there may be clamouring for print. amongst those of our readers who are interested in the scientific study
We
of
language,
some who
will regard
it
as a privilege to assist this
struggling society to keep alight the

ship.
surer,
fire
upon the
altar of scholar-
annual subscription is twenty francs, payable to the TreaThe Monsieur Le Mertz, 16 Rue de Birague, Paris, IVe
The
publications of the Society

In
may be
America a National Board
seen in the John Rylands Library. of Historical Service has been
formed, composed of Gaillard Hunt, Charles D. Hazen, Victor S. James, T. Shotwell, F. J. Turner, and others,
for the purpose of directing historical energies
in
THE MOBI
^^STO
the
RIANS FOR
be needed
sanest directions.
Professor
A. C. McLaughlin,
writing
on behalf
to
is
of the board, points out that historical writers will
keep the people informed and to aid in creating what they believe a sound and wholesome public opinion to satisfy the demand for
;
correct interpretative information
upon
special
to help historians of the future to understand the activity
European problems, and and psy-
There are those chology of the American nation during these days. who believe that a similar board possessing plenary powers might render
useful service in this country.
In the present issue

articles
we commence
the publication of a series of
dealing with the Judaeo-Christian documents in
the John Rylands Library, to be continued, from time

to
T-I
time,
as the
demands upon our space
Ihese documents comprise importance, dealing with history,
..,.,, medited
texts or
-iii THE JOHN considerable

RYLANDS RARY
]
-
will allow.
ME NTS
IN
theology, mysticism,
and patrology of early Christianity and contemporary Judaism. The texts will be edited by Dr. Mingana, and will be furnished with a
translation
and
critical
apparatus.
of
document on Clement
followed by a
Rome,
present instalment contains a sheds new light on the comwhich

first
The
plicated Clementine literature of the
centuries of our era.
This
is
new
apocryphal writing,
of
attributed to
in
Shem, the son of

document
is
Noah, the main interest which is ascribed to this
which centres
an agricultural horoscope,
Biblical patriarch.
The
third
quotation from Andronicus, the philosopher (circa \ 00 B.C.) and Asaph, the historian of the Hebrews, which gives first-hand information of the
nomenclature of the twelve signs of the zodiac, and their supposed

fluence on the destinies of mankind.
in-
The
will
ensuing session.
the second
case.
following series of public lectures has been arranged for the It should be noticed that the first lecture FORTH-
be given towards the end of September, and not on SERIES^F Wednesday in October, -as is usually the LECTURES
EVENING LECTURES
(7.30 p.m.).
"
The Work of Professor Wednesday, 26th September, 1917. James Hope Moulton." By A. S. Peake, M.A., D.D., Professor
of Biblical Exegesis in the Victoria University of
Manchester.
Wednesday, 10th October, 1917.
"The
Venetian
point
of
View
in
Roman
1
History."
By
R. S.
Con way,
"
Litt.D.,
Hulme
Professor of Latin in the Victoria University of Manchester.
Wednesday,
(Illustrated
4th November, 1917.
The
Birth of Aphrodite."
Elliot Smith,
with Lantern Pictures.)

of
By G.
in
M.A.,
M.D., F.R.S., Professor

Manchester.
Anatomy
the Victoria University of
Wednesday, 12th December, 1917.

Warfare."
"
Mediaeval and
Modern
(Illustrated with Lantern Pictures.) By T. F. Tout, M.A., F.B.A., Bishop Fraser Professor of Mediaeval and Ecclesi-
astical
History in the Victoria University of Manchester. "Shakespearean Stage Wednesday, 9th January, 1918. with Lantern Pictures.) Costumes." By William (Illustrated
Poel,
Founder and Director
of the
Elizabethan Stage Society.

1918.
J.
Wednesday, 13th February,

(Illustrated
"War
Perry,
and
Civilization."
with Diagrams.)
13th
By W.
by
1918.
B.A.
On
this
occasion the chair will be taken
Professor Elliot Smith.

in English Professor of English D.Litt.,
Wednesday,
Poetry."
March,
"Norse Myth
By
C.
H. Herford, M.A.,
Literature in the Victoria University of Manchester.
to give the
April Professor Richard G. Moulton has promised " lectures Lear a Moral Problem Shakespeare's " Fiction as the Experimental Side of Human Dramatized," and
in
Sometime
two
'
Philosophy," which were unavoidably postponed
last
year,
if
con-

ditions of transatlantic travel render the crossing
9
possible.
from America
The
dates of the lectures will
be announced
later.
AFTERNOON LECTURE
(3 p.m.).
"The Origin and Meaning of Tuesday, 23rd October, 1917. Apple Cults." By J. Rendel Harris, M.A., Litt.D., D.Theol., etc.,
Hon. Fellow
Clare College, Cambridge. Evidence of the unabated interest in our scheme of reconstruction
of
is
of the library of the exiled University of Louvain,
to
LOU VAIN
Y RECON! STRUCTION.
be found
in the sixth
list
of contributions,
1
which
we
print
Even this elsewhere in the present issue (pp. 24- 1 78). list does not by any means complete the record of gifts to date, but
we
are again compelled, for considerations of space, to hold over a list of much greater length of the most recent contributions until our next
issue.
As we
Dixon, of
purchase
have pointed
out,
more
at length,
siderable impetus
was given
to the progress of the
on another page, conscheme by Miss

in the
Cambridge, through her advocacy

in the market.
press
of
the
of certain sections of the library of the late Professor
Gwatkin,
which was
In thanking the various donors for their generous co-operation,
we
take the opportunity of renewing and emphasizing our appeal for offers
of suitable books, or contributions of
money,
to assist us in this en.
deavour to
restore, at
least in
some measure, the resources
of the
crippled University.
From considerations of space we have been compelled to hold " over the customary List of Recent Accessions to the NEXT " ISSUE for publication in our next issue, which will Library also include an illustrated amplification of Professor Elliot Smith's " The Relationship of the Egyptian practice of Mummificalecture,
-
tion to the
Development
of
Civilization,
Incense and Libations"; Professor C.
H.
with special reference to Herford's lecture, "The

"
Poetry
of
Lucretius"; and Professor Peake's lecture,
The Quint-
essence of Paulinism"
JAMES HOPE MOULTON.

1863-1917.
1.
A BIOGRAPHICAL
SKETCH, WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF HIS LITERARY LEGACIES.
BY THE REV. W. FIDDIAN
MOULTON,
M.A.
THE
sad tragedy of 7th April has appealed with force to very many, very varied, and very scattered communities. Even those
who are most disposed to condone anything that is German cannot escape the feeling that there is something here which it is not easy " witness Deissmann's plea concerning to defend crossing the for"
bidden zone
nationality the
while to those
who
are English in
spirit
as well as in
criminal,
whole proceeding stands out as conspicuously
and
pathetically wasteful.
Scholarship, religion, politics, friendship

;
these
and other spheres are left sadly poorer and from all parts of the world and from all classes of the community have poured in expressions of affection and esteem.
It is
doubtless because of Dr.
J.
H. Moulton's
close connection
with the mission of the John Rylands Library that Mr.

sired to place
Guppy
de-
to
him
on the permanent records of the Library some reference and I suppose it was because I had known him longest that
to
I
Mr. Guppy turned

any reluctance,
brother's heart.
for
me
take
up the melancholy
service without
know
full
well
it
; frequented and it was probably because he was the former that he took so seriously his duties and privileges as the latter. To him it would seem no ex-
He
how near the Library was to my both as reader and as Governor
aggeration or misuse of terms to speak of the mission of the John
Rylands Library for to him the Library was a personality clearly marked, and entrusted with no ordinary responsibilities and oppor;
tunities in respect of the
world
of scholarship.
There are
certain legends current that

10
my
gifted
brother lisped
JAMES HOPE MOULTON

Greek
:
and passed from accidence to syntax before he was and although no one is asked to accept these as sober statements five He was no infant of fact, they are at any rate suggestive of the truth.
at three
prodigy, but the instinct for studiousness
and the
acquisition of learning
manifested
itself
unusually early, and
became
richly fruitful at
an age
the majority of boys have found no time to be serious, except At sixteen he took high Honours in the London concerning sport.
when
Matriculation Examination
at eighteen
he took an Entrance Scholar-
70 in Classics at King's ship of was twenty-three he had taken a

Tripos and
in
College,
First
Cambridge
I
and before he
of the Classical
both in Part
E of
Part
II,
that field of philological study
which
after-
wards he made
so conspicuously his
own.
All these were achieve-
ments which would have been

lightly
impossible for
anyone
who viewed
life
He only accomplished these things by and took things easily. and therein he laid the only strenuous and unremitting application
;
There possible foundation for the abounding service of later years. comes to my mind a striking indication of the trend of his disposition,
all
the
more
significant
because
it
was
so largely unconscious.
When
he was
fifteen
he sent
his first contributions to the

It
"
Leys Fortnightly,"
the magazine of his school.
does not matter
much
was
"
Milton's
first effort
in print
rather an unusual type of subject Minor Poems but what does matter is that they, like all his
:
"
that the subject

for
later
contributions to that magazine, bore the signature
AFAN.
life
At
that
early
age when
to
most the world
is
a playground and
a game, he
intuitively
effort
:
dropped upon a nom-de-phtme betokening strenuousness of and he remained AFAN to the end. On the football field
fast, very fast with a curious action which
;
and on the track he ran
on the
cricket field
he bowled
made him very awkward on a very fast, bad wicket and with a hostile umpire at La Crosse, of which he was very fond, he could race round most of the men in the field, and perhaps used his speed sometimes when it would have been better to But wherever he was and whatever he was doing he pass the ball.
;
he played many things very it all indeed that was going but he never played at anymany, anything and this note remained with him to the very end. Indeed, one thing, kind and appreciative friend, a seasoned Anglo-Indian, who entertained
intense
:
was
and strenuous about
him
several times in India,
considers that,
had there been
less
pace,
and more deference
to the trying nature of the Indian climate,
he might
12

lived through the strain of
have
one more day
in that
open boat, and
have landed at Calvi with his dearly-loved friend, so much his senior. There had never been any doubt in his mind from the first as to
what
direction
he would look to
for his life-work.
The
son, grand-
Wesleyan preachers it son, great-grandson, great- great- grandson was natural that he should have that bias within his nature and he was still a boy at school when he preached his first sermon one
;
of
Sunday afternoon
village
which
will
Spurgeon's
first
Wesleyan Chapel at Waterbeach, the always be remembered as the sphere of C. H. He was accepted as a candidate for the pastorate.
in
1
in the little
Wesleyan Methodist ministry
886, and succeeded the Rev. EdLeys, and ministerial assistant to
ward
Brentnall as Chaplain at
The
Dr. Moulton.
quasi-academic
This
ministerial, educational, and composite post was a magnificent opening for him and, it may be
;
"
"
added,
for others as well, seeing that
James
Hope Moulton always

he might
give, of the
gave what he
got,
and only got
in order that
riches of learning.
The sixteen years thus spent were value from the point of view of his later service. They were the
life
;
of the highest
formative period of his
and
if
there
were drawbacks
found the disciplinary and administrative side of what irksome there were abundant compensations.
he always a master's life some-
He
was
in
Cambridge
there.
and no one who knows the two ancient University

something unique about life close touch with the life of the
is
centres will need to be told that there
During those years he was in University and particularly of his own
college, of
which he was made
a Fellow, at a time, moreover,

in the college life
when two
of the
most outstanding
men
were Professor Westcott and Professor H. E. Ryle.
Further,
it is
boration with his
not probably claiming a whit too much to say that collaown father was in itself a liberal education. It is
easy to
sions
see that his
yearning for
Christian service,
his
interest in
Greek Testament
and many other
study, his convictions as to Foreign

factors in his spiritual
deepening Mis-
these
and mental make-
up
are distinctly traceable to the fact of his having enjoyed peculiarly
close association with his father at just the

tive period of
fields,
life.
Sometimes he looked out a
most susceptible and formalittle wistfully at wider
ing at
wondering whether he was doing his best with his life by stayThe Leys. " Here I am," he once said to me, " nearly forty,
!
and have not done a thing
Why,
father
was on
the
New
Testa-
JAMES HOPE MOULTON

ment Revision Company before he was especially so for him easy to see now
"
thirty-six
!
13
Yes, but
it
is
that that formative period
was
of priceless value,
and
that the rich

it.
and
brilliant usefulness of
his
of
later career
was conditioned by
And
mention must be
made
which belong to that period. two One was Professor E. B. Cowell, with whom he came into close contact when working for Part II of the Classical Tripos, and who gave him his introduction to Sanskrit lore, and cognate studies, which, together
acquisitions in the sphere of friendship
with Hellenistic Greek, have been the
field
in
which he made
little
his
mark
as a scholar.
The
other
was one about which

Suffice
it
must be
said because so
much might be
said.
to say that during his
time of residence at Kings the Rev. G. R. Osborn, son of Dr. George Osborn, who was colleague of Dr. Moulton's in the old Richmond
days,
came
as Superintendent Minister to
brilliant
between the
ripened into
Cambridge. The friendship and Mr. Osborn's elder daughter young a union of uninterrupted blessedness and joy shadowed
classic
yet sanctified
years
to
by bereavements which lasted for close on twenty-five and Dr. Rendel Harris was probably right when he referred
"
spiritual
wife and two children having as lessening his power of resistance at the last. passed over in front Manchester gave my brother his chance, for it gave him the call While at The Leys to one field without having to give up the other.
superior
attractions
"
Dr. Welldon had pressed him to take a Mastership at Harrow, which was an offer full of attractiveness. But it would have involved his
surrendering the
was concerned
Wesleyan Ministry, so far as any active participation and that he could not and would not do, for all the
" " the to educational prizes of the country Apostolic Succession which he was proud to belong, forbade that. Manchester gave him
the chance of association with the rapidly developing activities of a
modern University while making his contribution to the educational and pastoral work of his own Church. And he took it with joy and
thankfulness.
How
he took
it,
needs not to be told here, for in the

is sufficiently
constituency of the
John Rylands Library he

fields
well known.
But
it
may be
pointed out that the different sides of his nature found

of
adequate and congenial

all
expression in
Manchester.
His
they
scholarly instincts, his evangelistic passion, his social sympathies
play through the University, Didsbury College, the Manchester and Sal ford Mission, the pulpits of the city, the platforms of
free
had
14

"
the neighbourhood and the columns of the These many activities made his life a very
Manchester Guardian
one
:
*'.
full
and there were
some who
his
maintained that he ought to give up his outside public work,

political
temperance and
scholarship.
They
did not
know
advocacy, and give himself entirely to him, or they would never have sug-
what would have been a negation of his very personality. He " could not take his citizenship lying down," any more than he could Both were extremely practical and serious things with his religion.
gested
him
practical
because serious
and
it
was needful
for
him
to
be
in
the fight.
While he was thus engaged honours poured upon him. Five Universities conferred upon him various Doctorates London, Durham, and Groningen and had he been a member of Edinburgh, Berlin,
the
suit
Church
;
of
but the
fact of his being a
England doubtless Cambridge would have followed Nonconformist constituted a statutory
bar to his receiving a Divinity Degree from his
own
University
disability recently removed, in the teeth of much bitter clerical opposi" He gave the Hibbert Lectures on " Early Zoroastrianism tion. the invitation to give the Schweich Lectures was forwarded to him so
;
as to reach
11
him on
his
way home
Religion and Religions" in numberless Summer Schools, Conferences,
he gave the Fernley Lecture on connection with his own Church and
:
etc., in
England, Ireland,
and America secured
his services for lectures
top of his normal work. as when pouring out his stores of learning in the interests of those fortunately situated than himself.
and speeches all on the But he loved work, and was never so happy
less
When
was
his great
sorrow came
in
June, 1915,
we
could not help

the
feeling that the call to India,
which reached him within a few days,

to see the Mission field
;
providential.
He
had longed
the Parsi comparticular sphere he was asked to visit particularly munities was one in which he had long-standing interest, and a
unique chance, as being a recognized authority on their religion
the
depletion of the Colleges made it easy for him to be spared ; and the void in his own heart called for work and, if possible, work on new
ground
condition of well-being. So he went, in 1915: and the rest is only two well known. October, Three characteristics seem to have struck those who came in contact with him and with a brief mention of them I must bring my
as a necessary
;
JAMES HOPE MOULTON

tribute to a close.
ship,
Firstly,
15
he had the rare

in
gift of
popularizing scholar-
and
of presenting
profound things
such a
way
that people lost

' *
in the interest of the subject. His Prolegomena sight of the profundity was a noticeable example. Secondly, his scholarship sat so lightly
"
upon him
that in ordinary intercourse the
man
took precedence of the
Thirdly, he was people heard him gladly ". whether towards a downtrodden nationality, the very soul of chivalry or a weak country church, or men and women fallen on evil days
scholar, and
"
common
and the
while
life
of the study never cut
him
off
from the
street.
And
his reputation
down
Be
here
is
to
than possible that Another
may be
it
be traced to the study, it is more praising him most for what He

his career gives
saw
in the street.
that as
may,
some clue
to
the problem as to
how
classical learning
came
to
be
styled
Humanity.
has
The widespread dismay and sympathy evoked by his tragic death been accompanied by much inquiry and speculation as to his
;
literary
commitments, and the chance of salving, at any rate, a part of the cargo of his life's work and, in view of various rumours and
reports
about,
it
which are going partly incomplete and partly inaccurate may be interesting to readers of the BULLETIN of the John
Rylands Library
Firstly, as to
know how the matter stands. " Grammar of New Testament Greek ". the
to
first
It
will
be remembered that the

several years ago,
volume, the
its
"
Prolegomena," was
issued
and has reached

left
fourth edition.
When
Dr.
Moulton
left for
India he
behind him the second volume, on Ac-
cidence, practically complete,
and secure
in
the publisher's safe at
Edinburgh.
The
last chapter, gathering
yet to be written, as also an
up Appendix on Semitisms which

to write.
left,
the main issues, remained
Professor
Bedale had
kindly consented
after
The
require
introductory chapter,
which came to hand
he
may
some
additions,
and
there are about a dozen paragraphs, dotted about the work, which are not forthcoming. They may be found among the piles of papers, as unsorted, at Didsbury yet possibly the numbering of the sections was
;
done
at different times,
and there may prove
to
be no
real
gap
in sub-
ject matter,
but only in numbers.
At any
rate, the gaps in the
are not serious.
But, on the other hand,
it
will not
work be an easy book
to see through the press.
The mere
it
proof-reading and verification of

is
references will
be no
light task,
and then there

keep
in
the obligation resting
upon the one who
sees
through to
close
and sympathetic
16
touch with
elucidate,

all
the
new
"
light
from the East," which
will illustrate,
and
in
some
details possibly correct the exegesis
which
it
has
Dr. George Milligan had collaborated so largely called into being. with Dr. Moulton in that branch of study, just as their fathers collathe interpretation of the Fourth Gospel thirty years ago ; but other private work rendered it impossible to look to him to do more
borated
in
than
assist in
this
matter as adviser and referee.
It
was, therefore,
thought best to turn to one of Dr. Moulton's

to his
to
own
students,
accustomed
do
memory, as being the most likely this particular piece of work. The Rev. Wilbert F. Howard,
methods and devoted
to his
B.D., was a post-graduate student of Dr. Moulton's in Hellenistic Greek at Manchester University, as well as being a student of his at
Didsbury, and those who are interested in the perpetuation of Dr. Moulton's work will be very thankful that one so capable should have
consented to shoulder the burden, with the kindly and learned Scottish Mr. Howard has three points of contact with scholar as colleague.
the
work before
starting
upon
his task,
although the decision to ask for
his aid
is
was
arrived at in absolute ignorance of all three of
them.
He
Mr. Bedale, who already has his share in the book. Dr. Moulton left for India he stored his papyri and Further, when which we knew in order that apparatus in Mr. Bedale's house
brother-in-law to
Mr. Howard might have access to the books which we did not know. Thirdly, Mr. Howard's thesis for his B.D. Degree was upon
papyri topic," and the examiner was Dr. Milligan, who was so favourably impressed with it that he wrote to Mr. Howard suggesting
a "
but then completely forgot the name in the intervening years, and did not recognize who it was that was suggested as his Of course This really suggests Providential guidance colleague
publication,
! !
it
will
be impossible to proceed with the work
at once,
shortage of skilled
men
in the printing trade at present,
owing to the and also the
shortage of paper.
A work with such

it
;
an infinitude of detail would
make
firm
great
demands upon
at
printers at the best of times,

its
and to-day no
large supply of
would look
while
size
would demand a
paper
of a quality suitable for taking the impression of the minutiae of
Greek
characters.
is
Nothing has been
finally
decided upon, but Sir
in four parts,
disposed to consider the feasibility of issuing the book will spread out over a longer period both the task of setting-up and the consumption of paper.
John Clark
which
JAMES HOPE MOULTON

With
which
is
17
reference to the
"
Vocabulary
of
New
Testament Greek,"
contributions entirely concerned with the
made
to exegesis
by
the papyri and other non-literary sources, this had from the first been a joint enterprise of the two friends, and Dr. Milligan will have now to plough his lonely furrow, with whatever assistance he can obtain at Glasgow, and are thankhis who have from
any
caught
inspiration
ful thus to
repay some portion
of their debt.
A pathetic
"
legacies,
interest attaches to the last of
Dr. Moulton's literary

it
The
Treasure of the Magi,"
in that
was written
entirely
There seems to have in India, and completed just before he sailed. been in his mind some haunting sense of uncertainty as to his future ;
did he have three copies of the book typed and sent on different courses ? One remained in India in the hands of Dr. Griswold,
else
why
<
of the series in which with Dr. Farquhar of Oxford one reached Derby just before the news of the the book appears
the joint editor
at the bottom of the Mediterranean. Here, again, tragedy ; the task of preparation for the press was one that demanded expert knowledge of the very highest order in a field of learning greatly
and one
is
neglected in this country.

said to fulfil the conditions,
Indeed, probably only two men could be and one of them was out of the question
owing to his advanced age, but the other, when approached replied at To the. once that it would be a privilege to be allowed to do it. Right Rev. Dr. Casartelli, Bishop of Salford, we owe a great debt of
gratitude.
The Oxford
Press
is
publishing.
Will there be any Memoir of Dr. Moulton ? That is a question which has been repeatedly asked of late, and the answer is both Yes and No. If by a Memoir is meant a set Biography, laid out chrono-
No, partly because the his life did not centre in incident, but in influence, and partly because certain material which would be indispensable for
logically
is
and
in great detail,
the answer
interest of
such a purpose cannot be found anywhere, probably because it is " with the third copy of The Treasure of the Magi" But certainly some account of Dr. Moulton's career will be forthcoming before next
!
spring, all
being well, and some attempt will be
made
to outline the
activities, to focus the interests, to estimate the influence of
one concernadmiration
ing
whom
all
so
many have
written with
warm and
grateful
from
But, everything is done that can be done with the printed page, the only adequate memoir is that which
over the world.
when
18
is

many whom he
taught,
enshrined in the collective experience of the
and cheered, and strengthened.
2.
A RECORD OF PROFESSOR J. H. MOULTON'S WORK, WITH SOME EXPLANATION OF ITS SIGNIFICANCE.

BY PROFESSOR A.
S.
PEAKE,
M.A., D.D.
touches the
The
tragic
death of Professor James
Hope Moulton
been
John Rylands Library very nearly.

greatly valued fitting that one
He had
for several years a
member of the Council and Book Committee, and it is who was closely associated with him in this work, who
Manchester and had the
privi-
was
his colleague at the University of
lege of long
and intimate
friendship, should give some estimate of his
work
in the pages of our BULLETIN. Dr. Moulton was chiefly famous for his contributions to the study of New Testament Greek, but he gained distinction also as an expon-
ent of Zoroastrianism.
The two
fields of research
seem remote from
each other, but
it is
common starting-point. he won the Gold Medal

received from
it
easy to see how he reached them both from a He took the Classical Tripos at Cambridge,
in Classics at the University of
London and
his
Doctorate of Literature.
He
took a First Class at
Cambridge with distinction in Philology. His study of Comparative Philology led him from Latin and Greek to Sanscrit and Iranian. From the Iranian language he was naturally led to the literature and
the religion, and thus he
astrianism.
became one
of our very
few experts
of the
in
ZoroTesta-
His preoccupation with the language
New
ment was due

ject.
in part to his father's conspicuous services to this sub-
He
"
had
translated Winer's
"
Grammar
of
New
Testament
Greek
regret
and improvements, and English, making many was expressed that so much labour should have been spent on
into
additions
the* work of
another man by one

of his
better
book
own.
who had it in his power to write a much " " The Grammar by no means exhausted
Dr.
W.
F. Moulton's contribution to the interpretation of the
New
Testament.
He
was one of the
New
Testament Revisers and he
undertook very heavy labours for the edition of the Revised New Testament with fuller references. In this connection it may be added
that
he co-operated with Hort and Westcott
in
the revision of the
JAMES HOPE MOULTON

Book
of
19
for the
Wisdom and
the
Second Book
of
Maccabees
Revised
important concordance to the Greek Testament, known as Moulton and Geden, owes most to the latter scholar, since Dr. Moulton through pressure of other duties was un-
Version of the Apocrypha.
The
able to participate to any great extent in the task.

collaboration with
It
was
his
hope
in
his son to prepare a thoroughly revised edition of
Grammar," but his death forbade the realization was accordingly natural that Dr. James Moulton father's death, take up the project which had been
the
It
"
of this scheme.
should, on his
left
unfulfilled.
But this would have been impossible if his equipment had not eminHis classical training had given him the ently qualified him for it.
indispensable preparation, 'and his expert knowledge of the
tive
Compara-
Philology of the
It is
value.
Indo-European language proved of especial regrettable that he published very little on Comparative
"
Philology.
Apart from
volume
entitled
Two
articles I can only refer to an admirable little Lectures on the Science of Language ". They
are popular lectures, the former of them dealing strictly with

parative Philology, the latter with the evidence afforded
of language for the reconstruction of primitive, history.
Com-
by a study
should have had a right to expect from him would have been a Grammar of the New Testament, accurate and complete, a
What we
monument
of finished scholarship
and
lucid exposition.
That would
have been of great value, but its publication, while it would have won wide and deserved recognition, would not have attracted " the attention that was at once directed to the first volume of
for the author
Grammar
ing the
of
New
Testament Greek," published

".
in
1906 and containbrought

century
"
Prolegomena
a revolution.
their
with
it
The discovery of new material had The great scholars of the nineteenth
had written
grammars and commentaries from a standpoint which the new discoveries did much to antiquate. The New Testament
was approached from
Classical Greek,
were supposed to apply in one as in the words in the New Testament were fixed by
sical writing.
and the same grammatical rules other, and the senses of

their significance in clas-
A great number of papyri had, however, been discovered

of these
of
in
Egypt.
Some
works
were valuable
to the
Greek scholar as
with
re-
storing lost
Greek
literature or supplying us
new
texts
of
works which
we
already possessed.
But along with these there

to
literary
were very many papyri with no pretention
character.
20

letters,
Business documents, leases, wills, and in particular private
came to light in great numbers. The credit for realizing the bearing of these documents on the study of New Testament Greek does not
It was a indeed belong to Dr. Moulton. young German scholar, Dr. Deissmann, who first saw the bearing of the new discoveries on " " In his the Greek of the New Testament. Bible Studies he stated
and defended the

posed to
first
thesis that a large
number
of
words
hitherto sup-
be Biblical were really current in the spoken Greek of the Deissmann's researches were chiefly occupied with the century.
vocabulary, though of course the
grammar received
occasional notice.
Dr. Moulton was quite convinced by Deissmann's arguments, and his
own
researches into the vocabulary gave independent confirmation. But the new thesis had to be thoroughly tested in the domain of
grammar, and the very extended researches which Dr. Moulton carried through convinced him that alike in vocabulary and grammar Biblical
Greek, except where
cular of daily
life.
it
was
translation Greek,
language of the
in the
The language of the common people. The theory met

It
was simply the vernaHoly Ghost was just the

of course with
hostile criticism, in particular this centred
on the question of Semitism
New
case
had long been held that the Greek of the Testament was Hebraic Greek, and this position seemed to be
Testament.
New
established
by
the presence of Semitic constructions in
it.
But the
was
altered
when
these constructions
were found
in
papyri written
Gentiles. It was contended in reply that the constructions might But have come into the colloquial Greek under Jewish influence. this seemed improbable, inasmuch as examples were found in districts
by
where Jewish influence could hardly

excluded the hypothesis of Semitic
In spite, however, of dissent the
if
at all
be traced.
Dr. Moulton
also considered that survival of such constructions in

origin.
modern Greek
book was recognized as inaugurating

its
new epoch
in the
study of
New
Testament Greek on
grammatical
side.
Deissmann was
of course delighted that a scholar so magnifi-
cently equipped should
range himself at his side and do for the
grammar what he had done for the vocabulary. Harnack spoke of " him as the foremost expert in New Testament Greek ". All who
are familiar with grammatical and exegetical literature on the
New
on the
Testament
will be well
aware how deep an impress

last
it
has
left
books published within the
ten years.
It
was
translated into
JAMES HOPE MOULTON

German from
translation
21
the third edition with considerable additions,

to
and the
was dedicated by Professor Moulton

which had given him
its
the University
of Berlin,
his
Doctorate in Theology on the
occasion of
It is
centenary.
deplorable that the author's untimely death has left his task The second volume was largely finished before he left incomplete.
volume, which, as containing the syntax, would have been the largest and most important, I fear little, if any,
for
India, but for the third
material has been
left.
A cognate work will also suffer seriously.

"
In
The collaboration with Professor George Milligan he wrote for " These form the a series of lexical notes on the papyri. Expositor
basis of
an elaborate work entitled

Illustrated
I
"
The Vocabulary
and
other
of the
Greek
Testament
Sources
".
from
the
Papyri
Non-literary
its
hope
that the original intention will
be carried to
completion
in
spite of Dr.
Moulton's death.
Of
the six parts of

;
which
it
was designed
I
to consist
I
amount
third
;
of material has,
a large understand, been already collected for the
two have already appeared
and
trust that
Dr. Milligan
may
find
it
possible to bring the
great enterprise to a triumphant close.

I
must touch but
briefly
on other sides of
his
work.
He
published an
"
Introduction to the Study of
New Testament New Testa-
ment Greek," which serves its purpose as a beginner's book admirably. He developed, defended, and popularized his views on this subject in
numerous
articles.
A series of popular lectures delivered at Northfield

in
was published while he was

Rubbish Heaps
and
lighting
".
It
is
India
entitled
"
From Egyptian
Alongside
full of
interesting facts, brightly presented,
up many
passages in the
New
Testament.
of
of the facts there are several suggestions,

in
them too speculative character, I fear, to secure acceptance from New Testament scholars. I turn now to speak with diffidence of his work on Zoroastrianism.
some
" Apart from important articles of which I mention that entitled It is " " his Angel in The Journal of Theological Studies," and that on "
"
cations consist at present of his
Dictionary of the Bible," his publi" Cambridge manual Early Religious " Hibbert Lectures". I believe that a Poetry of Persia" and his
in Hastings'
Zoroastrianism
"
volume
of
of lectures to the Parsees has
been published
"
in
in India,
and
understand that the volume on
"
Parsism
press.
"
The
little
Religious Quest
India"
series
is
ready for the
The
volume
in the
22
series

of
subject
Cambridge manuals forms an excellent introduction to the " The Hibbert Lectures," on the other hand, presuppose
groundwork and are occupied examination of selected features of the religion, and those the with an The work is marked not only by great erudition most important.
the student's acquaintance with the
I am afraid that it would take far too much but by much originality. The paradoxical space even to sketch briefly the questions at issue.
view put forward by Darmsteter that Zarathushtra never existed and that the Gathas are no earlier than the first century of our era is convincingly refuted.
It
but the question is As to the date of Zarathushtra he regards him as certainly length. not later than 660-583 B.C., to which tradition assigns him, but he is
has found practically no favour among experts, so vital that Professor Moult on deals with it at
impressed by the strength of the argument for regarding him as some But for several centuries he supposes that the generations earlier.
more
esoteric elements in his teaching did not pass
beyond Bactria
in its
where the prophet had taught. The doctrine moved westward, not His view of pure form but in the form given it by the Magi.
the
Magi and
the
their relation to Zoroastrianism
is
fundamental
work.
for the
whole discussion and the most

that
original part of his

priestly
He
believes
Magi were non- Aryans, a
tribe,
with
primitive
of
practices,
who
claimed, though wrongly, that the prophet
was one
themselves and, adapting such elements of his teaching as they could It is important then to accept, popularized it as thus transformed. " " detect the elements in the Avesta which are due to them, and
he uses as
a comparison between Magianism and Parsism. Such elements of Magianism as are absent from Parsism he regards as non-Zoroastrian and with this clue seeks to determine the Magian
his test
He argues against Eduard Meyer that Avesta ". was not a Zoroastrian, Darius being the first of the AchaeCyrus menian kings who was a true Zoroastrian, though the religion as he knew it had lost its original purity. Most students no doubt will feel
element in the
that the subject lies outside their beat, but not a
"
few may be glad
to
know
deals with problems of interest to points " Biblical scholars, notably in the chapter entitled Zarathushtra and
that at
several
it
Israel ".
But Professor Moulton was not simply a great

deeply interested
in
scholar.
He
was
practical
problems, especially
those of
social
JAMES HOPE MOULTON

amelioration.
23
Religion always claimed the
first
place.
He
was
an*
enthusiast for missions.
and
his expert familiarity
His wide acquaintance with other religions, with some of them, in no way shook his conof his
viction as to the
supremacy
own.
He
saw
in
it
the satisfaction
in other
of all those lofty aspirations

religions.
which found imperfect expression
To these
sympathy.
thusiasm,
lower forms of faith he desired to give the fullest For Zoroastrianism, in particular, he had a genuine enit
regarding
it
as
the purest form of
non- Biblical
religion.
Hence when
fell
to his lot to deliver the Fernley
Lecture in the
centenary year of the Wesley an Missionary Society he chose as his " subject Religions and Religion ". In this work I call special attention to the discussions in the second and third chapters. In the latter of
these he works out the thesis that Christianity
ligions,
it
is
the
crown
of all re-
takes the better elements in

I
them and
volume
carries
in the
them
to
a higher
his
power. "
do not
of course place this
Grammar," his Greek Testament ".

scientific
it
"
Hibbert Lectures" or the
The
quality of his
Vocabulary of the work rose the more rigidly
"
same category as
was, but the selection of such a theme for his Fernley Lecture and the sympathetic temper in which it was handled are very
significant indications of the principles
and convictions which dominated
a man is irreparable. Had he been spared to complete his grammar and the vocabulary his friends would still have grieved deeply for one whom no one can replace in their affections and learning would have been impoverished by his
his attitude to
life.
The
loss of such
inability to accomplish other tasks for
which he was singularly qualified. But he has been taken from us with great tasks only partially accomplished and leaving no one with his peculiar combination of
qualities.
And
none
of us
can miss the tragic irony in his death that
it, who had desired friendand whose work was appreciated by none more Germany highly than by German scholars, should have been sent to his prema-
he
who
loved peace and had laboured for
ship with
ture death
by an enemy submarine.
24
3

LETTER FROM DR. RENDEL HARRIS TO THE REV. W. FIDDIAN MOULTON.
Grand Hotel,
Ajaccio Corsica.
Uth
April, 1917.
MY
DEAR FRIEND, You will have
received the sad
news
of
my
first
telegram,
and will have been waiting and watching
for the further information
with regard to the passing over of your beloved. I am not able to write a great deal and much of what
would
say must wait until I return, first of all because we were strongly advised not to communicate any details as to the passage of our unfortunate vessel,
and second because

dimmish
it is
too painful to recall in detail

collapse.
I
the horrors of the days of exposure
and
think that
what
operated
of power all, physical weakness, which had shown itself on the way home from India in a violent outbreak of boils on the face and neck causing him
his
first
in
his case to
of resistance was,
much
pain and inconvenience,
but on the other side he succumbed
to superior spiritual attractions
which he
his
ship
was
struck.
He
talked about
guage as going over to prepare places for

tension
felt a long time before the dear ones in Johannine lanone another, and the spiritual
was
evidently stronger than even strong language expressed.

side stood
Those on the other

words and doing
another.
Christ's
him Christ-wise, saying Christ's deeds to him as they had done to one
to
it is
Under
these circumstances
not strange that he should
have collapsed, but he played a hero's part in the boat. He toiled at the oar till sickness overcame him he
:
assisted to
bale out the boat and to bury

those
(is that the right
word
?) the bodies of
who
fell.
He
said
words
of prayer over poor Indian sailors,
and never never complained or lost heart for a moment through the whole of the three days and more of his patience, though the waves were often breaking over him and the water must have often been up
to his middle.
He passed away very rapidly at the end and was could get to him. His body was lying on the edge of the boat, and I kissed him for you all and said some words of love
gone before
I
which he was past hearing outwardly.
There was no opportunity to take from his body anything except his gold watch, and one or two trifles which are in my I could not search him for papers, keeping. I doubt if he had indeed brought any with him from the ship.
JAMES HOPE MOULTON

During the whole
of the
25
voyage his mind was marvellously alert He talked, and read and wrote incessantly, and and active. on the Sundays. On the way home he had read the whole preached " " of the Odyssey in the small Pickering edition and amongst his first remarks to me was his opinion as to the disparity of the 23rd book
;
with the
rest of the
One
Major
England.
did
poem. and beautiful experience strange

of
the Abyssinian
literary
we shared Embassy who was
together with
returning
to
We developed
"
sympathies, and one day the con-
versation turned on
H. and when
J.
The Major knew it by heart so Lycidas ". I was a bad third in the recitation, or almost by heart. M., we halted for a passage J. H. M. ran to his cabin and
brought his pocket copy of Milton to verify doubtful words with. little we suspected what was the meaning of our exercise.
How
They laughed
to explain that
at
it
my
delight over the sounding sentences

tingle
:
and
had
that
made my blood
but
we
did not
know
the
amber flow
of that
mental and that

"
we
Elysian speech had become once more sacrawere really reciting the liturgy of the dead, that
is
Lycidas, your sorrow

floor ".
ocean
He
"
society
It is
not dead, sunk though he be beneath the " " " had his own solemn troop and his own sweet
to
make him welcome.
shall
be
one of our Lord's sayings that one shall be taken and another left, and the words lie dormant in meaning long spaces of
rise
time,
then
up and smite us
in the face.
fatal, that
it
and the other
left ?
criminate between the
Why "
did that
"
Why
was one taken

"
dis-
perfidious bark
sacred head that
sunk low
"
and the one

like
which was so much whiter to the harvest

these there
this is all
I
But
for questions
if
I
is
no answer
yet.
would
tell
you more
could, but
can say at
this present.
With deep sympathy, Your friend and

p.p.
his,
RENDEL HARRIS,
G. O. INNES.
have been with him these
P.S.
Manu mea
Pauline.
am
so glad to
days
to
have had him
to myself, at his very best.
So Johannine,
;
and
to
have become, he said to me and twice over he quoted some great lines from Myers' "St. Paul,'*
Pauline
so
How
we
add
to the ordinary Corinthian quotations.
MEDI/EVAL
BY
T. F.
TOWN
PLANNING.
TOUT,
M.A., F.B.A.
BISHOP FRASER PROFESSOR OF MEDI/EVAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER.
NOWADAYS
concentrate
the phrase
into our ears.
town planning
great
cities,
is
is
dinned repeatedly
to
generation,
tending more and more
itself
into
for
constantly told that

evils of
town planning
is
the
remedy
many
of the
most obvious
existence in the towns
we
are familiar with.
An
eminent architect
told a Manchester audience
some
five years ago, that
means
which
"
town planning
the application to a
habitually apply
to
town
of that process of
we
to individual buildings
*V
ordered forethought It is because we
have neglected
ahead, which
self-interest
apply to our towns as wholes that process of looking imposes on us when we build a house for
rabbit
ourselves, that our cities
cases
become mere
towns
of
have grown up anyhow, and have in too many warrens of disorderly alleys and overthis state of
crowded houses.
torical
And
things, barely tolerable in his-
size, becomes absolutely unendurable in the overgrown cities which are the special feature of our modern civilization. It cannot be denied that our town planning enthusiasts have much
moderate
reason on their side.
reprobate the haphazard
They way
are never
in
more
right than
when they
have
which our modern
British cities
grown up. We of the north have very special reasons for lamenting the want of imagination shown by the builders of the great towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire. Perhaps it would be truer to say that there have been few builders of towns, but an infinite number of
builders of individual houses
is
and
streets.
What we
most
suffer
from
the lack of adequate control on the part of some general authority, so

1
An
elaboration of the lecture delivered in the John Rylands Library,
13 December, 1916. 2 Paul Waterhouse,

lecture for
Old Towns and New Needs, the Warburton 1912 (Manchester University Press, 1912), pp. 1-2.
26
MEDI/EVAL
that each individual has
TOWN PLANNING
left to
27
wherever
been
pursue his
own
interest
he conceived
it
to
lie.
The
reasons for this neglect are written large in
we might also perhaps have been more numerous exceptions to this rule than modern architects and up-to-date social reformers sometimes imagine.
the political and social history of Britain, though
plead that there
But neither
they seldom
architects nor social reformers are as a rule historians,
and
have
know accurately either the historical conditions, which made

so difficult, or the extent to
town planning
been overcome.
which these
difficulties
nineteenth centuries
the
best
is
Even the dark days of the late eighteenth and early show notable schemes of town planning, of which " " doubtless the new town of Edinburgh. But faint
suggestions of similar motives can surely be seen in the regular align-
ments and straight-cut streets which mark the early procession of modern Manchester southward from the original nucleus, and the first
climbings of
modern Liverpool eastward up the

mediaeval town.
as the
hillside outside the
narrow
limits of the
Again old
new
quarters of
its
London, such
straight streets
Duke
of Bedford's
Bloomsbury Estate, with
tion
by a
leafy squares, are distinct evidences of the applicagreat landlord of prudent forethought in directing the
and
development of a town quarter springing up on the soil which he Gower Street, which to Ruskin was the abomination of owns.
aesthetic desolation, the
reductio
ad absurdum
of the hideous pro-
cess that
began with the Renascence, suggests

I
to the
town planner the
bright promise of a future of well- ordered cities in

live in
comfort and health.
would not
like to
which men may say that either Ruskin

I
town planner were wholly right or wholly wrong. indicate in passing two rather different points of view.
or the
simply
We
real
must refuse to traverse insidious bypaths, and get back to business. My task to-night is not with the town of the future,
or even with the
town
of
of the present, or the
town
of the recent past-
Dryasdust, as
is
well known,
minimum amount
in
is content to pursue his hobbies with a concern for the world he lives in, or for the world
which
his
descendants
in
may
men
live in.
some pleasure
approaching
his
Yet even Dryasdust may find remote studies with some reference to
to those
is
the fashion in which the
of the period
have overcome problems not dissimilar of his own age. When all the world
the historic aspects of that problem
which he delights to study which vex the souls
may
talking of town planning, well occupy the attention of
28

It
is
the historian.
natural
nowadays
I
for a mediaevalist
to interest
himself in mediaeval
I
town planning.
cannot
flatter
myself that
what
have to
tell
you
to-night will give
much
practical guidance
to those
who
are anxious to
make
the Manchester of the future better ordered

of the past.
and more wisely planned than the Manchester

with the same problems as those which
meet, and
But
it is
not altogether unpractical to realize that remote ages had to grapple we ourselves are trying to
it is eminently practical, if we are able, as I think we shall be able, to draw the moral that the methodical organization of town construction can only be attained when the impulses of the individual
are adequately controlled
by the corporate
will of the
is
community, and
when
the immediate advantage of the
moment
subordinated to the
ultimate -welfare of the future.
Normal mediaeval
town
planning.
conditions
were not
particularly favourable to
Both the small

control
size of the ordinary
mediaeval state
and the limited
which mediaeval man had over material resources

those days to plan out a great
made it more
power
difficult in
for the great nations of the
modern world with
their
town than it is almost unbounded
of harnessing nature to their service.
proach modern conditions more nearly if period, and particularly if we go back to the great days whole civilized west was ruled by the Roman Empire, or if
to the
still
some ways we apwe go back to a more remote

In
when
the
we
revert
the kingdoms of Alexander and his successors compelled the near east to submit to a veneer of western
more
distant time
when
civilization,
What
some
and by so doing made the Roman Empire possible. history teaches us as to ancient town planning is admirably set
book which Prof. Haverfield
1
forth in a little
of
Oxford published
four years ago.
who would
wish to go back even farther than

lucid
cannot do better than refer those of you, I can do to-night, to

of the facts of this
Mr. Haverfield's
and orderly marshalling
subject so far as illustrated
by the Graeco- Roman world.
Into the origins of town planning we have no need to follow Yet it is him, for they have no conceivable relation to later times. interesting to know that scholars have seen suggestions of town
planning in the remote antiquity of the bronze age, and that Babylon
1
F. Haverfield, Ancient
Town Planning
(Oxford University Press,
1913).
MEDI/EVAL
as described, perhaps
TOWN PLANNING
29
with straight
other.
streets
wrongly described, by Herodotus, was laid out running parallel to or at right angles with each
cenplanning of a more modern sort begins in the fifth laid out Piraeus, the port tury B.C., when Hippodamus of Miletus as rectangular as the irregularity of the ground of Athens, in a form
Town
allowed.
itself
But the ordinary Greek city had no plan

in striking contrast to
its its
at all,
and Athens
wonder-
was
port.
its
Its
glory was
;
in its
its
ful
public buildings,
temples,
and
colonnades
shame was
rude hovels, separated by tortuous lanes, in its which rivalled the squalor and disorder of a modern oriental city. But the cities of Greece grew and were not made. It was only when
fortuitous congestion of
colonies
that the
were founded, or cities, like Piraeus, were made town planner has his chance.
planner's opportunity
all of
a piece,
The town
successors
came when Alexander and

with
Alexandrias,
his
plastered
the
near
east
Antiochs,
Seleucias and Pergamons, destined from their foundation to be leading cities of a great empire, capitals of highly centralized despotisms.
Yet the
cities of
the Hellenistic and

still
Macedonian ages have no
lesson
for us, since such as are
great cities
now
represent not the regular
proportions of their founders' designs but the picturesque confusion of a modern Turkish town, which has forgotten its origin under the long
pressure of
It
its fierce
barbarian masters.
was otherwise when the Roman Empire began to follow the example of the Macedonians by setting up, first in Italy, and afterwards in the conquered provinces of the west, colonies and municipalities whose
sites
Their rectangular proportions,
have often been continuously inhabited ever since by civilized man. their straight, narrow streets, their regular
blocks of building testify to the symmetry and method of their designers, and approach the simplicity of the Roman camp from which many of
them arose. What Roman town planning was like can perhaps best be realized by him who wanders through the straight and narrow streets of the excavated portions of Pompeii, the more so when he realizes that exceptional circumstances made Pompeii one of the more
irregular of the
towns
of ancient Italy.
But what Vesuvius did

effectively for
for
Pompeii, the Teutonic invasions did

cities of
more
most of the
the old
Roman world.
that
broke
down
the continuity of
The barbarians from the north utterly Roman town life. Very few scholars
was any
organic connexion between
nowadays believe
there
30

municipal institutions and those of the middle ages and modern It is almost the same with sites as with institutions. Prof.
Roman
times.
Haverfield demonstrates to us that in our island of Britain the well-
thought-out
Roman
scheme which made
little
Silchester, not only a
vive the coming of the Angles and Saxons.
well-planned town but a garden city on a small scale, did not surEven when the barbarian
conquerors crouched for shelter behind the old Roman walls of a derelict city, they reconstructed the interior of the town after their own fashion.
Prof.
Haverfield will not even allow that the apparently
Roman
plan of Chester
from four chief

about
it.
and Gloucester, where four straight streets, running gates, meet together at a centre, has anything Roman
streets of
The main
Chester and Gloucester, London and

in their direction
Colchester are mediaeval, not
Roman,
At
in
Colchester
this is particularly clear,
and alignment. not only in the town area, but
settlers
To the west, as Mr. Round tells us, the English approaches. out the open fields of the urban agricultural community mapped which replaced the Roman city, and covered up with their crops the
its
great
Roman
its
while to
iaeval
cemetery and the abandoned Roman road to London, north a new highway led direct to the gates of the med1
town.
Though
from the north, the

of
it,
Roman gate still affords access to Lincoln survival of a Roman line of road in continuation
a
itself, is
through the city

limitations
as likely to
hill
be the
site
result of the topoit
graphical
survival.
of
narrow
as
is
of
historical to Britain,
Whatever town planning
the
Romans brought
none of it has survived to afford any lesson to us. Its very existence has only been revealed by modern archaeological research. The case is the same, Mr. Haverfield tells us, in the great Roman
towns
of
Southern France.
Buildings have survived, but never the
It is only in Italy that our authority can see any plan of the town. continuous survivals of Roman town planning in such instances as the
Roman quarter of Turin. Yet

the historical
even here the modern historian
is
tempted
to ascribe the admirable regularity of the plan of that best planned of

cities of the peninsula not so much to the Romans as to the fostering care of the house of Savoy, ever anxious to embellish its
See Mr. J. H. Round's remarkable inaugural presidential address to the Essex Archaeological Society, the Sphere of an Archaeological Society," reprinted from the Transactions of that Society, XIV. 4, and especially the map and the remarks on p. 11.
"On
MEDI/EVAL
that whatever
TOWN PLANNING
Be
this as
it
31
it
recent times. capital in comparatively
may,
remains
planning has survived has come to us the middle ages. through the long centuries of have at last got to our real subject, but it was necessary for
Roman town
We
our purpose to appreciate the deep gulf that history has dug between
the
town planning
have to
of antiquity
and
later ages.
With
the middle ages
we
start afresh,
and
for
many
centuries
we
see conditions very
inimical to
town
life in all its
forms.
While
the
Greek and Roman
thought that the happy

civilization of the
life
could only be
lived in the city, the nascent
Its middle ages was of the country not of the town. the homesteads unit was the court and manor of the feudal landlord, and farm buildings of his humbler tenants. There was neither the
good government necessary for ordered town life, nor the commerce which made it economically possible for great hordes of men to dwell
together in an urban area.
When men
still
town communities,
for civic life,
it
was not by reason

side
of
gathered together in little any sentimental preference
but because the needs of protection and defence forced
them
to dwell side
by
on some
fortified hilltop,
where they might

for that
save themselves from pirates and plunderers.
But
every
man
would have dwelt hard by

his subsistence.
It
the fields
and meadows which assured him
follows that as there were few towns there
in those
dark ages which lay between the

In those ages
fall of
was no town planning the Roman world and
the development of that well-marked type of civilization which

call mediaeval.
we
the east
if
we would
seek for
we must go to the great monarchies of new examples of town planning, as for
instance at
Baghdad, planned so well by one of the greatest of the Khalifs that it became the greatest commercial centre of the world of
even more improbable that these oriental town planners were imitated by westerns in later ages than that mediaeval statesmen
Islam.
is
But it
and
town plans of Roman days. By the eleventh century the dark ages were drawing to a close. Strong kings and princes arose who ruled roughly but effectively over
architects consciously followed the
1
on
"
See on this subject a summary of Prof. Un win's interesting lecture Eastern Factors in the Growth of Modern Cities Baghdad and Saint
;
Nicholas," in Journal of the Manchester Egyptian and Oriental Society, I 1915-16, pp. 13-17. appreciate the learning and admire the ingenuity and imagination of my colleague, but I cannot feel quite convinced as to the
soundness of his general
thesis.
32

With comparatively settled order a The result was well-being was insured.
relatively high the wonderful
large dominions.
standard of
progress
of
and prosperity of the twelfth century. And with this revival The strong rule came two results that boded well for towns.
duke wished
to hold
successful emperor, king, or
down
his
conquered
enemies, and promote among them his own ideals of civilization. The improved material prosperity gave once more a chance for trade and And from conquest and commerce alike, there necessarily industry.
arose a
new need for towns. Some towns, including most
of the great cities of history,
grow
others on the other

is
hand are made.
And
the process of town making

Prof.
as legitimate as the process of constitution making.
Pollard
in
a paradoxical
moment
has lately told us that constitutions that
develop are better than constitutions that spring from the brain of the 1 The answer is that it all depends on the constitutions. legislator.
This
is
the case with towns as well as constitutions.
conditions both alike must be made, or

at
all.
Under certain they do not come into existence
We have now
got to one of those periods of history in which,
as in the
scale
for
Macedonian age, the conscious creation of towns on a large " was both a political and economic necessity. With the fever " founding towns that marked the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
golden
in.
It
age of mediaeval town planning set period that we have chiefly to address ourselves.
the
is
to this
The
political
necessity
In the
for
town making arose

of the
earlier
than the
of the
economic need.
humble beginnings
new towns
middle ages military considerations were always paramount. strong ruler conquered a district adjacent to his old dominions, or
wished
to
defend
his frontier against
a neighbouring enemy.
He
built
rude fortresses and encouraged his subjects to live in them, so that they Thus might undertake the responsibility of their permanent defence.
arose the "boroughs" which the successors of Alfred the Great " " timbered along the boundary line between their West Saxon inherit-
the towns which the Carolingian and, later on, the fortresses of the same type conquerors up Saxony, which were erected by the Saxon emperors beyond the Elbe in the
ance and the Danelaw.

set
Thus began
in
in History, I. 29 et seq., and the criticisms on it in the same periodical by Prof. Ramsay Muir and Mr. D. O. Malcolm, ibid. I. 193-214.
See
his
"
Growth
of
an Imperial Parliament
"
MEDI/EVAL
Slavonic
districts
TOWN PLANNING
33
which they were initiating into the priceless blessings nach Osten of an early form of German Kultur. This primitive Drang it had not only teutoncame to a head in the thirteenth century, when ized the lands between the Elbe and the Oder, but planted German the East Baltic lands, through Poland and its subcolonies all
through
ject states.
For us the
military outposts of the

to
was the setting up of new towns, Teutonic power, whose soldier-burgesses were
chief result
In the new Teutonic keep the Slavs and Letts in their places. towns in Slavonic lands, we have one great group of artificially- made
towns, which, as the impulse
beyond mere
fortresses.
stronger, grew into something and monks dragooned the rude Their clergy
became
natives into adopting the teachings of the church.
The
traders,
who
in
followed the soldiers
and
priests,
found a
profitable occupation
exploiting their economic necessities.

sort of
The result was towns
of sufficient
size to demand some planning on the part of their founders. Particulars of this process are very little known, or at any rate are But little accessible to a lecturer writing in war-time in Manchester,
it is
certain that not only
were the older
cities
of
Prussia, of Silesia
5>
of
Poland, and
of Lithuania the result of such
methods, but that the
laying out of the oldest parts of

this
many
of these
towns bears witness to

of
day
of the rectilineal alignments
and the rectangular blocks
allotments
common
to the
now
for centuries a
town planners of every age. Thus thoroughly Germanized town, was in its
Breslau.,
origin
Teutonic outpost among the Slavs of Silesia, and shows in its plan the marks of its origin. It is the same with the towns of Prussia,
Livonia, and Poland.
We
see
it,
for instance, in the disposition of
Breslau, and repeated in Cracow, the old capital of Poland. These influences perhaps went even farther east. Lithuania long resisted all
Teutonic and Christian influences, and at
last
only took them filtered
Yet in Vilna, the chief city of Lithuania, through Polish channels. the orderly ground plan of the central parts, stands in such contrast to the oriental disorder of its suburbs, that I feel constrained to show
it to you along with the plan of Breslau. It is fair to add that both the Breslau and Vilna plans come from a seventeenth century
book
the
which may owe something to the imagination of map maker, who gave more and more flight to his fancy the farther he got eastwards. When he arrived as far east as Russia
of
town
plans,
exhausted
itself
imagination with Moscow, and his plans of other Russian towns

3
34
are

more or
less pretty pictures
which give no guidance
to the topo-
grapher.
Let us turn to other aspects of our subject which are easier to trace and which have more direct relation to ourselves and our own
history.
the
which pushed forward the Teutonic cause from the Oder to the Vistula and Dvina, was repeated whenever a conqueror came to a new country
process,
The
Elbe to
the
Oder and from
with followers eager for land -grabbing.

the
We
see
it
in
England
after
Norman Conquest when

set
the French-speaking king and his French
up numerous little towns in their demesne lands and attracted settlers to them by the promise of liberties, such as towns in
barons
beyond the Channel had long enjoyed. Such new towns were specially numerous in the north and west, where the Celts
their
own
lands
of
Wales and Cumbria had

Germany.
as
little
power
that
of resistance to the mail-
clad knights as the Slavs of Silesia or the Letts of Livonia had to the
chivalry of
Thus
it
was
called into being to receive the laws of
numerous boroughs were Breteuil, an obscure town on
the
Norman- French
border, just as the outposts of
had been granted the laws of Magdeburg. oldest Welsh towns, and many Irish towns arose
few
of the
Germany in the east The western towns, the

in this
manner.
But
Noi man foundations

I
of this type attained

of mediaeval
much success, and
none, so far as
know, give evidence
town planning.
We
land,
must wait
for the thirteenth
century before
we
get that in England.
But before
we
deal with thirteenth century examples in our
own
let us turn to France, the one continental country that
was
in intimate
connexion with ourselves
both as friend
history.
and
foe,
through the middle ages, and which, profoundly modified the course of our national
all
During the twelfth century the French monarchy became as powerful as the German kingdom under the Saxons and Salian rulers
had ever been.

lords
It
remained surrounded by a ring of vassal
states,
whose
of Aquitaine or the
were powerful magnates, like the Duke of Normandy, the Duke Count of Toulouse. Each of these was as com-
petent, within his sphere, to maintain order
and uphold good-peace
as
Between the overlord and the great feudathe King of Paris himself. tories there was natural enmity and a constant struggle for supremacy.
In the long run the
Crown
prevailed,
and even
in the south,
where
men spoke
a different tongue and thought different thoughts from the
MEDI/EVAL
Frenchmen
of the north,
TOWN PLANNING
Crown
the northern kings
35
the
ultimately acquired ascendancy.
The
conquest of the south
by
was
facilitated
by
the fact that the south, especially the district of which Toulouse was the capital, had adopted the outspoken heresies of the Albigensians.
.
This enabled a crusade to be preached against the Languedocian heretics, and the conquest of the south was made possible by the
crusaders from the north
for themselves.
it
who came
to fight, alike for the faith

after
and
When
the south
was subdued
a bloody struggle,
lay open to northern exploitation.

old, a land
Thus, ere the thirteenth century
was very
sources,
depopulated and exhausted by war, rich in re-
and
sullenly hostile to its conquerors,
was ready
for the victor
to
work his will on. There were towns
of great antiquity,
for
conquered south, but these had a municipal independence which
populous and wealthy, in the the most part won for themselves
survived the conquest and
still
made
resist
them as
hostile as,
and more
effective than, the
beaten nobles to
the newcomers.
after the
Here we have
the conditions of the Slavonic lands
German Conquest,
or of Britain after the
Norman Conquest
essentially repeated, save only that here the conqueror was not only stronger but ruder than his victims, and that the vanquished land was
and populous cities. The remedy was the same as on the eastern marches of Germany. From the wholesale and long-confull of flourishing
tinued application of this
remedy arose the villeneuves and bastides of Southern France, the best examples of town planning known to the
middle ages.
b astide, which in Northern France takes the form of means simply a fortress. Here, as in the far east and in the north, the primary motive for the new foundation was military.
The word
bastille,
*ar
Some
bastides
were
set
upon the
frontiers
as
barrier fortresses.
to give
Others were erected over against an old town new lords trouble. All were possible refuges
likely
to the
the
countryside,
when
to his
invasion or civil
first.
war came.
It
But the economic motive loomed

settlers
large from the
paid a lord to attract

divert
and traders
own
town, and
to
commerce from the towns which
were self-governing or subject

strewn
so thickly over the
to his rivals.
Though
bastides were
map
that
of
came
real towns, yet the rarity
success
only a small proportion bemattered the less since
36

and the
risks
the profits of success were great,

siderable.
of failure
were inconin the
The
origin of the bastides of
Languedoc
is
to
be found
monasteries, possessing large days before the northern conquest tracts of lands and no tenants to till them, attracted settlers to their
estates
when
by
setting
up
little fortresses for
them
to live in
and
investing
the inhabitants with modest immunities.

south, the Counts of Toulouse, followed
The
greatest princes of the
and thus everything was easy when

brother Alfonse,
St.
on a larger scale, Louis, King of France and his

this policy
Count
of Poitiers, the inheritors of the results of the
northern conquest of
conscious
spoils of
Languedoc, became the pioneers of a more

plantation.
movement towards town

Languedoc which fell of his own. The
and
On
that part of the
to the king himself, St. Louis set

rest of the
new towns
to
country of
up Toulouse went
lines as
Alfonse of
Poitiers, the son-in-law
and successor
of the last native
Count
of Toulouse,
in this region
he worked on the same

If
his brother as a
founder of bastides.
the great king's bastides
were the more enduring and important, those of Alfonse were by far the more numerous. In a later generation, subsequent kings of France
inherited both brothers* work, and carried on their policy of
town
making.
Their example was followed by all the remaining feudal potentates of the south, notably by our Edward I, who in early man-
hood received from Henry III the Duchy of Gascony to support his state, and who, even before he was King of England, stepped into the
vacant by Alfonse's death in founder of bastides of his age.
place
left
1270, as the most active
Whoever was the builder, the bastides were devised after the same fashion. A site was procured, either on the founder's own lands, or
by arrangement with some local lord or prelate, who would gladly surrender some of his nominal rights over an unprofitmore
often
able estate on the chance of
its
being protected and developed by co-
operation between him and his powerful suzerain.
When
the
site
was
got, a
name was
1
chosen.
Sometimes
liberties
3
it
suggested the novelty
of the experiment,
sometimes the
it
sometimes the security

1
offered,
promised to the colonists," sometimes a special feature of its

2
Villeneuve.
Sauveterre, Salvatierra,
Villefranche.
Salvetat,
La Sauve, Le
Monsegur, La Garde.
t.
-.-.' T
=
l
1j
^_-
-.
MEDI/EVAL
1
TOWN PLANNING
37
2 name of its founder, sometimes a famous town of a distant region that made some special appeal to the projector/ always something either rather conventional or slightly bizarre. Then
site,
sometimes the
the founder or his agent set
up a pale
to
mark the
central
point of
the
new settlement. Then the town

this
planning began.
When
the ground allowed
it,
rectangular or square
though
site was was the normal shape, we have bastides
selected as the easiest to arrange/'
But
of all sorts of
eccentric outlines, as for example the exceedingly irregular Sauveterre 6 In any case the new town de Guienne, shaped almost like a pear.
was protected always by a wall and

castle in addition.
Any such defensive

The
by a citadel or works were commonly erected at

ditch, rarely
the charge of the founder.
fortifications
and the
site
were
in fact
the chief contributions of the founder to the making
of
the town.
Whatever the general outline of the 7 were always on the same principles.
in squares or oblongs,
bastide, the internal dispositions
Each new town was
plotted out
by straight streets, crossing each other at right angles, the main thoroughfares leading direct from the chief gates to the centre of the town. Here the important arteries of traffic, the
or carriage ways, met together in a central square, the themselves being often carried across each side of the square under arcades formed by a projection of the first floors of the surroundy
carneres
streets
ing houses, though in other cases the covered arcades

1
which were a
Miranda, Miranda, Beaumont, Mirabel, Miramont, Montjoie, Aigues Mortes. J Li bourne (Roger of Ley bourne), Nicole (Henry of Lacy, Earl of Lincoln), La Bastide de Baa (Bishop Burnell of iBath), Beaumarches (Eustace of Beaumarchais, seneschal of Philip III). * Cordes, Grenade, Hastingues, Pampelonne, Cologne, Plaisance,
Fleurance, Barcelonne, Boulogne. " 4 Hence the " new town of Pau (le pal) which
of
became
later the capital
Beam.
5
This is best illustrated at Montpazier, see the plan and description in See also plate Didron, Annales Arckeologiques, reproduced in plate HI.
IV
Ancient Town Planning, p. 144. well seen in the plan of Beaumont in Perigord (Dep. Dordogne), figured in Didron, Annales Archeologiques, VI. 78, where the restricted dimensions of the low plateau on which the little bastide was erected compelled all the blocks of houses to be arranged askew. For
7
of Cadillac (Gironde). b See its plan in Haverfield,
This
is
other analogous irregularities see the plan of Ste.
Foy
in ibid. X. 270.
38
general feature of the central piazza were of more restrained proporIn the area of the square the chief public building, the town tions.
hall,
was commonly placed, the ground

place,
floor,
open
at the sides, being
used as a covered market
while business was transacted in

is still
rooms
raised
above
it
on
pillars.
This plan
of
to
be seen
in
the
few surviving ancient town halls

country, notably
in
smaller boroughs in our
own
the west of England.
Round about
the square
the principal inhabitants erected their houses in the most convenient Hard by the chief square was a and open sites available for them.
smaller square wherein the parish church was placed. Lesser churches and minor public buildings were scattered through the town
according to accident.
Each
dwelling.
settler
received
it
block
of land,
wherein to
for
erect
his
Behind
was
generally
ample space
garden.
the chief
In
The
new
obligation to build a
house
at his
own
expense was
the
pledge of the good faith and

societies,
financial
little
stability of
settler.
where there was

But
looks as
social disparity,
each houseelse
allotment
in the
was
of similar size, as rectilineal in

it
if
shape as everything
bostide.
important people often got several

certainly the case in the English
It
allotments assigned to them, as
was
and Welsh towns formed

lated
after this model.

settlers*
was
carefully stipu-
by the founder that the
reasonable period. Thus of the house was to be finished within the

thirds within the second year.
If this
houses should be run up within a 1 in one group of has tide charters one- third
first
year,
and
two-
be completed
at the proprietor's
were done, the structure could But every householder discretion.

street-front of his allotment,
was bound
to garden,
to build over the
whole
and
sometimes also a minimum breadth of the house, backwards from
street
still
was
also
stipulated.
As
the normal
townsman was
primarily a cultivator, every settler received a grant of arable and pasture land, sometimes too an orchard or vineyard, in the neighbourhood of
These had been waste lands in many cases, and were now to be brought into cultivation by the labour of the new population thus attracted to the soil. As an inducement towards cutting down woodthe town.
land and turning

1
it
into agricultural land, bastide builders
were allowed
See the Charter of Saint Osbert in the diocese of Bazas in Roles Gascons, \\. 13 (1276). This clause was repeated in the Charter of Sauveterre, Gironde, ibid. \\. 200.
.'
-x
,-
-v'
li
3 s
3
'.>
>
JO
* i C
MEDI/EVAL
to take
TOWN PLANNING
39
from the
lord's forest the

1
timber from which their houses were
mainly constructed. The whole scheme was on a small
scale.
The main
roads are
to us excessively narrow, but the middle ages seldom used carts and carriages, and there was no problem of traffic congestion to be faced.
Moreover
in
a southern climate narrow streets shaded the burgesses
from the sun and protected them from the icy winds which are the The side streets were least pleasant form of the southern winter.
mere
lanes, accessible at the best to a
pack-horse or mule
at the
worst only traversable by the pedestrian. The bastide, even nowadays, is a picturesque place with a local
colour and atmosphere of
its
own.
It is
nearly always small
partly
made large towns almost impossible, and partly because bastide-[Q\m&ng was so easy that so many were set up as to make it out of the question for as many as one in ten to become even a modest success. Some bastides have disappeared altobecause mediaeval conditions
gether.
We
are ignorant even of the sites of several of the ring of

of
bastides, of
which the bastide
Bath was one, which surrounded

and rebellious
Bordeaux, doubtless with the object of destroying the commerce and
humbling the pride

it
of the self-governing
capital.
When
has continued
its
existence
till
now, the ordinary
successful bastide
remains a sleepy little place for all its old-world charm. You can bicycle or motor along the excellent roads of South- Western France, and see them by the score but when you have sampled half a dozen or so, you
;
have no
real
need
to pursue
your travels any

bastide
is
farther, since all are
much
alike.
The typical modern

little
at the best
"
very
chef lieu dc
canton," a
inhabitants.
is
The
to
market town of perhaps a couple of thousand or less larger agglomeration which has sprung from bastides
"
chef lieu d'arrondissement," a place running a population of ten thousand. Such is Edward I's perhaps up foundation of Libourne, a flourishing borough owing its prosperity to
represented
by the
its
the confluence of the Isle with the Dordogne, up which the small ships of the middle ages came, laden with corn or wool
magnificent
site of
from England, to receive their return cargo of wine

1
for the island
A convenient general treatise on bastides

les
is
Essai sur
to date
Bastides (Toulouse: Privat, 1880).

article
by the excellent
on bastides
A. Curie- Seimbres, may be brought up by A. Giry in La Grande

that of
It
Encyclopedic.
40
market.

Such too
is
Alfonse of
Poitiers'
most successful b as tide,
Villefranche de Rouergue.
Of
little
the
two
great foundations of St. Louis
Aigues Mortes
is
a bustling
place enough,
much more
active than
the sleepy bastides farther west, but it never succeeded in being the great Mediterranean port that its founder designed it to be, and therefore
its
main
to this day, the finest

its
massive walls and magnificent castle have been suffered to respecimen of a mediaeval walled town in
meadow and
beauty enhanced by the dreary waste of sand, marsh, flat more prosperous stagnant waters that encompass it. " " of Carcassonne, which St. new town history has attended the " Louis also established as a commercial borough, leaving the old city"
the world,
of
Carcassonne on
its fortified its
height
beyond the Aude
as the
abode
of
the clergy serving

of
churches and the soldiers guarding the noble ring
fortifications that
cities set
make
on
the cite of Carcassonne as unique

as
among
the fortified
hills
established in the plain.
Aigues Mortes is among the towns Yet from the thirteenth to the twentieth
itself all
its
is
century the
cite.
"
In the
its
middle ages the

cloth
ville" of Carcassonne attracted to " "
the
life of
the
perity to
industry
in
new town owed our own days it

But it
still
size
and
pros-
the flourishing
capital of the
department
it
of the
Aude.
retains the
first
town plan
measured
designed for
out
its
by the officers of St. Louis

off its
when they
streets
and staked
building lots in the years immediately
succeeding 1248. I have mentioned
Edward
as an active founder of bastides in
France, and it would seem natural now to turn from foreign instances and ask how far town planning was extended by him or others into
the England which he
was soon
called
upon
to rule.
have already
shown
Norman Conquest there was a good deal of town and probably town planning, on a modest scale in Britain. founding, But with the establishment of the strong centralized monarchy, which
that after the
resulted
from
the Conquest, the chief need
for this passed

it
away.
The
unnecessary for the cultivator to seek, like his foreign counterpart, for a home within the walls of a privileged borough, and there were no wildernesses, desolated
reign of
real
law was
enough
to
make
till
crying aloud for new towns to protect the farmers enticed to the neighbouring lands. There were few frontiers to defend or invaders to drive out. There were, moreover, no English towns, not even London, with privileges so strong that, like the cities of
by war,
Glad ere
Place de
Hotel deVille
V. AlGUES
MORTES (GARD) (WESTERN HALF)

".
(From Didron
".Annales archôlogiques
X.
Paris, 1856)
J
>
MEDI/EVAL
TOWN PLANNING
41
Gascony and Languedoc, they could tempt kings and princes to set up rivals over against them. It was enough then for England that from
time to time villages should receive the modest privileges of a country But neither the borough from the king or their immediate lords.
process which in our
neighbourhood gave charters to Salford, Manchester, and Stockport, nor the extension by charter of wider priv-
own
ileges to the greater cities involved
any town Newtowns," as they were often called, were set planning. Towns, as up, and one of these was Liverpool, which started on its career
much town founding
or
"
a foundation of King John, who,
when
still
only Count of Mortain,
set
it up as a port for the lands between the Ribble and Mersey of which But there is no evidence of town planning, he was then the lord.
and
it is
unlikely that
any systematic laying out was attempted.
It
required something exceptional for mediaeval
England
to witness a
town
Such exceptions occurred now and then in the deliberately planned. case of an individual town they once arose in relation to a great
;
district.
We
can,
therefore,
illustrate the accidental
foundation of
an exceptional town from the case of the foundation of new Salisbury early in the reign of Henry III, and the comparatively wholesale foundation of
fall
towns by the
real b as tides in
North Wales,
set
up when the
of the last native
Welsh
I,
dominions by
to establish in
Edward
prince secured direct possession of his under circumstances that tempted the monarch
less lavish
Wales bastides with a hand only
than that
which had scattered new towns over Gascony. Edward also set up two new towns in England
thirteenth century examples,
all
Later in his reign

itself.
From
these
involving
town foundation, we can
illustrate the extent
town planning as well as which our own land took

during our period.
of
part in the systematic laying out of
new towns
New
Salisbury, the bastides of
Hull and
New
North Wales, the English bastides Winchelsea must now engage our attention.
or
Old
typical
Salisbury,
Old Sarum,
castle,
as
it
is
generally called,
was a
flat
hill
town, wherein a
a cathedral, and the houses of the

of
inhabitants were
crowded within the narrow compass

mount.
its
the
summit
of a steep
By
the thirteenth century the cramped
site
was
motley population, which complained, moreover, that there was no water and too much wind on its bleak height.
too small for
Two
miles to the south the bishops possessed a rich stretch of
meadow
land watered by the Avon.
Already many
citizens
had sought more
42

1
commodious quarters in the plain, when in 220 Bishop Richard le Poer resolved to transfer his cathedral there. The first stone of the new church was laid, and ample space was left round it for the green
close
which
is
still
one of the
glories of the
new
Salisbury of the
To the south the bishop's palace was also set in great gardens plain. while to the north the bishop planned a new city, big enough to entice the
men
of
Old Sarum
to
to desert their
attractive
enough
tempt traders
and
settlers
overcrowded upland, and from every side, and in
particular to take
away
the trade of the flourishing borough of Wilton
some three miles
to the west.
The same
large ideas that inspired the

to lay out
erection of cathedral, close,

his
and palace, induced the bishop

Its straight-cut
1
new
city
on an ample
scale.
roads and chess-board

the bastide type
plan of allotments
pose conscious
showed
that as early as
220
or
was
In-
quite well recognized
and willingly adopted, though we must not supeither
imitation of
ancient
foreign models.
streets were wider than most ancient or mediaeval towns, more spacious than the lower town of Carcassonne, built thirty notably But in England years later, and its nearest continental counterpart. " there was no great need for fortifications. "deep and strong
deed the
ditch, diverted
the north
and
from the Avon, afforded such sufficient protection on east sides that the citizens never troubled themselves to
On other sides build the wall they were authorized to construct. the "fair streets" the Avon itself was a sufficient bulwark. Within,
excited the admiration of the traveller
Leland
when he
visited
the
place over three centuries later " " the little streamlets running
frequent feature of
he was pleased at down every street, which are still a Leland admired too the market the modern city.
;
and
in particular
place, set out after the bastide fashion in the centre of the city,
fair
"
very
large and well watered with a running streamlet," having in " " and in another one corner the town hall strongly builded of stone the chief parish church. By 1 227 new Salisbury had arisen so far that a
and
royal charter gave all the liberties of Winchester and the privileges of " " a Ere long Old Sarum was free city to the bishop's new venture.
deserted save
by the
castle garrison,
and Edward
III
allowed the
dean and canons to use the Norman cathedral on the height as a quarry for stones to repair the most homogeneous and best planned of
English cathedrals, which lay beyond the greatest triumph of
1
town
Leland, Itinerary,
I.
258-9, ed. L. T. Smith.
. .
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-^'t^ _pJocf
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^Sf^6f5
^r
VII. SALISBURY
(MODERN)
(From "The Ordnance Survey of England and Wales")
if
'
'
"
VIII. FLINT
(SEVENTEENTH CENTURY)
,
(From Speed: "Theatre of
Great Britaine
".
London, 1676)
MEDI/EVAL
TOWN PLANNING
43
Before long the great western planning that mediaeval England saw. road was diverted from its steep course up and down Old Sarum
and conducted through the bishop's new city. This drove away traffic from Wilton and soon transferred the commerce of the eponyhill,
mous borough
trict
of the
Wilsaetas to
its
modern
rival.
Irritated at the
loss of customers, the
men
of
Wilton
strove to force traders of the dis-
to attend
their
markets and
there,
and there
only, expose their
But beating and bullying merchants is not in the long goods for sale. In a few generations Wilton run a good way of attracting trade. became the tiny townlet that it still remains, its life blood having
been almost as much absorbed into Salisbury as that of
itself.
Old Sarum
The
tical
foundation of
new
Salisbury
It
and economic motives.

and traders
in
was based on purely ecclesiaswas necessary to find room and com-
The a well -planned city of the plain. It was otherwise unimportant castle could safely remain on the hill. with the new towns which Edward I established in North Wales after
fort for clergy
the
fall
of
Llewelyn ap Gruffydd.
In each case alike continental

If
parallels force themselves
upon our attention.
Salisbury anticipates
Carcassonne, the Edwardian towns in

conditions of the
Wales
exactly reproduce the

I
many
bastides that
Edward
had delighted
to set
Here, as in Aquitaine, the military motive was Gascony. and second to it was the economic motive emphasized by the supreme, " desire of the Englishman, already rather a superior person," to teach
up
in
"civility" to the
English soldiers,
"wild Welsh" by the stimulating example of the traders, and clergy whose business was to direct them,
not necessarily too gently, in the right way.

for burgess-ship of
No Welshman
for
need apply
towns which were meant
"
"
only.
lots,
These
latter
were attracted
till
into
good Englishmen exile just as in Gascony, by town
large grants of lands to

of the district,
outside the walls, a
monopoly
social
of the
commerce
as
and
as
many economic and
privileges
There was always a castle with a permanent garrison. The constable of this castle was ex officio mayor of the little borough to which it stood As there was nothing, either then or later, to make as its citadel.
of the borough.
were compatible with the military unity
such towns very large, the tourist can

castles,
much
as they
Let us begin at
still study their plan, walls, and were devised by their town planners. Flint, a place which had not even a name in
44
1

town
of the
1277, but which a few years later was a flourishing bastide, the
shire
new dependent
extension of
a sort of
Welsh
county of Flint, which became Edward's own Cheshire palatinate.

its
Though modern
industrialism has reared
hideous head
all
around,
we
can
still
make
out the line of the
streets,
drawn
at right angles
from each other and leading up to the

ruin.
is little
castle, majestic
even
in its
A few miles farther west, Rhuddlan shows

should transfer his see.
its castle,
but there
to
town planning now visible in the village that Edward wished make a real town, and to which he desired that the Bishop of St.
But
Asaph
we must
to
cross the
Conway
itself
to see
its
Edward's Welsh bas tides

glorious castle
at their best,
Conway
with
The triangular shape dominating both river and town. " " of the borough the form of a Welsh harp is the of deright way
has not prevented the geometrical planning of the streets and plots in rectilinear lines. Still better does the bastide plan come out in Carnarvon, a town that had more of a future before it, as the
scribing
it
capital of
successes of the
North Wales, than its eastern sisters. These are the Edwardian policy the failures as in Gascony were
;
even
more numerous.
at
Later than
1284 Edward
set
up a new
his son, as
castellated
others by the Black Prince. Then in town planning ceased by the middle of the England Gascony fourteenth century. The king was not the only town founder in
;
borough and prince and king

as in
Beaumaris, others
still
were made by
and Western Wales, the lords marcher continued the policy which had begun in Norman days. Llewelyn himself strove as late as 273 to set up at Abermule a castle, town
Wales.
In Southern
1
and market
in rivalry
to the castle,
town and market
of the king at
Montgomery.^
We are lucky in
these
having more details as to the process by which

their continental
Welsh towns were made than we have of many of
elder brethren.
as regards the
Nearly every point that I have mentioned already Gascon group was reproduced in the North Welsh
variety of the
same type. The similarity of plan applied not only to the general outline but to the detailed plots assigned to the individual " settlers. The " placeae of Gascony are reproduced, even in name,
G. Edwards, " The Name Historical Review, XXIX. 315 (1914). '
1
See
"
of Flint Castle
in
for this J.
English
Cal. Close Rolls, 1272-9, p. 51.
MEDI/EVAL
in the little
TOWN PLANNING
in
45
borough of Newborough
but they are
Anglesea, a foundation of
more generally known as "burgages". Edward II, at Carnarvon comparison between the two groups will show that, while " " and Criccieth the individual burgage was 80 x 60 feet, at Beaumaris
there
was
the
The
charters of a group of
is first,
same length but only half the breadth, namely 40 feet. Gascon towns of which that of Sauveterre
assigned the settlers
the
de Guienne
x 60.
2
"
places" of 24 x 72
either
feet,
while at Valence d'Agen

It is
places
were
24
60
or
not likely that a
"
foot" of exactly the same length
36 was
used in Gascony and England, but even allowing for this it is clear " " was a smaller allotment than the north that the Gascon place " Welsh burgage ". It naturally, therefore, paid a much lower rent. But the mass of the bastides were not likely to become more than
agricultural villages,
and the north Welsh towns were
to
be peopled
by a dominant race, drawn from a distance and needing more inducement to accept the painful, if sometimes profitable, role of posing as
pioneers of
person, serfs
an alien
civilization.
In the
in
included, were welcomed

to free
same way any reputable a bastide^ while the Welsh

like
borough was limited

forbidden
all
Englishmen, Jews,
Welshmen, being
entrance.
An
site
essential element in
town planning
is
the selection of a good

of attaining greatness.
on which a new foundation has a chance
The Gascon
bastides were scattered too thickly to
make their positions
anything but matters of accident, though sometimes, as in the case of Libourne, Edward or his agents showed a real eye for a site, marked
out by nature for an important town.
in
The
maturer work of
Edward
North Wales may well claim

or
to
in the selection of
"
good
localities for
have been distinguished by insight The nameless potential towns.

earliest
rock,
the Flint," where
Edward's
foundation arose,
the head of
commanded
the estuary of the lower Dee.
Rhuddlan was
the navigation of the

in the size of ships,
Clwyd.
It
prospered greatly until the increase
silting up of the river left the borough and dry, so that the suggestion that the deserted high village was ever a seaport seems to modern visitors ridiculous. The advantage of the site of Conway, dominating the passage of a broad river and providing access from the further bank to the mountain of Snowdonia, and the attractions of Carnarvon and Beaumaris, the two
and the
protecting
II.
Roles Gascon,
II.
13, 201.
Ibid.
209.
46

Straits, are
obvious on the face of things. And that Edward took pains with his choice of sites is clear from the trouble lavished and the misunderstandings faced when he chose as the site of
banks of the Menai
Con way
the hallowed Cistercian monastery which
was
the favourite
foundation of the
pelled to provide
Welsh princes, with the a new home for the monks
result that
he was com-
higher up the stream in a
position of less military
chosen, such as that
and economic importance. of Bere amidst a wilderness

into existence.
When a bad site was

of hills in Merioneth,
the
for
perhaps claim touch of that instinct in choosing town sites which is a rarer gift for the town planner that the mechanical measuring out of " " straight lines and right angles in plotting the roads and burgages within
town simply never came
We may
Edward a
the walls.
great
To
see this gift in perfection

of antiquity
town planners
insight
we must who have left

I's
go back to the two

their
names
in the
Egyptian Alexandria and
in Constantinople.
The same
when,
plan
marked Edward
of
after the conquest

in
his
work on the rare occasions Gwynedd, he had an opportunity to
new towns
own
English realm.
Among
his claims to
fame is his foundation of Hull, or to give it its full title the Kingstown on the Hull, with Liverpool one of the very few of the greater historic towns of England that can boast, or lament, a founder. Two events had
drawn Edward to the North. There was the Scottish trouble, which demanded his best efforts after 290 and brought him and the whole machinery of state to York for years on end. There was also the lapse
1
to the
Albemarle, whose great Now the old lordship of Holderness was thus made royal domain. of Holderness was Ravenser, now buried beneath the sea, and port
of the inheritance of the earls of
Crown
already dropping
by degrees
into the
muddy
H umber.
With
the view
of providing a successor to Ravenser,
York and
pours
the
its
the interior,
waters into
and a port more accessible from Edward chose a site where the little river Hull The angle between the two the Humber.
rivers, just
west of the Hull and north of the Humber, belonged to

of the
neighbouring monastery of Meaux, and its advantages had already brought a few houses, ships and traders to the spot. 1 But
monks
Col. Patent Rolls, 1281-92, pp. 270, 278, 354, and Cat. Close Rolls, 1288-96, pp. 9, 101, 261, show that there was some population and trade at Wyke before 1290 and that it was sometimes called Hull. In 1279 the
monks
of
Meaux had
II.
a charter permitting a weekly market at
Wyke
(Cal.
Charter Rolls,
214).
MEDI/EVAL
about February,
1
TOWN PLANNING
as
it
47
293,
it
Wyke,
1
was then
called,
was a humble
to negotiate
enough place,
and
was
therefore not hard for
Edward
Once secure of the coveted position, its exchange for other lands. Four months he immediately set forth to found a new town upon it. after the transfer, he gave Wyke the new name of the Kingstown on deviation the Hull, and proclaimed two weekly markets there.
of the
Hull
gave
it
water protection on
all
sides,
and provided
for
our
city.
own age
It
a complete ring of docks, round the nucleus of the modern was a new Libourne in a colder and flatter land. The site
was
laid out with
Aquitanian
regularity
and the vast
offices
and
warehouses that
in the
between the docks and the

Edward's great church
from the
modern town now take up the narrow space umber, and are still grouped round
of the
Holy
Trinity, cannot altogether conceal
historic tourist the fact that
town
still
the oldest part of the modern follows the lines of a normal bastide, with its chess-board
its
pattern,
and
central
A feature in the construction was that

which brick was the
all
market square on which abuts

it
its
chief church.
chief building
was the first English town in material, much of Trinity Church,

then or
later, built
the
town
3
gates,
and many
the time "
of the houses being,
of bricks."
By
299
" 4 free borough with extensive franchises. So thoroughly Kingston a did Edward provide for the needs of the new port that, like the bishops of Salisbury, he diverted and constructed high roads to give access to
5 it.
was ripe
for
a royal charter constituting
By
a master-stroke of policy he enticed the chief merchant of
Ravenser, William de la Pole, to throw his interest into Kingston by granting him the manor of Myton, included in the King's purchase
^Chron.
of view.
2
de Melsa,
II.
186-92,
tells
the story from the
Meaux
point
Cal. Close Rolls, \ 288-96, This order of 1 July, 1 293, to prop. 292. " claim throughout Yorkshire the holding of two markets a week in the King's " town of Kingston-on-Hull is the first evidence of the new name that I have
come
3
across.
I. 49-50, ed. L. T. Smith. Charter Rolls, II. 475-6, dated April, 1299. Ravenser was compensated by a duplicate charter, issued the same day (ibid. p.
Leland, Itinerary,
It is
in Cal.
See Cal. Patent^ Rolls, 1301-7, p. 191, instruction of 16 May, 1303, to royal officers, appointed to survey and arrange the roads to the new town of Kingston-on-Hull, to inquire where it will most benefit the town and merchants for roads to be made, and whether on the king's land or on that of
others.
48

There Pole erected a
stately
from Meaux.
their migration to
London
in the next generation,
mansion which, until became the head-
quarters of the
first
great house of merchant princes
known
to mediaeval
England. Pole's son, another William, became first Mayor of Hull in The identification of the Pole family with the royal foundation 1322.
secured the thorough exploitation of the King's favour and the natural
of
advantages
its
swallowed up by between Newcastle and Lynn.

In southern that
century later Ravenser was the sea, Hull stood without a rival among the ports
position.
When
England another famous port was already enduring was soon to be meted out to Ravenser. This was Winchelsea, or more precisely Old Winchelsea, a town then situated on a low cliff off the East Sussex coast, which had long been crumbling into the sea, and over whose site nowadays the German submarine
the fate
may
still
perchance have
efforts to
torpedoed
many
a
1
harmless
merchant- ship.
its
After vain
prop up the old town,
Edward encouraged
site of their
prosperous inhabitants to change bodily the
borough.
He
chose for their
new home
the
wooded
hill
of
Iham.
This emi-
nence rose steeply above the broad estuary then formed by the river
Brede so that the
site,
though raised above
all
danger of
It
1
flood,
was
ac-
cessible for sea-going craft
and
easily defensible.
lay
some three
miles north-west of
Old Winchelsea.
1
As
1
early as
rected his steward to obtain

suitable
chester,
by purchase or In 28 he nominated Stephen of Penfor the new town. I tier of Angouleme and Henry le Waleys to assess certain
1
280 Edward diexchange land at Iham
"places," that is "burgages" or building sites, and to let them for " " a of Winchelsea. barons and good men building at a fixed rent to the
4 more properly called Penshurst, was warden of the Cinque Ports, and it is significant that the second commissioner, I tier, was a Gascon of wide experience in has tide building, while the third, Henry le Waleys, was a great London merchant with close Gascon
Penchester,
connexions,
1
who had been mayor
of
Bordeaux
as well as of
London.
For instance, Cat. Pat. Rolls, 1272-81, p. 151. *Ibid. 1281-92, p. 3. P 144. 4 was called Penchester by contemporaries, but so was the Stephen place now called Penshurst in Kent, which gave him his name, where he lived and was buried. It is better therefore to call him by the modern form of the place name.
Ibid.
.
MEDI/EVAL
Yet
It
TOWN PLANNING
for
49
fruitless.
all
these
if
efforts
remained
two
or
three
years
looks as
of
Old
the king tried to drive too hard a bargain with the Winchelsea, and that they were too wary to accept his
men
first
offers.
Anyhow
and
in
284
fuller
commission was appointed with
greater powers
ing
and Waleys were associated with Gregory of Rokesley, the actual mayor of London, to " the king is orderplan and assess the new town of Iham which to be built there for the barons of Winchelsea, as that town is aldiscretion.
In this Penshurst
is in danger of total ready in great part submerged by the sea and " The commissioners were to plan and give directions submersion ". streets and lanes, for places suitable for a market, and for the
'
necessary
for
two churches
to assign
to
be dedicated to
St.
Thomas
barons
of
Canterbury and
St. Giles, the
were also
"
petent
patron saints of the two and deliver to the said

sites,
parishes in the old town. " "

of
They
1
Winchelsea com-
places," or building
these minute directions

scious
we
still
In according to their requirements. have the most detailed evidence of conthat the age
town planning by royal authority

also that the king
far
was
to witness.
Note
sion
kept the
site in his
own
hands.
"
How
is
Penshurst and the two Londoners discharged their mis-
not known.
But
it
looks as
if
the "barons
clung as long as
been afraid
lord of the
they could to their old abodes, the more so as they may still have of entrusting themselves to the absolute control of the royal
new borough. However in 1 287, when a mighty inundation threatened to sweep Gascony,
logged remnants of
Edward was
away
in
the water-
Old Winchelsea, and

of
after that
no more delay
was
John Kirkby, possible. Bishop of Ely, the treasurer, was, either now or earlier, assigned to the " " 2 But he seems to have thought that the of the new town. ordering
strongest ministers,
One
Edward's
best
way of getting the thing done was to let the persons chiefly concerned have a preponderating share in the management of the new venture. Accordingly in 1 288 the regency, of which Kirkby was perhaps " the leading spirit, handed over Iham hill to the barons of Winchelsea,"
save some ten acres reserved for the king's use. their taking up their abodes in the new town, they were to enjoy the same liberties that
On
they had had before at

1
Old Winchelsea. 3 The effect

2
.
of this
was that the

.
CaL Patent Rolls, 1281-92, PP 81-2. Ibid. 1301-7, P 185. *Cal. Fine Rolls, I. 249 (23 June, 1288). An earlier cancelled order of 21 June is in Cal. Close Rolls, 1279-88, pp. 509-10.
4
50
washed-out burgesses were to be secure of their old franchises and to From this point onwards the participate in the laying out of the town.
greater liberality of the administration
and the growing cruelty
of the sea
combined
to accelerate the progress of the
new
venture.
Iham,
now
New Winchelsea, was duly

after the fashion of
laid out into thirty-nine chequers or squares
Gascony and Gwynedd.
But
certain deviations
from the normal bastide plan, noted by local
historians,
may
perhaps
be due to the
gesses,
irregularity of the site
and the prejudices
of the bur-
out the
though they are more likely the result of the king's wish to lay new nest as much like the old one as possible, to tempt the
it.
timid fledglings to take up their quarters in

1
Power
to wall
the
town was given to the burgesses. Along the western and only exposed side a moat was drawn. Strong gates, soon to be supplemented by a
wall, barred access to the borough.
chelsea had so far
for the
Magnificent churches,
friaries,
and
public buildings arose under the king's
own
it
eye.
By 297 New Win1
come
into being that
could afford accommodation
embarkation of the great host which
harbour to Flanders.
active of the local
Edward led from its Edward made terms with the most Hull, The house of Alard, who stood to magnates.
As
in
Winchelsea as the Pole family stood to Hull, had already fought in his wars and soon had custody of the town for life. prosperous
seemed assured, but before very long the sea played almost as cruel a trick on New Winchelsea as it had played on its predecessor. The harbour silted up the waters retreated leaving the town high
future
;
and dry on
neighbour Rye over the marshes that now fill up the site of the harbour where ships had once sailed and anchored. New Winchelsea, therefore, ceased to be a
its hill,
its
and looking towards
port
and soon
also
it
ceased to be a town.
its
In the magnificent fragment

;
of St.
Thomas' Church, with
matchless series of Alard tombs
one standing forlorn in the fields far from human habitation, and above all in the signs of town plots that can the traveller still be discerned in land now given over to husbandry
in the remaining gates,
can
still
see suggestions of the sometime greatness of the most elaborate

of
scheme
There
town planning ever devised even by Edward I. is another town planning scheme of Edward
fully realized, but
in history.
I,
which
con-
was perhaps never

1
which nevertheless had some

first
permanent importance
Cat.
As
a result of Edward's
p.
Patent Rolls, 1292-1301,
147 (1295).
MEDI/EVAL
quest of Scotland in
1
TOWN PLANNING
51
296, Berwick- on-Tweed, up to that date the
chief commercial centre of southern Scotland, fell into his hands.
The
king had prescience enough to foresee future troubles with Scotland,
and we may
feel sure that

site
the peninsula
the strategic and commercial advantages of of Berwick, on the tongue of land between the
Tweed and
the sea,
made
Hull, and Winchelsea.
appeal to the founder of Libourne, Accordingly he resolved to make it an

its
English town and outpost of English influence.
This involved the
displacement of the Scottish population and the assignment of their homes to English settlers, to attract whom a new constitution for the
town was clearly

it
necessary.
For
all
these objects a wise king thought
prudent to take the best advice

his
he could procure.
Accordingly,
while on
way
south back from his recent conquest,
Edward
to
issued
writs ordering representatives of the chief
towns
in
England
meet
him at Bury St. Edmunds, to which place also a general parliament was summoned for 3 November, 296. Though many of the towns sent their citizens and burgesses to this assembly, Edward's con1
though meeting at the same time and place, was constituted by other persons than those sent to represent the same Constituencies in the Parliament. By a writ of privy seal of 21 " four wise men of the September, London was ordered to elect
sultative council,
most knowing and most

order and array a
sufficient
who know
most
best
how
to
devise,
new town
to the
profit of the king

St.
and
of
merchants".
These were
to attend at
Bury
Edmunds on
exactly
the
appointed date, and be ready to proceed elsewhere on wherever the king may enjoin them to go. knew
this business
We
how
There were summoned on 22 October the aldermen and four good men of each ward of the city, and these unanimously selected the four experts in new towns
planning
the Londoners carried out the order.
who were
to
help the king
in his
mysterious and unnamed new
venture in town making. 1
more normal
writs
to
and boroughs
Yet this was not all, for three days later " of summons were issued to twenty- three other cities send to Bury two representatives each, whose
its return are printed in Palgrave, Parliamentary 49 and in Munimenta Gildhalla Londoniensis. Liber Castumarum, II. i. 77-8 (Rolls Ser.). 2 See Par/. Writs, I. 49. These were letters close under the great
writ and
;
Writs,
I.
seal after the usual fashion.
52
qualifications

were described
in exactly the
writ.
London
We may
pause to
same language as in the marvel on the stir it would make

importance from London at a few weeks' notice fifty
nowadays to Dunwich, being called upon to produce experts in town planning to help the king
shows
for twenty-four towns, ranging in
to plan a
new town
It
how town
planning was in the
air,
though few of the persons

at
selected
had any personal experience
in the business save
two
citizens of
New
Salisbury,
who when
home
perhaps the had always before
them the great town planning experiment of their grandfathers* days. Unluckily little came of the deliberations at Bury St. Edmunds.
The experts doubtless
Further provisions On 1 5 Novemfor advising the king had consequently to be devised. ber Edward summoned from Bury a new assembly to meet him on 2
January,
to be.
1
1
met, but they settled nothing.
297, at whatsoever place in England he might then happen This time the king tore asunder the transparent veil of
secrecy which, then as now, seems to
almost for
its
own
list
sake.
The business for
be worshipped by statesmen this assembly was to advise
the king as to a certain ordinance for his
town
to
of
Ber wick- on-T weed.
send representatives, was upon very different, Winchelsea and eight fresh boroughs coming in while Also the selection of exSalisbury and twelve others dropped out. even perts by public meeting seems not to have been a success
Moreover the
of towns, called
On this occasion the king might be a risky method nominated the persons he wanted and addressed special writs to them.
nowadays
it
!
device he at least procured the services of some experts, for he summoned Henry le Waleys, the sometime joint-planner of Winchel-
By
this
sea,
now
again
Mayor
of
London, and Thomas Alard, Warden

leading citizen.
of
Winchelsea
for life,
and
its
by promising that he would not It was keep the assembly longer from its homes than he could help. now summoned to Harwich, whither the king had removed. But when
Edward made
the business easy
the
seem
later
town planners came on 2 January, if they did come, to Harwich, they to have soon shuffled out of their responsibilities, for a fortnight
Edward
issued a third set of
summonses
for another assembly, this
time to be held at Berwick

tatives of selected
itself in
April, to
which
specified represen-
towns on the north-east coast from Newcastle to

to
Lynn, with Oxford thrown in rather inexplicably, were

*Parl. Writs, 1.49-50.
be summoned
MEDI/EVAL
through the
the resettling of Berwick
TOWN PLANNING
1
53
sheriffs of their respective shires.
The
only outcome was

of
1
by Englishmen and the new charter

2
302
which made Berwick a free borough ". I cannot find that any real town planning was attempted, and there is little in the alignments of the m< dern town to suggest that it was. The important result was Its formal the permanent detachment of Berwick from Scotland.
inclusion in
"
a thing of our own day. After the conquest of Calais in 1347, Edward
England
is
III,
following his
grandfather's Berwick plans, displaced the French burgesses

settlers.
by English
planning, as the still abiding streets of the old town of Calais, between the rail way- station and the
there
real
Here
was
town
But we have now got at the very verge of the golden age of mediaeval town planning, whose extreme limits we may put roughly between 220 and 350. In the declining middle ages town
sea,
continue to
testify.
destruction
is
tradition lingered
more conspicuous than town making yet enough of the on to survive in some well -planned towns of the
;
sixteenth century, such as Leghorn,

at
and to inspire the Dutch to repeat Batavia in Java and the English Colonists to revive in North America the rectilineal plans of the middle ages. But, as experts tell
the
first
us,
boards in
European adventurers found towns planned like chessYou Mexico, as they had previously been found in China.
may
decide as you will as to
how
far there
was any
merit in their
which they were placed.

hoc," and, just as
doing the obvious thing for sensible men under the circumstances in " " " Post hoc is not necessarily propter
we must not affiliate the planned towns of the middle ages too meticulously to the planned towns of antiquity, so we must not lay excessive stress on the continuation of the mediaeval
tradition
in
modern
times.
But there
is
is
this
to
be
said for the
later case of continuity, that there
a continuous history between the

us,
mediaeval and the modern town which makes
whether
we
like
it
or not, the necessary children of the middle ages. Between the towns of the Romano- Greek world and ourselves, the barbarian invasions have
drawn a deep gulf. Such was mediaeval town

it
planning.
When we
have said about
all
Only
tions
in
we can, it remains the exception rather than the rule. a few special districts, and under specially favourable condidid the "new towns," artificially created, become important
that
Parl.
Writs,
I.
51.
Cal.
Charter Rolls,
III.
27-8.
54
enough

to bulk
town
"
large in history.
Even then
the successful
"
new
was generally something
that replaced a former
town
rather
than an entirely new creation, a new Carcassonne on the plain absorbing the business of the old Carcassonne on the hill, a new Winchelsea sedulously following the traditions
of the old Winchelsea, swallowed up by the sea, a Kingston-on-Hull carrying on the trade of Ravenser engulphed in the waters of the umber, an English Berwick
and an English Calais continuing the activities of the Scottish Berwick and French Calais. Perhaps we could claim more for the
mediaeval town planner if we extended our categories and included in our lists new quarters of old towns, planned after approved models,
the mediaeval equivalents,
let
us say, of the
new town
of
Edinburgh.
Boulogne- sur-mer, called the quartier des carreaux by reason of the mathematical regularity
of
its rectangular streets and building blocks, a regularity only departed " from when the prudent town planner introduced here and there a lying corner," a coin menteur, an artificially devised irregular twist to protect
Such were the older
parts of the lower
town
of
those using
its
streets
from the
full
force of the wind.
Such too was the
new
quarter of the city of Amiens, to the south of its great cathedral. This district was planned in the fifteenth century on the site of the ancient ramparts demolished at that period in order to extend the circumfer-
ence of the
city.
So well was the work done
that the chief street
of this quarter, the
chief artery of traffic in

retains substantial
des Trois Cailloux, remains to this day the Amiens, and with the neighbouring streets still traces of the town planning activity of its fifteenth
Rue
century founders.
Further examples could easily be given, but these
perhaps are enough to illustrate a subsidiary point.

reconstruction of an old
Perhaps
also the
town
after
its
destruction
by warfare
or
some
natural conversion
know
by
that after
Black Prince in
St. Louis.
may well have proceeded on similar lines. the burning of the lower city of Carcassonne by the 355, it was rebuilt exactly on the plan laid down
1
We
Whether
the same happened after
Milan was
rebuilt
when
1
laid
waste by Frederick Barbarossa,
we
have probably no data
For Boulogne and Amiens see C. Enlart,

II.
II.,
franâise,
section,
Manuel d? archeologie Architecture civile et militaire, pp. 238-40. M. Enlart's "fondation et plan de villes," etc., pp. 237-48, contains an
of the effects of mediaeval
excellent
summary
town planning with
interesting
illustrations.
MEDI/EVAL
to determine.
TOWN PLANNING
reconstruction
set
55
give a good
While any such
would
it
chance
for co-operative effort,
we must
against
the intense inineffec-
dividualism of the mediaeval

tiveness alike of a mediaeval
town owner and the comparative
army
to destroy a solidly built
structure
of
and
of a mediaeval political authority to
compel general acceptance
a prearranged plan.
Allowing
for
all
these things,
it
still,
think, remains the case
that the greater mediaeval towns
grew by a natural process rather than
were made by a town planner.
When
that admirable scholar
Miss
Mary Bateson told us that mediaeval towns did not grow but were made, she had in her mind not the urban agglomeration but the legal
corporation.
The
"
technical
houses and the population grew they only became " when they had received their charter of borough
;
liberties or incorporation.
For us whose concern
is
with the mass of
streets
and houses and not with the
legal relations of the inhabitants
to the state in
stricted
which they were included, the point has only a reand limited application to the new towns and quarters of
which
towns
of
we have
already spoken.
natural growth naturally extended
The towns which developed by

themselves in
all sorts of
different
ways.
:
We
have seen
this
even
in
the case of bastides
and
"new towns"
But,
if
their general
shape varied
according to local conditions.

mitted at
all, it
any
the
generalization
may be
lawful to say that the

in outline,
may be pertown which was made
town which grew tended to assume a circular or elliptical shape and to extend itself in successive portions which often assumed a concentric pattern. Now and been devised like this. But this type of then a made town may have seems to me more characteristic of the town which grew of expansion itself than of a town which owes its origin to an act of creation.
was normally
rectilineal
Prof. Unwin in the able lecture already referred to gives numerous instances of the concentric type of mediaeval city formation, and has performed a valuable service in calling attention to them. Baghdad, the eastern
prototype of the
class,
the centre of which
was originally planned as an almost perfect circle at was the Khalif's palace, round which were public offices
and open spaces,
residential district
Governmental quarter being enclosed by a thin on the inner side of the circular wall. The commercial quarters arose later by concentric rings outside the original enceinte. See the plan in G. Le Strange, Bagdad during the Abbasid Caliphate, and an adaptation from it published in the Manchester Guardian of 12 March,
all this
56 Even

the obvious military advantages of a shape approaching the circle
did not outweigh the comparative simplicity of the simpler rectangular And, however you plan your original town, the town planner
shape.
never can
tell
how
or
where
it
will grow.
Even
the mediaeval town
planner was
often baffled
by
the capricious and unexpected forces that
controlled the building activities of the next generations.
The town
capable
planner under the modern conditions

of indefinite expansion, will
still
of vast agglomerations,
find this rock
ahead
of him.
in the
We have seen
ages.
It
that
town planning was the exception

its
middle
was
also limited in
scope as well as in
its
extent.
Here
the
town planners of the ancient and the mediaeval worlds were both in the same predicament. They confined their efforts to devising straight
streets of
width adequate
for their purpose, to providing building sites,
squares and open places, similar in type and regular in outline, to planning the town defences on lines corresponding to its interior
The modern town planner does all these things, except arrangements. the last, and he has only desisted from this since modern military
science has
as those of a
made the town fortifications Vauban or of a St. Louis.
of a
Brialmont as obsolete
And
sources.
he does these things on a larger scale and with greater reHe is not hampered by the need of crowding his population
together within the smallest possible area so as to

practicable
make
its
defence
by
limited
armed
force.
If
he has to deal with

to deal with a score
hundreds of thousands while

of hundreds,
his predecessor
had
he has
infinitely
greater control over the material with
which he
there
self
is
Yet is working, and by far greater authority at his back. a tendency for even the modern town planner to limit himin practice to the same categories followed by his predecessors.
Lancastrian might well, before August, 1914, have
A simple-minded
come back from Diisseldorf or Berlin, thinking that in following the model of the broad avenues, the leafy gardens, and the vast and
monumental tenements
planned
dreariness
of
German
and
city,
even the poorest quarters of the modern he had found the remedy for all the
for
all
irregularity,
the
mean
streets
and
festering
slums of the British manufacturing town.
No
doubt
we
should have
I am not 1917. altogether convinced by Mr. Unwin's explanation of the type arising in the west by reason of the deliberate adoption of eastern models.
MEDI/EVAL
TOWN PLANNING
57
done well had we had a quarter of the method and training, the foretown sight and the imagination that have characterized the German
planner.
But the philanthropist should not
forget that the vast tene-
ments
of
Germany may
If
hide
away overcrowding more

and
air
hideous,
and
homes more
Tyne,
moters,
cut off from life
than
is
we
find
even on the Tees,

its
or Clyde.
it
town planning
to realize the ideal of
pro-
must have a wider vision than vouchsafed to the Germans
of to-day, or to the city builders of the thirteenth century.
For the
little
problems which most vex the soul of the British social reformer made appeal to the men of the middle ages. The mediaeval town planner
had a
If he provided access to sources of limited sanitary outlook. water supply and gutters to carry away the rain water, he gave his If, too, he made modest provision for burgesses all that he wanted.
the cleansing of
the streets and prohibited pigs from haunting the
public ways, he thought that everything necessary had been done to secure public health. The men of the middle ages were charitable to
excess, but they
were
so accustomed to dwell in squalor
and discomfort,
and
to witnessing the hideous sufferings of the

ills
poor surrounding them,

Piously regarding
that they accepted all the
of life as inevitable.
these horrors as the visitation of Providence, devised perhaps to punish
them
for their sins,
they never conceived
it
was within
their capacity to
remedy
existing conditions in
any
radical sense.
The
philanthropic or
far in the
humanitarian motive underlying much of modern town planning was The problem of overbackground of the mediaeval mind.
ever, present to him.
crowding, the need of housing under healthy conditions were seldom, if For these reasons alone the modern social re-
former cannot expect to find much practical guidance from the town For those less severely practical it should planner of the middle ages.
ever be interesting to see
how the same problems present themselves, under different conditions, throughout all the ages. though
NOTE ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS.

town.
impossible as a rule to reproduce the precise plan of a mediaeval can only study them in modern survivals or in maps which are For this sufficiently old to represent substantially mediaeval conditions.
It
is
We
purpose the great contributions to cartography made in the early seventeenth century mainly by Dutch map makers and their German and English imitators are of great value. Luckily the conditions of town life were so stable in
58
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries that there is every reason to believe that such maps in many cases reproduce essentially the plan of the mediaeval
Whether the map drawer always took the trouble to be accurate is town. of course another matter, but even his imaginations are instructive to those who are seeking the general type rather than the exact topographical features
town. Moreover, the planned towns of the middle ages were so seldom prosperous and growing in modern centuries that the modern maps, whose precision is beyond question, can often confirm the accuracy of the old maps or suggest criticisms of them. For this reason some modern town plans have been figured, either as in the case of Salisbury for purposes of comparison, or as in the case of Winchelsea, because no really early maps are accessible. In some of the French bastides the dispositions are so
of a given
well defined that a theoretical plan might almost be devised. illustrations with a few notes on them is now appended.
I.
list
of
Breslau in the Early Seventeenth Century. [From Braun and Cologne, 1612-17.] berg: Civitates orbis terrarum.
Hohen-
II.
Vilna
in the
:
Early Seventeenth Century.

Civitates orbis terrarum.
[From Braun and HohenCologne, 1612-17.]

:
berg
III.
Montpazier (Dordogne).
xii.
[From Didron
Annales Archdologiques*
:
(1852).]
IV. Cadillac (Gironde). [From Braun and Hohenberg Civitates orbis The early seventeenth century terrarum. Cologne, 1612-17.] ducal palace and the town enceinte of the same date take away
visit to the place part of the effect of the original plan. rather suggests the impression that the elaborate defences are
due
at least in part to the
cartographer's imagination.
:
V. Aigues Mortes (Western
[From Didron Annales half) (Card). Here the modern conditions reproArchcologiqnes, x. (1850). duce with absolute precision the line of the ancient walls and in
The fortifications probability those of the original streets. are of the reign of Philippe le Hardi (1270-85).]
all
VI. Salisbury
.
.
.
in the
Seventeenth Century.
Great Britaine.
[From Speed Fol. 25.] London, 1676.
Theatre of
VII.
Modern
Salisbury.
[From The Ordnance Survey of England and
Wales]
VIII.
Flint in the Seventeenth Century.
Great Britaine.
IX. Carnarvon
. . .
[From Speed Theatre of Fol. 122.] London, 1676.

:
:
in the
Seventeenth Century.
Great Britaine.
Theatre of [From Speed Fol. 123.] London, 1676.
X. Hull in the Seventeenth Century.

Hollar,
c.
[From an engraving by Wenceslaus
1665.]
XL Modern
Winchelsea.
and Wales]
[From The Ordnance Survey of England
SOME EARLY JUD/EO-CHRISTIAN DOCUMENTS THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY.

EDITED WITH TRANSLATIONS BY
I.
IN
ALPHONSE MINGANA,
D.D.
A NEW
LIFE
OF CLEMENT OF ROME.
FOREWORD.
the above
title
we
in
present a
new
of
life
of
Clement
of
Rome, UNDER which

Za'faran, the
or
is
Clement the Doctor, the

the
library
original manuscript of
preserved ordinary residence of
the
monastery of
the
monophysite Patriarch of
Antioch.
It is
written on parchment
in Estrangelo characters
which
can hardly be
than the eleventh century, but being truncated at the end, the colophon which might have revealed something about its
later
is
provenance,
of hagiographical pieces,
It contains a precious collection consequently missing. under the general title of Book of Lives of
Saints.
has been carefully copied for me by Fr. Ephraim Barsom, the head of the West-Syrian press at Mardin. I examined myself the original, but was unable to fill the lacunae of the
The
text here printed
few words which here and there could not be deciphered. These words have almost completely faded away, and for their restoration
we
are reduced to a surmise.
In the text of the present edition
when
this restoration
word
did not lack probability, we have placed the restored between brackets but when such a restoration would, in our
;
judgment, have involved a mere conjecture,

to refer to
it
we have deemed
it
wiser
by the word
"
illegible," in the translation,
and by three
is
dots in the text.
Library, where it is placed at the end of some chapters of the works of Gregory of Cyprus (fourth In 1914 I published an English century) on Christian monachism.
translation of this
The copy transcribed from the now preserved in the John Ry lands
unique manuscript at Mardin
document (Expositor,
59
p.
227 sq) with a
short
60

containing the principal points of comparison with some
compositions.
in the
Foreword
early Christian
But
as
no serious judgment can be

its
formed of a writing
English translation
Burkitt has
absence of
original text,
present here
to the students of Christian antiquities the Syriac text
from which the

1
was
the
derived.
In his interesting Introduction to the
Acts
made
happy remark
If
that
Euphemia, F. C. the East has always been

of
is
famous
for the telling of tales.
this
remark
stories
given the
full
credit
which
it
deserves, very few apocryphal
would
afford insoluble
problems to hagiologists.
history of
saints
To
cast into the

is
mould
of a
mere
tale the
and
of
popular heroes
the favourite art of the

lives
Syrians,
who
count in their martyrologium scores of
of saints
which
in
later
Christendom.
generations have been made accessible to Western In this category are to be included the Acts of
of Edessene literature.
Judas Thomas, of Peter and Paul and of all the ancient productions So far as our knowledge goes this kind of
hagiology flourished from the third to the
fifth
century.
If
the psycho-
logical
mind
of the actual inhabitants of the country
be of any value
for our investigations of the early centuries
of our era,
and
if
the
present art of telling

its
a tale in Syria can have certain resemblance with

heroic age of
:
prototype
of the
Christianity,
the process of
its
evolution
would be
as follows
After the death of a hero,

father to son
his history
was
transmitted orally from
among
certain literary circles.
Several years later some

the hero on
other circles wished to

praise
know something about

by
his
first
whom
was
so skilfully lavished
enlightening such people and of writing

hero's exploits
admirers. The duty of down on parchment the
was
naturally incumbent on the persons belonging to
the
first
group of men, and preferably on a

intellectual proficiency
man who by
in
reason of
social standing or
was
a more favourable
position to perform the task.

this
The
accuracy of the history written in
way depended on the man who wrote it, on the distance which separated him from the hero, and on the personal authority of people who constituted the intermediary links separating him from the
hero.
This method proved very

the
successful
and was adopted

a
first
in
the
eighth recent
Muslim Syrians century by history of the founder of Islam and

1
as
his
basis
for
the
more
only
disciples.
The
Euphemia and
the Goth, p. 50.
EARLY JUD/EO-CHRISTIAN DOCUMENTS

difference
61
which distinguishes the Christian from the

is
Mohammedan
oral tradition,
tionists.
the mention,
in the latter, of
the intermediary tradi-
tians
This difference arose from the sceptical attitude of Chrisand Jews towards the new heroes of Southern and Central
Arabia.
The Muslim
and even
writers
were obliged
to give greater precision
and more
indifferent
actuality to their traditionists in face of people naturally

hostile.
The Muslim was
obliged to say
told
Peter
told Paul,
Paul told James, James told John, John
my
father,
and
my
father told
me
the Christian his predecessor, speaking to Chris:
tians,
could only say
it
has been
told, or
heard from some
friends,
or Paul said so,

ties
and could even sometimes dispense with all formaliand approach without compromise the subject he wanted to trans-
mit to posterity. In the development of this method certain bold writers could even
find their
way
for putting in the
mouth
of their hero
what post factum

of his
life,
they wanted him to have said in some circumstances making him tell his own story from beginning to end.
tine Homilies, Clement
770X1x779
aJj>,
or for
In the
Clemen-
'Eyw KX^/x^?, P&paiuv Recognitions the narrator wants him to begin with Ego Clemens in urbe Roma natus, ex prima cetate pudicitice studium gessi. All these methods of narration
is
made
to
say
and
in
the
are
simple ramifications of the art
of
story
telling,
and
constitute
an embellishment and an amplification of the fact that the narrator had not seen the hero whose life he was preserving for future
generations.
The
present
tales.
life
of
Clement
of
Rome
its
is
to
be classed
in this
category of
What
it
enhances
value are the similarities and
dissimilarities
which
offers
literature of the third century.
when compared with the Clementine Our document is more sober in detail
than both the Homilies and the Recognitions, lacking as it does scores of incidents which if not identical with the fantastic fairies of
the
Arabian Nights,
many
or the allegorical allusions
trees of animals of the
Acta Thomce,
yet
by
their curious
life
and genealogical mise en and adventures
scene, have
of the
points of resemblance with the
Twin of our Lord. The main points of difference between the already known Clemen1 .
tine literature
and our document may be summarized as follows Our document nowhere makes mention of Simon Magus who
:
62

l
Lipsius has since plays such an important role in Clement's life. 1872 believed that the magician Simon was to be regarded as a mythical person who has never existed, Simon being simply a pseudo-
nym
of the
Apostle Paul.
reasons.
Hort
with apparently good the theory of the absence of the magician's intercourse with Peter and
The document
story,
has tried to refute Lipsius' view here printed supports
Clement
in the original
form of the
and
this
induces us to suppose
that Simon's introduction in the scene might have been a late embellish-
ment
and
of the narrative.
2.
In
the
Clementine
literature
(Pair.
Gr&co-Lat.
;
I,
1359
the present docuII, 330) Clement's mother is called Mattidia ment calls her Mitrodora. Both names sound well, and it is impossible
by its would seem to be more likely. There MiOpas, is also a difference in the names of the other members of the family, for whereas the Homilies (ibid. II, 330) call his father Faustinus,
relation to /u'rpa or
to decide
which
of
them she
actually bore, although Mitrodora,
two brothers Faustinianus and Faustus, the Recognitions This (ibid. I, 1359) give Faustinianus as the name of the father. small variant might be due to a slip of the pen on the part of
and
his
the scribes, and
much must
not be built on
in
it,
but
it is
worth while
to
remark that our document

the Homilies.
3.
is
harmony with the Recognitions against

is
In the Clementine writings, the father

his youngest son,
said to
have
left at
home Clement,
and
his
two other
children.
when he set sail in search of his wife The present document informs us that he
his
took Clement with him.

4.
The manner
in
which Clement and
relations
became
acquainted with Simon Peter, and met with one another after their previous separation is told in a form very different from that with which we are familiar in the Clementine literature. Generally speaking the
details of the narrative of the
and explained, the elaborate incidents of the Greek Homilies and the Latin Recognitions. Our document might, therefore, have preserved a more ancient form of the tale.
new document and no resort is made to
are more naturally handled
Towards
1
the middle of the third century, a Syrian or a Palestinian
In his Quellen d. rb'm. Petrussage.

to
p.
Notes Introductory 27 sq.
the
Study of the Clementine Recognitions,

writer
63
would have brooded over a sober

of a
tradition
and
it
cast
it
into the
mould
an
detailed tale.
is
of a longer one,
oral
be an abridgment generally considered as a more primitive form of

sober story, unless
until
it
proved, through other channels, that our document is in facto an abridgment of both Homilies and Recognitions combined, which in view of the deep changes involved
tradition,
is
and
it
would be difficult to prove, we might safely assume that it preserves a more authentic exposition of facts than the corresponding GraecoLatin productions of the third or fourth century.
Another
interesting point of
Acta
These
E^lstachii (in
spurious Acts
Ada
comparison may be drawn from the Sanctorum, Vol. VI, pp. 123-135).
tell
us that a certain Placidus,
who
at his baptism
received the
name
his
of
Eustachius,
was martyred under the
reign of
Hadrian with
Theopistus.
The
wife Theopistis and his two sons Agapius and manner of losing his wife and his children and of
meeting them
of
again,
and the way the mother recognizes her children

unmistakable parallels with the adventures These coincidences, we have said in
after a long absence, offer
Clement and
his relatives.
our study referred to above, will perhaps establish the assumption that the tale of a man losing his wife and two children, and recovering
them afterwards through the good fortune of having adopted some Christian beliefs, was the outcome of a folk-lore which seems to have
formed the staple
the
first
of
the evening conversation of
many
a Christian in
centuries of our era.

of the
The epoch
termine.
As
it
far as the tale of
appearance of such a legend is difficult to deEustachius is concerned the Bollandists

"
:
who
edited
testimonium,
severos
".
remark naively Quamquam hoc anonymi scriptoris non magni ponderis esse posset apud criticos magis
ancient mention of the tale in the writings of according to the Bollandists, made by Joannes
The most
is,
Christian fathers,
1 This being the case, one is tempted to 08). believe that the final redaction of the Acts can scarcely go back to a time preceding the fifth century. In the case of a contrary assumption
Damascenus
(ibid. p.
one would have thought that the tale would have been represented in Syriac literature, either in a translation or in a modified form of new
recension.
Since, in the editor's opinion,
Palestine
is
given as the
country of the hero's adventures
and the Jordan
as the sacred river

to suppose that
where he
lost his children,
it
would be unreasonable
64

would have escaped the
attention of Syrian hagio-
the beautiful tale

logists.
The
question of the date of the Clementine literature seems, on
the other hand, to be more complicated.

referred to
Hort
(ibid. p.
24
sq.) has
Origen which seem to suggest that their writer was acquainted with an older form of the Recognitions. The
of
first
two passages
is
passage
important because
it
alludes to astrological computations

:
found
"
in both Recognitions and Origen, and Hort adds ingeniously a matter of fact these chapters coincide pretty closely with the Book of the Laws of Countries extant in Syriac and in part in Greek,
As
written
cognitions
that the Reborrowed from the Bardesanist Book, not vice versa". Here we are in the school of the Edessene Bardesanes. Hort's view
by an
early Bardesanist
and comparison shows
is
clearly
method
of telling
borne out by the close relation which exists between the a tale used in Acts of Judas Thomas^ and the
Clementine Recognitions and
Homilies.
of a pupil or
The Acts of Judas

grand pupil of Bardes-
Thomas
anes,
as
are certainly the

if
work
and
Hort
the astrological chapters found in the Recognitions are rightly asserts derived from Bardesanes, there should not be
the country of the Recognitions; nor the date of their composition. The country would be a town probable in North- Eastern Syria, and the probable date of their composition
difficulty in finding
much
225-245.
The
Clement
information given by Eusebius, in the chapter devoted to

(III,
38, 5),
is
also important.
After mentioning
his Epistles
he proceeds Nay, moreover, certain men have and quite lately (x^s /ecu irp^v) brought forward as yesterday written by him other verbose and lengthy writings, said to contain dialogues of Peter and Appion of which not the slightest mention is
to the Corinthians,
:
"
to
be found among the ancients, for they do not even preserve in purity the stamp of the apostolic orthodoxy". The expressions "yesterday " and quite lately used by Eusebius seem to corroborate the above
date 225-245.
those
age,
The
historian
had
chiefly in
view the
refutation of
who
ascribed the pseudo- Clementine writings to the apostolic
and the vehement
X^ s
K0^
Trp<*>f)v
are simply an accentuation
of this idea, without
Coming
to our
new
any attempt to determine the year or day. Syriac document, we notice that it certainly
belongs to the group of hagiographical pieces represented
by
the
Acts

of Judas Thomas, and by
finite
65
several other pious compositions.

I
A dethink
to the
date will probably never be given to these pieces, but
that
we
should not be
far
from truth
if
we
tried to ascribe
them
second half of the third century of our era. In the above lines we have taken into account only the older form of the romance, which, in the opinion of some critics, the Clementines
exhibited before they
came
to
be
fixed in
their present
order.
As
they
stand
2
in
Greek and
Latin
MSS.,
Waitz
and
Bohmer-
Romundt, have dated the Recognitions after 350, on the ground of Harnack z believes their Eunomian Arianism (cf. Recog. Ill, 2-11). that this Arianism may be explained by the Lucianic school, and
Quite recently consequently dates them between 290 and 360. 4 has dated as follows the different parts which compose the Chapman
Clementine Recognitions and Homilies "
(1)
edition of the completed
:
Dialogues of Peter and Appion

romance
later.
c.
c.
320.
(2)
The
first
330.
It
(3)
by and dislocated
its
author some years

in (4) the
One
c.
of these versions
was perhaps retouched was abridged

Another
version
;
Homilies
350-400.
was
this
(6),
c.
interpolated and altered (5) by a Eunomian c. 365-370 was abridged further (6) c. 370-390 the last two, (5) and" were known to Rufinus he translated the shorter of them (7)
; ;
400.
among was used by Maximus and
(8) was apparently current the Byzantines, according to the testimony of Nicephorus, and
others."
A somewhat expurgated edition

for ascribing the
whole of the Clementine literature grounds in their present form to such a late date are mainly
:
The
1.
occurrence in Recognitions, I, 73 of the piscopus which is unknown before the fourth century.
2.
The
word Archieof the
Some
striking parallels
between the doctrine
Recog-
nitions and that of Eunomius's
Liber Apolegeticiis
written about
362.
to the ground in the light of the new no suggestion of the doctrinal developments of the fourth century, and no intention on the of the writer part to dogmatize either in an orthodox or in an Arian sense.
fall
is
1
These two objections document, in which there
Die Pseudo-Clementinen, 1904, p. 371. Zeitschr. Wiss. Theol. 1903, p. 374. 4 Chron. II, 534-535. Zeitsch. Neut. Wiss. 1908, p. 32.
5
66

We
conclude
of the
this short
preface
the
less
number
remark that
Expositor this document
referred to
is
by the following lines taken from above Critics will doubt:
cast in a
the Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions

characteristic
historical
is
mould far more Jewish than and Homilies can claim. This
ascribing
In
this respect
a criterion not always to be despised in
lucubrations to a determined epoch.
the
reader will surely notice that Peter is always called Simon or Simon Syriac scholars who are Cephas, and never Peter or Simon Peter.
not accustomed to find very often in Syriac literature this old name applied to the head of the Apostles in such an exclusive manner will
no doubt bear a certain testimony

Its
to the
archaism of the narration.
illustrations are generally

it
drawn from the Old Testament, and

it
everything in
fourth century
of
suggests that
might have seen the
light before the
which saw the beginning of the

districts.
is
doctrinal hellenization
Edessa and the neighbouring
The
Syriac style of the
document
stiffness
pure,
and
free
from that ex-
uberance of incorrectness and

translations of
it
Greek
originals,
and the
which characterize some Syriac critic who would maintain that
has been originally written in Syriac will have powerful weapons in hand to defend his opinion.
TRANSLATION.
Again a
about
ized.
story about Clement, the disciple of
Simon Cephas, and
his parents
and
his brothers,
how
they also have been evangel-
There was
and the name
idols,
justly.
in the city of
Rome
a rich
man
called Faustinianus,
of his wife
was Mitrodora.
to
They openly worshipped
and though they did not know God, they served
Him
truly
and
They gave alms

was
fulfilled in
received the strangers and the poor like

Scripture
the poor from their riches, like Job, and Abraham. The word of the
:
" He who fears God them, which says behaves justly, and Abraham believed in God, when still pagan, and He gave him the reward of his justice 'V And this just Faus-
"
"
tinianus received the
reward
of his' justice at the
end
of his
life.
And
as
Abraham and Sarah have been

and
1
tested through Isaac, so (Faustiniheir,

;
anus
Mitrodora) were without an

Cf.
in order that justice

III.
Gen. XV. 6
Rom.
IV. 3
Gal.
6.

might be performed
them.
If
it
67
in
them, and righteousness might increase through
the hired
man
does not work, he cannot claim his salary, because
is
they
not written that just people received any reward except after had worked, and wicked people any chastisement till they had
If
sinned.
Adam
had not
;
transgressed,
he would not have been
and if Cain had not committed murder, driven out of Paradise and the robber did in his limbs trepidation would not have dwelt
;
not enter into Paradise
till
he confessed.
his wife,
So
is
the case with these
just people, Faustinianus
and
I
to their
will
toil
and since
whose rewards are according narrated the nature of their work, I have
now
of
relate their exploits.

love,
it.
He who
has the clean ears of the
words
let
him approach and hear a pleasant account and
delight in
These righteous people were deprived of posterity, and for a long After a certain time, God wished to comtime they were distressed. fort them and to show them that He had not kept back their reward
from them.
Mitrodora, then, had two babes in her
womb,
as
Rebecca
had Esau and Jacob. She gave them names, to the elder Faustinus and to the younger Faustus. She brought forth also another child, and she called him Clement.
Then
the Evil One, the

his craftiness,
enemy
of justice,
wished to make them
stumble by
and
to insinuate himself to these
good people.
The Lord promised to Eve and Adam the paradise of Eden, and the Evil One degraded them from their ranks, and God sent His Only Begotten, and saved them and made them go up to a place higher The Devil suggested to the brothers of Joseph to sell than the first. him, and God made him a redeemer to them, in the day of distress.
Mitrodora by a detestable adultery, and this motive distracted her, and she returned to. God. Faustinianus had a brother, and the Evil One insinuated to him
(The Devil) wished,
too,
to dishonour
to conceive a passion for the wife of his brother
and though he
re-
(woman) never wronged her husShe band, and she thought of a means to vanquish the Evil One. made a false pretence, as if she had dreamt it, to take her boys and to
peatedly solicited
her, the faithful
go away from her husband,

rounding that violent
in order that
by her absence the

to
fire
sur-
man might be
extinguished.
his custom,
Now, one day
Faustinianus
came home according
68
and

"
noticing that his wife was sad, he asked her : " " I am sad, She said to him of thy sadness ?
:
What
is
the cause
I
my
".
lord, because
shall
go
away from
thee and
far
from thy company

to
?
Then
"
:
Fausis
tinianus
it
became angry, and began

gods of all
threaten and to say

I
Who
that has designed to sever thee from thy spouse
swear by the
mighty
Rome
to
deliver to terrible punishment
him who
designed this against me, and that he may not speak behind the back of a
also to plunder his substance, in order
man
stronger than he."
Let thy wrath be not kindled, because he Mitrodora said to him who will separate us one from each other is stronger than thou. Listen
:
"
to
me,
my
lord,
and
shall tell thee the
dream
of
fire,
that
dreamt.
saw
man
of fire seizing in his
hand a sword
take thy
;
and
his lips sprinkling
dew.
ordered
He appeared to me
me To-morrow
*
like a furnace,
and
said to
me and
earnestly
two
boys, Faustinus and Faustus,
and go away from Rome leave thy youngest son and thy husband The in Rome, and do not come back to thy spouse till I warn thee '.
man
sons
that
saw told me
I
'
all these
things (and
I
added)
If
thou dost
not listen to everything
have told thee,

I
shall destroy thee
with thy
and thy husband
'.
explain to
me how
interpret
long
it
am very we shall
sorry that he
whom
saw did not

is
be separated.
Lo, the dream
unveiled
thyself, since thou art wise."
When
feared,
and
Faustinianus heard that, he "

said
:
This
is
hard
to
was amazed he wondered, be explained by wise men even

;
;
the mighty gods of
heard that there

perhaps
this
Rome do not know what was one God in the earth

.
this
.
vision means.
(illegible
of
word)
.
.
dream
(illegible
word)
is
by means
dreams
(illegible
word) showed
it is
himself this year.
Because those
science say that
the true
God who
created
who know heaven and earth who
wrought a wonderful miracle in every country, and that this is one of His disciples. Take then thy two boys, as He told thee, and go away
from Rome, so that
the earth will shake
He may
;
and the sea
cause
He
.
is
.
its
Lord.
angry dry up if He rebukes it, beLo, our fellow-kinsmen are in Athens, the
;
not be angry
will
because
if
He
is
Great
Take
word) to them, as the man of dreams told thee. one year or two, and slaves and maids will come afterwards and serve thee. Take care of thyself and of thy children ;
.
(illegible
provisions for
become
feeds
like
a mild dove which diligently attends to

of its
its
nestlings,
and
them by the pecking
mouth
become
like
a sparrow which

hides
its
69
and protects its nestlings from the become like a turtle-dove which loves its hunters by its shrewdness With such words male, and keeps jealously the love of its consort/*
nest from the spectators,
;
Faustinianus warned his wife, and both spoke to each other in the Faustinianus was very distressed, but Mitrogrief of their separation.
dora did not wish to disclose a hidden secret

to
this
God prompted them

might be revealed to
deed
in order that their righteousness
everybody.
Faustinianus agreed to send his wife, he endowed her with provisions, gold, slaves, and maids, and gave her her two children. " 1 When parting from her husband, she said to him Good-bye,
:
And when
man
my childhood and keeper of my youth. Who can know if we like a father see one another again (illegible word) my lord,
of
;
to the youngest son
She put
to sea with her
grew rough, days and began to roar as a (thirsty) lion for a well (of water),- and the waves began to be vehemently wild (illegible word), and from everywhere violent winds and tempests tosseth (it ?). Then Mitrodora
. .
in the sea, in the
word). two boys, and when the morning of the third day the
." (illegible
ship
moved two
sea
cried,
bewailed, and said

;
Mary
if
Thou
say that Thou art God, art God, come to our help and rescue us
:
"
They
O
if
Son
of
height,
and land are under Thy command, the slave obeys his master and does not revolt against him ". And she said with great distress
depth, sea
* :
Woe
lo,
is
is
I
and
me, wished to be drawn from a corrupted pond of sins, am sinking in a sea of water, and there is no one to rescue.
I
I
Woe
name
me,
proved an
evil
stumbling block to
my two
children."
And when
of
waves tossed her about on every side, she cried in the Jesus the Nazarene, and stretched her hands and embraced
her boys. And she began to complain (in the presence of) her beloved " ones (Cursed be) the hour in which I have separated my boys from
:
their father,
If
and
this
death which has surrounded
me
from every
side.
I
Thou
(Jesus) rescue
sacrifice
me
with
my
children,
Heaven
forbid that
worship or
When,
except to Thy name." in a prostration, she was praying before

it
God
;
with sobbing,
the waves struck the ship from every side and
who were
1
in
it
floated
upon water
-
like bits of grass
broke up, and those and mother and
Lit. remain in peace.
We
read bera instead of bra.
70
children

were hidden from one another on the
sea.
And God made

commanded
it
a sign to the sea not to destroy them, as
He
has
for
He, therefore, bade the sea to keep Jonas, and it listened to Him. and not to harm them without His order because God can them
;
keep (a man) under His command.
in the sea as
if
he were on land, since sea and land are

the night, salvation
that has
While they were
tossed in the sea during
all
dawned on them
help of
in
the morning.
The
right
hand
been
stretched to Simon,
and he was drawn up, has been stretched to the the woman and her sons and as God willed in His mercy,
;
them reach the port of Tripoli. Seamen went out in the morning and saw them weeping by the seashore. widow took them, honoured them, and brought them
He made
up with great honour. She gave them names she called the one Anicetus and the other Aquilas. As to their mother, God willed and made her reach the town of " Where shall I go Arad. She began to weep for her boys, saying
:
:
to seek
your corpses,
I
my
beloved sons
who
are
drowned
in the sea ?
Behold,
am
I
Woe
like
is
me,
was
deprived of my beloved and of my acquaintances. like a ship bearing riches, and the waves of the sea
scattered
my
riches
and threw
my
treasures to the wind,
and
I
lo, I
am
a vine whose beauty hail has destroyed.

like those of
Would
that
had
swift
wings
young
eagles, to
;
go and see thee,
Faustinianus,
when wandering
and these
(slaves)
after us
when
sending slaves
to thee, bearing
bearing provisions,
returning back
to the
bad news
us,
when
sending (letters)
inhabitants of
;
Athens about
the
and these
of
!
answering thee with
bitter letters
all
when caught by
day
"
weeping
and
grief, and encircled by While Mitrodora was
pains and severe tribulations afflicted by these and similar
things, the
chiefs of the
her,
town
"
:
of
Arad
is
saying
?
What
!
heard, and gathered round her and asked woman ? and which is thy thy story,
country
told
Behold
thy voice has shaken
all
our town."
And
she
them truly all her story. And they began to console her, but she afflicted herself with cries and lamentations.
"
I
Then a widow came to her, and began to comfort her, saying am a widow like thee, and deprived of husband and children.
to
Come
my
life
house, and
we
will live together in
bereavement and
spend our
in bitterness."
And
Mitrodora went to her, and was,
71
When she noticed that her out of necessity, begging her bread. that strength was failing, she went and sat at the gate of the town, so
But where she most suffered, she might take alms from the people. there deliverance dawned on her through Simon, the head of the
disciples.
After
Mitrodora had spent two years
in
this
great
hardship,
them through his slaves. Faustinianus got together provisions, When the messengers reached Athens and asked the kinsmen of " We have not Faustinianus about Mitrodora, they answered them
and
sent
:
seen here this

sengers
woman and we have
not heard her story
".
The messorrow and
news
wrote
of anguish.
went back weeping and bearing When they called on Faustinianus and he read
letters full of
these letters, he
letters
all
was pained, and he wailed and wept

all
bitterly.
He
to
quarters,
countries,
and
villages.
Messengers
scoured
ing.
countries
and flew
to all quarters, but returned
wear deep youngest son, and went out wandering about and asking everybody " Have you seen my wife and her sons drowned, or roving along the " roads ? When he was walking and asking, he lost sight of the
Faustinianus began then
to
:
with weepmourning, took his
young boy, and from deep grief he did not notice that. When the boy Clement was straying, a seaman took him and got him into a ship, and in that very night they sailed for the country of
And when Simon was teaching by the seashore, in towns, the Syria. seaman took the boy, and gave him to Simon, and he became his He was the first disciple that Simon Cephas had. And disciple.
Simon took the boy Clement and went
gelize there.
to Tripoli, in order to evan-
brothers
While he was teaching, the woman who had brought up his came and gave them up to become the disciples of Simon
;
Cephas
brothers. together,
and the grace of God thus gathered together the three The head of the Apostles and they three ate and drank and they did not know one another.
;
for
Simon went away to Arad, to preach there the true faith the grace of God called him to comfort the weak woman by means
beloved ones.
And
of her three
When
Clement
me, and
:
Simon and Clement were

"
My
brother, behold
way, Simon said to thou hast been twenty years with

in their
did not ask thee what
was thy
country,
or
where thou
72

if
earnest from, or
men ".
said to
When
him
:
thou knewest whether thou hadst parents or kinsClement heard that he began to weep bitterly, and
"Listen,
my
;
lord,
and
shall
speak before thee
am
;
from a great family

of
of the city of
Faustinianus the great

besides, thy servant
and
Rome, from the royal family, the son name of my mother was Mitrodora had two brothers, the name of the elder was
the
Faustinas,
and
of the other Faustus.

of her
My
;
mother dreamt a dream,
which became the cause

on horses of
fire
death
'
she
saw a man
in
of fire riding
and he
'.
said to her,
Arise, take thy children and go
away from Rome
My
father
had kinsmen
Athens
he gave her
;
provisions and the brothers elder than I, and he sent her to Athens and since they left us we have not heard any news about her my
;
father sent messages to all countries,
and no one
said that
he had seen
asking
them
then
my
father took
me and went away wandering and
When walking, I and my father, on the seaeverybody about them. I have been out of his shore, sight, and through the pain of his heart,
he did not notice
me
in
that
moment.
noticed me, he took me, put such a pain, and such trials
me
As to me, when a seaman on board and brought me to thee

;
befell
me
Now God
God and
knows
if
my
in
if
parents survive or not.'*
And Simon
was amazed, and
glorified
:
began to cry
in
sorrow and to say to the child in grief "I have hope thy parents are alive, thou wilt soon see them ".
God,
that
Simon and Clement reached the gate of Arad, Simon saw " Mitrodora sitting, and said to her Woman thou art young in thy
:
When
a ge,
and thou chosest

.
. .
this
thou not to
to
Simon
"
:
? (illegible
if
ignominious business for thee word), and thou wilt live ".
;
why
likest
She
said
My lord,
that
and the pains
my
thou knewest the hardships that I have borne, eyes have seen, even if thou hadst a remedy of
it
death, thou wouldst have given be delivered from this pain ".
to me, so that
should drink
it
and
The
me, and
divine Apostle said to her

life
"
:
woman,
reveal thy story to

;
I have a remedy of be saved from thy pain ".
that
shall give thee
drink of
it
and
And
for
all
the
woman began
it,
to tell successively all her story.

his
When
God
telling
the divine Apostle heard
mind
rejoiced,
and he
the
glorified
having soon answered his prayers.

this,
When
woman was
Clement was
in
the
town with
his friends.
And
Simon

Cephas
is
73
said to her
I
"
:
great, but
".
have hope
Woman, thy pains are bitter, and in God that He will comfort
still
thy ailment thee in thy
pains
When
Simon was
turned back to him.

that thou toldest
speaking to her, the young Clement re" Tell me, my son, all Simon then said to him
:
And
Simon
the
me on the way ". young man began to tell

Mitrodora
"
:
all
that he
this
had endured.
is
And
said to
Listen to
what
young man
telling".
When
she listened, her heart glowed towards this young man, her son,
and she recognized him.
The young man, too, recognized his mother. " mother began to say to her son And the Come in peace thou who takest away my pains and wipest the tears off my eyes come in
: ;
peace, parents by his resurrection

to
slain
man who
confess
lived again,
!
dead man who comforted
his
worship the
see thee
Him, because
God who made me worthy those who trust in Him will
not be confounded.
He who
also as
I am Mitrodora, thy mother. I hope that has counted us as worthy to meet each other will count us
worthy
to see thy brothers/'
took Clement and his mother and went to the young men, his brothers. Before they reached them, they looked at Clement and his mother with him, and they began to grumble, saying " is this woman who speaks to Clement and walks with him ? Behold,
:
And Simon
Who
we
him
his
have been fellow-disciples

either speaking to a
for
twenty years, and
woman
mother
"
or looking at a
we have not seen woman can she be

;
When
knowing
is
that he
Clement reached them, his brothers asked him without " was their brother Tell us, our brother, who is this
:
woman who is
great
"
with thee
the Providence of
!
wonder
Who
will
not
What great marvel, my brothers God to whom be glory Who glorify God for His mercy and
! !
How
will not
for
His
1 Three beautiful branches great compassion towards His creature were cut off from their vine, and April came in its season and made
them blossom
in their vine
How
beautiful are three mild doves
which flew from
their
nest,
hawk, they gathered
at the voice of their
and when they escaped the sparrowmother How beautiful

!
are three young eagles
which grew up without

sufficiently strong,
1
their parents,
and
their
when
their
wings were
they came and caused
Lit. clay.
74
parents
THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY A poor woman who during twenty to rejoice
!
years has
been deprived of her children, the grace of

hour, and they came
to her
!
God
"
gathered them in one

his brothers,
is
Then Clement answered

:
not knowing that they were his brothers
"
My
"
brothers, this
my
;
mother
His brothers began then to ask him behold we have lived together for twenty
thee where thou earnest from, and
tell
Tell
us,
our brother
years,
and we did not ask

;
us that now, and
we
will tell
what thy family was in the world And thee from whence we are ".
all
Clement began
there
to tell to his brothers,
brothers the one to the other.
none knowing that Their mother was standing

"
were
from
far
and hearing the words

I
of their mouths.
As
to
me,
my
their
brothers,
tinianus,
am
from the
city of
Rome
;
my
father
was
called
Faus-
and
my
mother Mitrodora
had two
brothers,
and
;
names,
for one,
was
through a dream that
and Faustinus, and for the other, Faustus my mother dreamt, we have been scattered
will
of
among
the nations
and now, by the
God,
have found
my
mother, and have recognized her." " Our brother, from His brothers said with tears in their eyes thy words, if they are true, thou art our brother, and we are thy
:
brothers
am
Faustinus,
and
this is
our brother Faustus.
When we
our ship
went out
broke up
(of
Rome) and
(illegible
sailed for
two days
in the sea,
...
word\
and we have been
scattered
among
the nations."
Their mother heard these
things,
and her arms were
restored, for
in
they had been for a long time withered.
She embraced them
weeping and
Mitrodora,
in saying to
who
sure that I am your mother with you, by your father". was sent to Athens
them
"Be
And
together they glorified
God who had
gathered them into His
sheepfold.
Then
their
the three brothers asked Simon, their master, to baptize
mother.
it
And when
they found a place
fit
for baptism, they

;
showed
sent the
to their
three brothers
holy master, and he baptized Mitrodora with their mother to Laodicea.

;
then he
And
he
stood up to pray, and then to follow them

said
when he
"
prayed, he
God,
in the
hands of
whom
Thy
all
the ends (of the earth)
are
God,
rich in mercy, as
Thou
hast gathered these

treasure
;
by Thy
mercy, answer
me my
prayer from
if
the husband of

Thy handmaid
and
his sons
;
75
Mitrodora be
if
alive,
make him
present to see his wife
present, in
he be kept in life may order that he may come and receive

vineyard
".
a sign from
Thee make him Thy yoke, and work
with us
heard quickly the voice of the Apostle, and a (divine) sign caught away Faustinianus from Rome
in
Thy
And God
and brought him to Simon, the Apostle. And when Simon was walking in the way, behold, an aged man stood before him, dressed in old patches and in worn-out clothes, and
with much dust on him,
a poor man. Simon asked him Art thou a art thou, man, that thou wanderest in the hills ?
like
:
"
Who
a
thief,
"
robber, or a shedder of men's blood ?
The
I
old
man answered Simon with

;
great grief,
is
and
"
said,
I
am
neither a thief nor a robber
but thy servant had a wife and three sons, and when she
it
from the
city of
Rome.
was
asleep she dreamt a
been scattered among the nations. This happened twenty years ago, and behold, I am wandering after and to-day when I was in the country them, and I cannot find them
;
bad dream, and through
we have
of
Rome, something
country.
I
like
I
a right hand caught
me and
flung
me
into
this
Behold,
am
I
since
do not know where

said
:
under some phantasms and agitated, am."
Simon
and thy
is
sons,
"If somebody comes now and shows thee thy wife " The old man said " God what wilt thou give him ?
:
witness that
have no other thing than that

to his
shall
become a
slave
before him for ever".
And
Simon took him and went

"
:
raised his voice saying

;
thy husband And all at once eagle he has crossed sea and land for thy sake ". she flew like a dove, and took her nestlings with her but when she saw
; ;
encampment and Simon Come, Mitrodora, and see Faustinianus, take thy beloved ones, and come to meet him like an
;
Faustinianus dressed in patches and surrounded by poverty, she asked " him with great grief Tell me, man, what is thy country ? It
:
seems to
see
me
that thy limbs
have borne many

I
pains.
is
craved long to
my
spouse, but the figure that
notice in thee
:
not his."
The
old man, then, said to her
"If thou
art
Mitrodora,
am
the
Faustinianus ".
And
Mitrodora said to him
"
:
Where
are the glory and
beauty that thou didst put on and the gorgeous raiment in which " thou wast dressed ?
76

The
old
man
said to her in grief
"
:
Since the day
when thou and

and wanderI
thy children were separated from me,

ing for your sake
;
have been
I
in pain
;
sea,
crossed
;
land,
scoured
height,
trod
and depth,
my
soul
sounded
thirst
me, bareness of feet
made me
;
overpowered me, hunger tormented suffer, heat burned me, and cold dried
and I did not find quietness till now ". me, so that I might find you And Mitrodora said to him " Come, tree, and see the branches which had been separated from thee they have become staves, and
:
behold, they are sustaining us

kissed his sons tenderly
;
".
The
old man, then, approached,

to
and
and began
were departed people

peace,
rising
weep upon them as if they " Come in (from the dead), and said
:
slain ones,
who have
!
returned (to
life)
O
my
departed ones,
I
who have been

you to-day
!
resuscitated
Blessed are
my
eyes, for
to
have seen
to sustain
glorify God, because
He
gave you
me
my
all,
old age, to take
away my
pains,
and
to console
affliction."
;
And
to the
Simon Cephas baptized also the old man, their father and mother, sons, and father, became pure sanctuaries and dwellings
Holy
Spirit,
reached a high rank, and were much renowned in

us glorify
sanctity.
And we
all, let
God who
comforts distressed people,
and takes away the pains of those who to Him for ever and ever. Amen.
II.
trust in
His name.
Glory be
THE BOOK OF SHEM SON OF NOAH.

FOREWORD.
The
curious treatise here printed will
add something
to our
know-
ledge of Biblical
productions
purports in
is
Apocrypha. The field of already very wide, but, if we
extension of these spurious
mistake not, none of them
a similar
way
to predict events dealing
with agriculture.
Our work
Noah.
of certain
is
In the
a kind of agricultural horoscopy ascribed to Shem son of Book of Jubilees X. 12; XXI. 70, mention is made
of
books
Noah.
;
"
And
he gave
all
that
he had written
all
to
his
Shem,
"
sons
his
eldest son
for
he loved him exceedingly above
Apocrypha and Pseudopigrapha, II, 28). (Abraham) have found it written in the books of my " forefathers, and in the words of Enoch, and in the words of Noah " for so For so my father Abraham commanded me (ibid. p. 44).
" (R.
H.
I
Charles'
For thus

he found
it
77
in the writing of the
Book of Noah
work
(Testament of Levi,
6-11; 54, 7 55, 2 (Adv. Hczr. XXVI.
;
ibid. p. 365).
" concerning the blood In the Book of Enoch there

attributed to
are also traces of a certain apocalyptic

;
him
(1
En.
65-69,
etc., of
Charles* edition).
Ephiphanius
sects a
1) tells us that
among some Gnostic

Noah's
it is
book
was
current bearing the
name
of Nuria,
wife.
In the text of Jubilees quoted
above
only said that

specified
Shem
is
transmitted to posterity his father's works,

directly attributed to him.
and no
book
From The Jewish Encyclopedia (xi. " that Shem is supposed by the Rabbis to have estab262) we learn lished a school in which the Torah was studied, and among the pupils Later Shem was joined by Eber, and the of which was Jacob.
school
was called
after
both of them.
Besides, the school
was the
in those
seat of a regular bet-din times.
which promulgated the laws current
The
bet -din of
Shem
proclaimed the prohibition of and the

last feature
punishment
of adultery.
for adultery."
This
must not be overlooked

is
in reading the present
apocryphon
in
which there
frequent mention
Many
described
public libraries contain physician Asaph's medical treatise

1
by Steinschneider (Hebr. Bibl. XIX. 35, 64, 84,
05).
introduction to this treatise registers a tradition to the effect that
The Shem
son of
Noah was
the inventor of medicine which had been revealed to
him by the Angels. This information would also tend to explain why a treatise on astromancy or horoscopy could have been written under
the
name
of
Shem.
In ancient times
no good physician was able to
dispense with astromancy, and after all the herbal drugs had failed, it was the handiest recipe to produce effects that no other medicine could
produce.
It
was on many occasions a
safe
panacea admitting of scarcely
any exceptions.
The Book of Shem,

cultivation,
son of Noah, has been mainly written for

It tells
people interested in agriculture.
which
in
is
the good year for

to sow.
and which
is
the best
month
which
Shem
draws
zodiac.
his
From
knowledge the same source he can
of these questions
from the twelve signs of the

the dearness or cheap-
foretell
:
ness of the most necessary articles of food

cereals, oil,
wheat, barley, watered
wine
and
is
able also to prognosticate the health of the
most useful domestic animals such as sheep and cattle. The country in which the Book of Shem was written
is
easy to
78
determine.

The
author lays stress continually on events dealing with
Egypt is concerned the inundation of the Nile takes a prominent place, and is mentioned in every section. Of the Egyptian towns Alexandria is the only one which has deserved Egypt and Palestine.
far as
As
special record.
As
far
as Palestine
is
concerned, the holy city has

his
no place
in
the
mind
of
Shem, and curiously enough,

are frequently mentioned
in the
mind was
not interested in any other Biblical town.

the district of
stituted
Probably Damascus and
Hauran which
it is
by name conof the treatise.
an integral part of Palestine

in
for
geography
From
or
these precise data,
safe to infer that the
work was written

Palestine,
in
somewhere
Egypt
people
Egypt. cannot be so categorical as to the question of On the one hand it does the epoch of the appearance of the work. not contain any precise historical details entitling us to fix on a deUnfortunately
somewhere
in Palestine for
who had great interest in people who had great interest
we
termined date, and on the other hand the frequent mention of the Romans and of their kings induces us to suppose that it saw the light
in
the period of the
Roman
domination of
Egypt and Palestine.
Further,
the writer seems to have certain interest in the matter of
Jewish emigration from Palestine, because he distinctly mentions the

propitious
and unpropitious years

this information,
for emigration.
If
any argument
can be built on
the treatise
this
we
should be tempted to say that
was written
in
a time of national distress in Palestine, and
would naturally suggest a time not very remote from the catastrophe which befell the Jewish nation under Vespasian and Hadrian. It is, however, precarious to make a categorical pronouncement on
this subject
;
we
shall presently see that the outer
form of the work
actually postulates a
much
later date.
is
Another puzzling question

matic Shem.
for his Christian tendencies,
the religious belief of the problein his
Having found nothing
work which would vouch
a Jew.
we have ventured to suppose that he was Indeed some details which characterize his work seem to
;
point to a Jewish authorship
such
is
Passover, continual distress, and persecution.

other channels,
the question of emigration, Strictly speaking the

if,
argument taken from the word Passover would vanish

it
through
;
in were proved that the document was Christian this case Passover would Easter. simply have to be changed into The same may be said of the topics of emigration, distress, and per-

secution.
79
disappeared from the manuscript would perhaps have solved the problem, but as the work stands, it has certainly more Jewish than Christian colour.
Some words which have
The
more
question of the original language of the
document
is
even
difficult to settle.
We
have before us
in
a relatively recent
manuscript a text with numerous lacunae and several corrupted pasUntil some other manuscripts are, therefore, found, or some sages.
exact quotations by subsequent writers are given,
it is
more prudent
to
The Syriac style, however, contains vocables suspend our judgment. which reflect a certain influence of the Arabic language. It is through
language that we understand some missing in the most recent dictionaries.
this
new Syriac words which are The argument must not be
considered as decisive, and
it is
even probable that such words might

century of the Christian era in
have been
in use before the ninth
which the Arabic could reasonably exercise an influence on the Syriac. Syriac dictionaries are still in somewhat embryonic state, and the reading of any book reveals words which are to be catalogued in
a
final
Thesaurus
future.
of the language,
which has
still
to see the light in
a contingent
In
begins in
If
the prognostication of the events which take place if the year Cancer the author uses the words Krayatha and rsa'a.
the deter-
we do not call to our help the Arabic language for mination of these words, the phrase will not give any As far as the first word is concerned the Arabic meaning. " " which means he had a backache suits best the context,
have supposed that the word
is
reasonable
verb akra
and so
we
a noun of action of a corresponding
As far as rsa'a is concerned we have also resorted, in Syriac akrl. order to find an appropriate sense, to the Arabic rasa' " soreness of the eyes ".
In the next section,
it is
said of locusts
wankhowzun.
No
mean-
ing given to this verb
So we
"
by the lexicographers can satisfy the context. have tried to explain it through the Arabic Kaza meaning
he gathered ". There is also a sentence which in our judgment can yield no meaning, and the Syriac scholar who could find a good sense for it would be very fortunate. In the section of Scorpio, after having foretold that
the Nile will overflow half of
lator
its normal rate, the author or the transadds immediately the The incomprehensible Gbght dkatfinta.
80

"
distress"
use of the words Kattinutha and Kattma in the sense of " " distressed and respectively deserves also special notice.
We conclude
The
It
the above survey with a great margin of uncertainty. manuscript in which the work is found is not very ancient.
It
cannot be placed earlier than the fifteenth century.
contains
many
treatises
on astrology by different writers, and among these treatises is included the Testament of Adam, which is printed in the second vol-
ume
of the
the book
Patrologia Syriaca (pp. was an extremely bad Syriac
309- 360). The copyist of scholar, and his transcription is

1
frequently ungrammatical and corrupt owing to the omission of prefixes and suffixes, and to the awkward confusion between graphically similar
letters,
such as and ; occasionally also one notices in the text the omission of complete words and a false conjugation of verbs. The
J.
Rendel Harris's precious " collection and was numbered Cod. Syr. 165 is now the property of The John Rylands Library where it stands as Cod. Syr. 44. It is the
most unsatisfactory Syriac MS. which I have ever seen. " are sometimes similar to those of the Syrian Anatomy
of
Its
**
manuscript which formerly belonged to "
contents
or
"
Book
Medicines" so ably edited and translated
in
1913 by E. A. Wallis
If it
Budge (pp. 520-656). Such is the outer form

so keen an interest
will
of this fantastic apocryphon.
cannot
claim the honour of being counted
among
the books which have excited
always give
it
theologians, its supposed paternity a place in the shelf of writings bearing the sacred
among some
name
of Biblical Patriarchs.
TRANSLATION.
Discourse written by
Shem
in
it.
:
son of
Noah about
the beginning of the
year and
If
all that
happens
the year begins in Aries
The
not be
it
year will
be hard.
The quadrupeds
will die.
There
size,
will
many
have
clouds.
fat grains.
will
The The
standing corn will not have good

river Nile will overflow well.
but
king
The
of the will
first
Romans
will not
remain in one place.

fire.
The
stars of
heaven
be scattered
crops will
*
.
. .
like rays of
The moon
will
will suffer eclipse.
The
perish,
and the second
Passover
1
corn will be mildewed.
From be ingathered. The year will be bad, with
A hole in the
MS.
with the disappearance of about four words.
EARLY JUD/EO-CHRISTIAN DOCUMENTS.

severe
81
war and
distress
over
all
the earth, especially over the land of
Many ships will break up when the sea is rough. Oil will Egypt. at a moderate price in Africa, and wheat will be at a low price in Damascus, Hauran, and Palestine it will be at a moderate price.
be
;
(Palestine) will
have
different
kinds of diseases, plagues, and war,
but
it
will
be delivered from them and saved.

:
If
the year begins in Taurus

in his
Anyone having
will
name
(the letters) Beith,
be
ill,
or will be killed with iron weapons.
Yodh, or Koph There will be earth-
quake.
A wind will start
year will be rich in the land and of the surrounding places will destroy that (wheat). The 2 yearly rain will fail during three months, and then corn will be very dear during thirty-six days ; many people will die from diseases of the
throat,
The
from Egypt and spread over all the earth. wheat and abundant rains, but the chiefs of
and then
tribulation will cease.
The
first
crops (of wheat) will
perish, but as (above), the second crops will be ingathered, and barley with the watered cereals will be ingathered also. The devils will attack
the sons of men, but they will not

will rise against
its
harm them
great river
in anything.
Two
kings
each other.
The
Nile will overflow above

ship in the sea,
normal
rate.
who
are on the
Those who are on board a sea will be in great distress.

blessing.
and those
At
the end of the year
there will
If
be great
the year begins in
Gemini
The moon
rain will
will be good.
A South wind will

name
in his face.
blow, from which
come.
will
Anyone
having in his
the letters
Taw, Heth,
or
Mim
have tumours and boils
At
the beginning of
the year there will be a severe war.
There will be early rains, and the standing corn will be good, especially in the watered Mice places. will abound in the earth. The Romans (and the Persians 3 will
?)
wage
forth
a severe
war
against
by
ships on the sea,
one another, and the Romans will come will fight and destroy them. Malicious
people will rise in the world,

great anxiety
and
distress.
who will do mischief, and there will be Good will come at the end of the year
and the
river
Nile will overflow well.

"
earthquake
".
The word zaina may be a mistake
for
zaw'a,
The word
Hole
written on the margin. in the MS. with the disappearance of a word.

is
82
If

:
the year begins in Cancer At the beginning of the year corn will be at a moderate price, and people will be comfortable. The Nile will overflow at half its
normal
from
1
rate.
pest.
Stars will shine very brightly,
Alexandria will be besieged, and distress will be in it and the moon will suffer
abound, and many people will
of the eyes.
eclipse.
At
the beginning of the year wheat and barley will be

will
suffer
dear.
Winds
from back
aches, coughs,
and soreness
Wine
;
will
be abundant.
also
Oxen, sheep, and small

perish,
cattle will
for
perish
and be
cereals will
but
oil
will
make up
them.
At
the end of the year corn

rain,
will
be dear
for nine days,
and then there
will
and (the year)
will have
If
much
blessing.
the year begins in
Leo
There
winds
;
will be early rains, but the soil will be scorched by North corn will not be injured and the food of mankind will be
Wheat, rice, and cereals will be dear, and wheat will have to good. be watered. Oil and dates will be dear. There will be diseases in
sons of
cattle.
men and
make
2
.
the pregnant animals will perish as well as small

fight against
A king will
.
a king.
A considerable number of
number
will decrease but
at its highest
locusts will
slightly
.
their
appearance and
their
they will turn from one place to another and they will
be gathered
rate.
together.
The
river
Nile will overflow
People will there will be much

If
suffer
from headaches.
At
the end of the year
rain.
:
the year begins in Virgo
Anyone
Beith and
house.
will
having in his
will
name
Nun
be
ill,
Yodhs, or Semkath, and will be plundered, and will flee from his
(the letters)
3 [
. . .
And there will

of
be
at the beginning of the year

in
There
be shortage
water
some
places.
flourish.
People will be
in distress
and
The first crops will not sickness, Summer and Winter.
The
Corn will second crops will be ingathered, and will be good. be dear in Hauran and in Bithynia, (?) but at the end of the year their
price will be moderate.
will
Wine
will
be abundant.
price,
Oil will be dear.
Dates be cheap and delicious. Wheat and barley will be at a
moderate
1
and
cereals will be cheap.
Rain will be
late
and
will
These words are written on the margin by a
2 3
A hole in the
MS.
later hand. with the disappearance of a word.
There are evidently some words missing
here.

not
fall
.
83
upon the earth during

l
. .
thirty
days
down
to the time of Passkill
over.
The
in
king will fight against another king and will
him.
Living
Alexandria will be dear.

ships will break up.
in everything.
:
The
(Nile) will not over-
flow well.
will
Many
At
the end of the year there
be moderation
If
the year begins in Libra

will
There
terverted.
be early
will
rains,
and the (order

oil will
of the) year will
be
in-
People
fruit.
be secure from the East wind.

abound.
Fig-trees
will not bear
Dates and
Wine
will
be dear.
Wheat will be at a very moderate price. Locusts will appear. In Africa there will be a great and severe war. People will have acute In the middle of the year rain will fail during twenty days. diseases. The (kind of) wheat (called) armo'yatha (?) will not be fat enough.
All
fields will
be good.
ill,
Anyone having
will
in
his
name
will
(the letters)
Yodh
or Beith will be
his country.
Wine
emigrate from will be spoiled, and adultery will increase with
have anxiety, and
the increase of foul desires.
The
king will remain in one place,
and
power will cease in the earth, and high officials and there will be between (them) a severe war.
will flee into the sea,

In Galilee there will
be a violent earthquake. Marauders will appear in Hauran and in Damascus. The river Nile will overflow to its highest rate. In
Egypt there
say mules.
If
will
be a
cruel pest,
which
will
be
in
... 2
that
is
to
People
will
be
in distress
:
because of the shortage of
rain.
A
will
the year begins in Scorpio
North wind
will
blow
at the beginning of the year,
and there
be many early
rains.
At
the end of the year everything will

that people will
be dear, and rain will be so scarce and supplications to the living God,
address prayers
3
for the sake of food.
women
only
will
have
diseases.
Many
people will emigrate
Pregnant from their
countries out of distress.

in small
oil.
Wheat and
cereals will
barley will be ingathered, but
quantity
be ingathered.
There
will
be
4
wine and
will
Boils will spring forth in the bodies of people but they
do no harm.
1
The
Nile will overflow half of
its
normal
rate.
2
3
A hole has caused a word to disappear. A hole with the disappearance of a word.
The
verb
is
There
is written on the margin. here a Syriac sentence for which
cannot find any
satis-
factory meaning.
84

having in his
Anyone
name
(the letters)
in
Taw,
or
Yodh,
live,
will
be
ill,
but will recover.

killed at the
If
Anyone born
Scorpio will
but will be
end
of the year.
:
the year begins in Sagittarius

in his
Anyone having
severe illness
of the year.
name
be
(the letters) Beith, or Pe, will have

at the beginning
Little will
and
distress,
which will be aggravated

in distress in
be sown
be much
in
People the land of Egypt.
will
many
places.
In the middle of the year there will
rain.
People
will store corn in the barns because of the

will not
shortage of rain.
Crops
the end of the year.
Wine and
oil
be good, so also will be the case at will be at a very moderate price.

cattle will perish.
:
Adultery will
If
increase,
and small
the year begins in Capricornus

in his
Anyone having
be plundered, and
dominate the year.
will not succeed.
name
(the letters)
Koph
will
be
ill,
will
will
be struck with sword.
An
;
. .
East wind will

l
.
Every one should sow
earlier
the last in sowing

will
At
the beginning of the year

l
be dear.
In the
Waves and
billows will increase.
will perish.
Thieves will increase. middle of the year corn will be dear. The officials of the state will be bad. Wasps and reptiles of the earth
Many people (will move) multiply and injure many people. from one place to another because of the war which will take place.
will
Wars
scarce.
will increase in the earth.

In
At
the end of the year rain will be

will yield
in
some places the standing corn others it will perish. There will be
offer
pest in
something, and Damascus and in
Hauran, and famine

People will
If
the sake of rain.
Adultery will increase. prayers and supplications, will fast and give alms for The watered cereals will be normal.
:
in the littoral of the sea.
the year begins in Pisces

in his
Anyone having
name
(the letters)
Koph,
or
Mim,
will be
The year will be good and the standing ill, and will be plundered. corn will also be good and beautiful. There will be early rains. 3 The game of the sea will increase, and when the sea is rough ships
will break up.
The
will
be
ill.
Wine,
oil,
and wheat
The
2
copyist has omitted here the subject of the verb. This verb (or one similar to it) has been omitted by the copyist. Owing to a hole, the first and the two last letters of the verb appear. The subject has been omitted by the copyist.

will, all of
strife
85
be
them, be good.
Crops
in
will also
be good.
as
1
There
will
and much devastation
towns
to
the villages, their
site will
Marauders will come change from one place to another. 2 will wage a great war against three forth from Palestine, and and the Romans will sometimes be victorious, and sometimes towns
. . , ;
defeated.
A
come
great disease will affect the sons of men.

forth seeking
black
man The
will
king will endeavour to
power, and the royal family will perish. hear what people would say, and will
destroy
fear of
many
towns, and no one will be able to check him, and the

will be far from him.
God and His mercy

all
At
the end of the
year there will be peace
and
security for the sons of

3
:
men, and union
and concord between

If
the kings of all the earth.
the year begins in Aquarius
having in his name (the letters) Lamadh or Pe will be 4 At the beginning of the year rain will increase, ill, 5 and the Nile will overflow at its highest rate, and Egypt will [ .]
Anyone
or plundered.
over
Palestine.
.]
will
produce.
flourish.
Lambs and sheep
will
fight
against a king.
will not
West wind The first
will
dominate the year.
king will
crops will
be good.
The
(watered) cereals
grow much, but they
will yield (something).
The merchants
will ask for helpers from the Living
God.
III.
FRAGMENT FROM THE PHILOSOPHER ANDRONICUS AND ASAPH, THE HISTORIAN OF THE JEWS.
FOREWORD.
The
short extract here printed
is
a genuine quotation from a Greek the

Philosopher,
writer
called
".
"Andronicus the Wise,
and the
the
Learned
These
author's identity.
1
epithets can hardly lead us to determine In examining all the writers with the name of
is
An-
The
Syriac wording of this sentence
very ungrammatical.
Possibly
the copyist did not understand the text he was transcribing. 2 hole with the disappearance of a word.
here an objection against the text he was tranPisces were put before Antiquarius, while Antiquarius must have been spoken of before Pisces.
copyist
is
The
raising
scribing, because in
it
The sentence 'akar min is The verb is omitted by the
difficult to
understand.
copyist.
The
subject
is
apparently omitted by the copyist.
86
dronicus to
whom might be assigned the authorship of the fragment we able to find only three whose claim could be regarded as worthy were of consideration ( ) the astronomer Andronicus Cyrrhestes who ac: 1
cording to Vitruvius
(I,
6, 4) set
up
;
at
Athens the octagonal tower

death
is
of
Marble, which
about
1
is
seen in our days

of
his
generally placed at
00
B.C.
(2) Andronicus
Rhodes, the peripatetic philosopher
who
50
become
B.C.
arranged Aristotle's writings in the form with which we have his death is placed by some Greek scholars at about familiar
;
(3)
The Christian Andronicus

In
poems and in Ethiopia.

according to
according to Libanius (Epist.
Hermopolis in Egypt, whose were much esteemed in Egypt 75) A.D. 359 he was suspected of pagan practice,
of
1
Amm.
Marc. (XIX,
2),
but was acquitted by Paulus,
the envoy of the emperor Constantius. Of these three writers the one who possesses stronger claims
is
Andronicus Cyrrhestes mentioned by Eusebius
of Caesarea in his
work
on the "Star".
peutics of E.
times (pp.
In the
Syrian Anatomy, Pathology, and Thera2
A. Wallis Budge, 237, 521, 654 of the
this
Andronicus
is
mentioned three
translation).
Perhaps some other Andronicus

set forth as the
whom we do not know might be author of the present fragment, but the main point of
contains concerning the Jewish writer
interest
which
it
Asaph
will
hardly be
affected.
The
is,
impression that one gathers from the
word-
ing of the translation,
however, that Andronicus was a Christian
writer speaking of olden
Pagan times
of
Greece.
He
relates
how
before his time a certain literary

"historian of the
man
called
Asaph, a Jew and an
Hebrews," had given

of the
to the twelve signs of the
Zodiac the names
twelve
tribes of Israel.
Now who
was
this
" historian Josephus as the real of the Jews". The quotation, however, is not found in Josephus, and probably Josephus did not write in Aramaic. Further, Syriac
Asaph
Primd
facia one might think
of
writers transcribe rightly Josephus'
well-known name as Yusiphus.

side.
The problem
one
is
therefore to
be approached from another

are informed that
In the
Jewish Encyclopedia we
Asaph Ben
Chron.
Berechiah,
VI. 39), is
of the captive Levites carried off to Assyria (1
given in later Jewish legends as a vizier to Solomon.

1
The
article
W.
Wright
in
Journal of Sacred Literature, 1866,

"
p. 521.
Leipzig-Oxford, 1913.

which
is
87
written
by Gottheil
refers to the
Fihrist
(I,
9) as embody-
in Jellinek, B. H. V. 23. ing the same information as that found I was, however, unable to find the name of Asaph in the Fihrist.
If
Gottheil
is
right in his opinion that in the
Jewish tradition
in
Asaph
is
a vizier of Solomon,
we
might perhaps find
him a
certain similarity
with Ahikar.
vizier of
Ahikar was the
vizier of Sennacherib,
and Asaph the
Solomon.
fragment here printed, which can hardly be later than the fourth century of the Christian era, presents Asaph as a Jewish
The
writer and a Jewish historian, and adds that he wrote in Aramaic and There were evidently at the beginning of the Christian not in Greek.
era, or in
era,
some unknown period preceding or following the Christian In lapse of time books written in Aramaic by a certain Asaph.
mediaeval tradition brooded over his
name and made him
the vizier of
Solomon.
In
many
public libraries there
is
a Jewish medical treatise

in
attri-
buted to a certain
(No. 1197, 7) "the astronomer".
calls
The manuscript preserved Asaph. him Asaph ha-Yarhoni, that is

In
Paris
say,
to
the historical
introduction
to
the
treatise
The style, placed between Hippocrates and Dioscorides. however, of the treatise does not bear out such an antiquity, and
Asaph
is
Steinschneider has even thought that
it
was
translated into
Hebrew
from some Syriac
original.
The
previous lines
induce us to suppose that there might have been
a Jewish astronomer, historian, and physician called
Asaph
living in
the centuries immediately preceding or following the Christian era.
fixed to
His works having been lost, his surviving name might have been presome later literary productions, in order to enhance their credit.
On
tion.
this point
It
is
our fragment
is
important and deserves careful considera-
possible that the author of the medical treatise referred

distinct
to above
this
was a person
hypothesis the
Asaph who wrote

in the eighth
from the one quoted in this fragment in the medical treatise would
;
have lived somewhere
to the tenth century
and the For
Asaph
of our
fragment would have

it
lived at a
much
earlier date.
the sake of further researches
is
also useful to state, that in the
Chronicles of Jerakmeel (e&k.

to a certain
of
M.
Gaster, p. 230), there
is
reference
porary
Asaph, governor of the garden of Lebanon, and contemDarius King of Media, Cyrus King of Persia, and Zorob-
88

to
babel, and living, therefore, in a period immediately following the
Jewish deportation
Babylonia.
We
learn
from the Jewish
Encyclopedia (XII, 688)

is
first
that the duodecimal division of the
Zodiac
"
mentioned
is
in the
Jewish literature in the

to
;
"
Sefer Yezirah
In
which
(n.
of
unknown
is
antiquity (possibly sixth century).
Yalkut
Zodiac
418) an attempt
made
apply the twelve
signs of the
to the twelve tribes of Israel
the following lines will attribute this
attempt to hebraicize the Zodiac to a

script
much
earlier date.
The manu-
which contains the

"
text
is
the same as the one described above
under the section
Book
of
Shem
son of
Noah
".
L
TRANSLATION.
Again a discourse upon the twelve crrotêta of the sun, written by Andronicus the Wise, the Philosopher and the learned. Because the lovers of truth must always remember and understand
the good and prominent things which enlighten the
seek after them,
mind
of those
who
I have been anxious, my brethren, to lay down before the prominent question of the evolution of the course of (the sun), you that is to say the limits, the times and all the course of its succession
with the days of the
the influence of the twelve crrot^cia which gravitate circuitously in the number of the twelve months of the
year,
moon and
and which
foretell events
which happen
to us
by order
of
God,
and
creator of everything.
In
1
investigating
their
these o-rotêia the Greeks have defined

their entities.
shown
They have called them by the names of their gods, and they follow one another in the order of the Kavoves of the numbers of the days of the months, that is to say
according to the lunar computation. They begin with Dio son of Cronus, and they call him Aries. After him comes Poseidon his brother whom they call Pisces. After
names and
him comes Apollo,
After this they put they call Aquarius. of Water," but with us it is Capricornus. Ares, Dog " " After him they say Hermes, whom they call Kerwan ~ (Sagittarius). After this they say Pluto, whom they call Scorpio. After this they
whom
"
whom
they call
say Athena,
whom
"
whom
they call Libra. "
After
this
they put Aphrodite, they say Artemis,
they
1
call
Virgo
is
who is
Spica.
After
this
The
Is it
text here Crotus ?
ungrammatical and somewhat corrupt.

whom
of
89
After this they say Dionysus, whom they call they call Leo. After this come the Dioscuri, called Castor and Pollux, sons Cancer.
Zeus by Leda, and they
call
them Gemini.
After them comes
Hercules,
whom
they
call
Taurus.
Asaph
the writer and the historian of the

all
Hebrews
names
explains
and
teaches clearly the history of
these, but does not write and show
them with Greek names, but according As to the effects and influences Jacob.
enumerates them
fully
to the
of the sons of
of these a-Toiyeia he, too,
without adding or diminishing anything, but in
the simply changing in a clear language their names into those of He begins them in the Aramaic language and puts at Patriarchs. " Reuben ". After it comes Aries, the head Taurus, which he calls " l Simeon ". After it comes Pisces, which they which they call " " Issachar ". After it comes Aquarius, which they call Levi ". call " After it After it comes Capricornus, which they call Naphtali ". " and calls him Gad," and he is he sketches a rider while shooting,
analogous with the Kirek "
of the Greeks.
it
After
it
comes Scorpio,
calls
which he
After
calls
Dan
it
".
After
he mentions Libra, which he
he mentions Virgo, whom he calls "Dinah". " (comes) Leo, which he calls Judah ". Then he sketches " Zebulun ". After it he mentions Gemini, Cancer, which he calls " whom he calls " Ephraim and " Manasseh ".
"Asher".
it
After
As lovers of truth you will see and understand that these (crroixâ) have been named according to the number of days (of lunar computaI tion). say this, even if it happens that the peal of thunder is heard
(in
them).
At
each month of the year, each one of the crroixeia
turns circuitously according to the /caz/oVe? of the

tates according to the
months and gravi-
moons, each one of them having been brought about by the three KOLVOVZS of the evolution of the moon. This is their exposition, their order, and all their influence of which
of the
number
we
are aware.
1
The
Is
copyist has used
many verbs
in plural
which must have been
in singular.
2
not this a mistake for Crotus ?
The
matical.
original.
Syriac translation of
The
translator
all this last passage is corrupt and ungramdoes not seem to have understood the Greek
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COPTIC LITERATURE IN THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY.

BY THE REV. D.
P.
BUCKLE, M.A.
John Rylands Library
is
ONE
of the outstanding features of the
its
interesting collection of
this collection
ance of
may
Coptic manuscripts. importbe judged from the fact that it has
The
been examined by Monsignor Hebbelynck, Honorary Rector of the

University of Louvain, for the purpose of tracing scattered leaves of the same manuscript, and also from -the recent transcription of certain
fragments in order to supply what is regarded as essential material for As these manuscripts have been carefully a new Coptic lexicon. catalogued by Mr. W. E. Crum, it is not necessary to reproduce the
information given in his well-arranged and most useful catalogue about
their date, contents, provenance, etc.
account of printed Coptic texts and of aids to the study of the language contained in the
object of this article
is
The
to give a general
Library.
It is
remarkable that in Manchester it
is
possible to trace the history

its
of the interest taken
by
"
students of Coptic in Europe, from

critical
earliest
beginnings in the works of Kircher to the latest
estimates of the
most recent works
Egyptian Archaeology ". In view of the present relations between England and Egypt, and of the possibilities of the future, it is interesting to note that there has
of the collection of
in
The
Journal of
been a continuous encouragement

scripts,
Coptic manu-
and
of the editing of texts in this country, so that continental
scholars
have been indebted
to English support
both
for research
and
publication.
The
is
best account of the early history of Coptic studies in
given by E. Quatremere in his
"
Europe
Recherches sur
Litter ature de 1'Egypte" (Paris, 1808). the attention of students of literary history, as teresting
Langue et la This work is well worth

la
it
traces, in
a most in-
way, the progress
of nearly
119
two
centuries of
research, with
120
minute care, and with a wonderful wealth of references to original The first European collector of Coptic manuscripts noted authorities.
by Quatremere
Gassendi,
the
in
is that of N. C. F. de Peiresc, whose life by P. well-known philosopher and mathematician, is to
be found
the Library in
same time Pietro della Valle

brought
a contemporary binding. About the made a tour in the East, and himself
back several Coptic manuscripts.
His
life
also
may be
studied in the Library in four different editions.
But the most important pioneer work was done by Kircher, whose Prodromus Coptus" (Rome, 1636), and "Lingua Aegyptiaca " restituta (Rome, 1643), are in the Library, bound together in one The first of these works contains a chapter on the utility of volume.
"
the Coptic language, and concludes with a grammar, which
is
prob-
The second reproduces gramably the earliest printed in Europe. mars of previous Egyptian authors and adds the "Scala magna, or
The attempt at Coptic lexicography. John Rylands Library also possesses a copy of the life of Robert
vocabulary," being the
first
Huntington (1637-1701), the first English collector of Coptic manuscripts, who lived in Syria and brought home a collection which passed Thomas Marshall (1621-1685), Rector of Lincoln to the Bodleian. " New TestaCollege, Oxford, commenced an edition of the Coptic
ment" with type provided by Dr. Fell, Bishop of Oxford, but only one sheet (Matt i.-iii.) was actually printed. This scheme is men tioned
in Marshall's preface to a curious little
duodecimo volume, by Josephus
Historia Jacobitarum seu Coptorum," published at the Abudacnus, Sheldonian Theatre, Oxford, in 1675.
"
After Marshall's death

to
is
have ceased
for
in 1685 encouragement and interest seem a time, but the early part of the eighteenth century
marked by the publication of three Coptic Liturgies in a translation by Renaudot (Paris, 1716), and his dissertation on the language. Renaudot apparently was not in a position to secure Coptic type*
Contemporaneously
by Wilkins of The Lord's Prayer" in the Chamberlayne collection (1715), and of the "New Testament" at the expense of the University of Oxford (1716).
find the editions
we
"
73 1) he published the Pentateuch ". On the relation of the text of Wilkins and that given by subsequent editors to the manuscripts, reference should be made to an important article by " Professor Brooke in The Journal of Theological Studies," III. 258-78.
Fifteen years later (1
"
COPTIC LITERATURE
121
Wilkins was a Prussian whose original name Wilke (latinized as comWilkius) was changed to that by which he is best known, as a " " New Testament is severely pliment to the Bishop of Chester. His Lacroze accriticized by Lacroze both for its text and translation.
cused Wilkins of profound ignorance of Coptic, and went so far as In the edition of the to place him below Kircher in that matter. " Pentateuch/* however, Quatremere considers that Wilkins surpassed himself. According to the same authority the receipt of a copy of the " New Testament," by Richard Cumberland, Bishop of Peterborough,
greatly interested that aged prelate,
who, though eighty-four years
of
age, gave the rest of his
life
to the study of the language.
The middle
study
in Italy.
of the eighteenth century reveals a revival of
Coptic
Tuki, a Copt by birth, and Bishop of Arsinoe, began
100 years after the appearance of Kircher's Prodromus," a series of works of which Quatremere gives the following list: "Missal" (1736), "Psalter" (1744), "Dito publish
at
Rome,
exactly
"
urnal" (1750), " "
"
Pontifical" (1761, and 1762),
"
"
Ritual
(1763),
Grammar
(1
778).
Of
these the
John Rylands Library possesses

Tuki's
the "Psalter"
largely used
and the
"Grammar".
"
"Grammar" was
of
by Peyron
in his
Lexicon
"
for illustration
Coptic
words.
We
passed
Jordan,
now come
"
to Lacroze,
who, according
et
to
all his
predecessors in the study of Coptic.
Quatremere, surHis life by C. E.

"
Histoire de la
1
1
Vie
des Ouvrages de Mr.
Lacroze
(Amsterdam, 74 ), is also in the Library. With the name of Lacroze must be connected those of Scholz, Royal Preacher at Berlin, and
Woide, a Pole by origin, all of whom were ultimately indebted to the University of Oxford for the publication of their researches. The
Lacroze (1775) arranged by Scholz, annotated and " " indexed by Woide, is bound with the Grammar of Scholz, edited
of
11
"
Lexicon
by Woide (1778),
in the
The end
Italy,
of the eighteenth century
both on the part of due to the interest of Cardinal Stephen Borgia, Secretary, and after-
John Rylands copy. shows a noteworthy activity in native and foreign students, which was partly
wards Prefect
give us the
of the
Propaganda.
of
The
presses of
"
Parma and Bologna
Valperga [Didymus Taurimensis, q.v. in and Mingarelli's "Reliquiae" (1785). John Rylands Catalogue], Valperga's "Grammar" displays a remarkable advance on Tuki's
Grammar"
122
its type and in its improved This improvement is an indication that we have reached arrangement. the time when the accumulation of evidence and the advance of know-
already mentioned, both in the clearness of
ledge are beginning to give better editing of text and grammar, with
improved presentation and estimates

this in Georgi,
of textual material.
We
find
" (Rome, 1 789), a fine copy in olive Gospel according to St. John morocco with the arms of Pius VI ; in Ford's edition of Woide's
represented in the Library
by
his
"
Fragments
of the
"
Sahidic Fragments of the

in
New
Testament," also a magnificent vol-
Catalogue of the Borgian Museum Coptic Georgi and Woide both give facsimiles of manuscripts, Manuscripts, and Zoega classifies the script by a method which is still regarded as
ume, and
Zoega's
a standard, and thus prepared the

palaeography.
way
for the
development
of
Coptic
"
When Quatremere's book was published Zoega's " Catalogus was

already printed, but its publication was deferred by a lawsuit between Cardinal Borgia's heirs and the Congregation of the Propaganda. It was actually published in 1810. The Library possesses a copy of
Much information about Biblical texts, the Leipzig reprint of 1903. " after Quatremere's account ceases, will be found in Hyvernat's Studies " " Revue Biblique (1896 on the Coptic Versions," reprinted from the
and 1897).
After Zoega the next important name is that of H. Tattam (1789-1868), whose manuscripts formed the nucleus of the Crawford
His own published John Rylands Library. 'The Gospels" (1829); "Grammar," 1st ed. (1830); "Lexicon "(1835); "Minor Prophets "( 836) "Book
Collection
in the
now
works include:
of
Job" (1846);
;
"Apostolic
Constitutions"
(1848);
"Greater
of
Prophets" (1852)
Job," the
"
"Grammar," 2nd
ed. (1853).
"The Book
"
mar
"
Apostolic Constitutions," and both
editions of the
Gram-
are in the Library.
Meanwhile, Lagarde (1827-1891) [formerly Boetticher, q.v. in the John Rylands Catalogue] had commenced his textual labours and
1852 published at Halle editions of the "Acts of the Apostles" " and of the Epistles," both of which are in the Library, in copies
in
which belonged
44
Library also possesses his Orientalia" (1879), which describes the manuscripts bought from Brugsch by the Gottingen Library, reprints Old Testament fragments,
to
Bishop Westcott.
The
COPTIC LITERATURE
and
In the years 1881
123
intimates his desire to investigate scattered material in England.
and 1882 Lagarde received
200 from Bishop
promoters of learning, to enable him to One result of examine manuscripts at Rome, Florence, and Turin. " the publication of these investigations was Aegyptiaca" in 1883. " Wisdom" in this work was presented to translation of the text of the Library by the late Dr. J. H. Moulton. " The Earliest Known In 1898, Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge published Other in the British Museum ". Coptic Psalter from Codex 5000
Lightfoot and other English
'
texts
from the same source were published by Sir Herbert Thompson, (1) "The Coptic (Sahidic) Version of Certain Books of the Old
Testament" (1908),
and (2)
"
Coptic
Palimpsest containing
Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Judith, and Esther" (1911); and by Mr. " E. O. Winstedt in The Journal of Theological Studies," X. 233-54.
The
Library
possesses the
Ciasca-Balestri
edition
of
the
Roman
fragments of the
"
Old Testament," and Homer's

"
"
New Testament,"
Texts Sahidic. Gospels edited by Budge, Crum, Delaporte, and Winstedt will be found in the
in
the whole in Bohairic, as well as the
"
The Grammars of Stern, Steindorff, and Catalogue of Additions. " " Mall on, and the Berlin reprint of Peyron's Lexicon may be
consulted.
The
collection of material for

size of
Mr. Crum's new Lexicon,
which
will
be twice the
Peyron's book, has been interrupted
by
the war, but nevertheless continues to advance steadily.
Having traced in a very general and confessedly imperfect way the light which the Library throws upon the history of Coptic study, and having indicated some of the useful assistance which it provides,
I
may
conclude with the hope that
its
treasures will continue to enable
students
knowledge of the life and and especially of the valuable conEgypt, tribution which the Coptic Versions and homiletic literature make to the textual criticism and interpretation of the Bible.
investigators to gain a better
and
history of early Christian
STEPS
TOWARDS THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LOUVAIN.

In the following pages
we
print the sixth
list
of contributions
ta
the
this
new
library for the exiled University of Louvain,
and
we
take
opportunity of again thanking the respective

to our appeal.
donors
for their
wel-
come response
This
list
does not complete the record of gifts which have been received to date, for such is the pressure upon our space in the present
have been compelled to hold over a further list of the most recent of those gifts for publication in our next number.
issue that
we
have ventured to suggest the titles of a number of important works of reference, which are considered to be indispensable to the efficiency of a reference and research library such
In previous appeals
we
we have in contemplation, in the belief that there were our readers and their circle of friends many who would gladly amongst participate in our scheme of replacement, did they know what works would be acceptable. These appeals have met with an encouraging
as the
one
works have been added to the " a set of the notably Dictionary of National Sons, of Cambridge. Biography," presented by Messrs. Heffer should welcome further offers of such sets as the following Godefroy's " " Dictionnaire de 1'ancienne langue franâise" the Benedictins His" " " toire litteraire de la France the Acta Sanctorum of the Bolland" " ists the Victoria History of the Counties of England the two " series of the Abbe Migne's and his collection of EncycloPatrologia," " " Perrot and Chipiez's Histoire de Tart dans Fantiquite paedias " " Chevalier's Repertoire des sources historiques du moyen age " " " Brunei's Manuel du libraire et de 1'amateur de livres Notices
response,
useful sets of
collection as a result,
and many very
&
We
et extraits des manuscrits
" facsimiles Bibliotheque National e " of the great Biblical and other manuscripts, such as the Codex " " Codex Sinaiticus," Codex Alexandrinus," and the Vaticanus,"
de
la
series of facsimiles edited
by
M. de
Vries
"
;
des Hautes Etudes," to mention only a few

124
titles
Bibliotheque de FEcole which occur to us
RECONSTRUCTION OF LOUVAIN LIBRARY

as
125
we
write,
and which
we
mention as an indication to would-be
benefactors of the character of the works
we
are anxious to obtain.
Since the publication of our last report, a
new impetus
has been
Miss E. Dixon, of Cambridge (to whom we given to our scheme by are indebted already for much practical help), by her advocacy in
the press of the purchase of selections from the library of the late Dr. Gwatkin, Dixie Professor of Ecclesiastical History in the University
of Cambridge,
which was
on
listed for sale in
May last by
Messrs. Heffer
"
&
Sons.
In cataloguing the library Messrs.
Church History and " Mediaeval History," comprising together 523 items, which were " " 60 and 90 respectively. Miss for the sum of en bloc offered " " Dixon in her letter to The Times (1 7th May) pointed out that it
together
the works
"
Heffer wisely grouped
Early European
would be a thousand
which
it
pities
for such valuable specialist
collections,
had taken Prof. Gwatkin a
lifetime to get together, to

for
be
dispersed,
and suggested that here was a unique opportunity
some
generous benefactor to give practical expression to his sympathy with

this movement by making, at the comparatively trifling cost of 50, a most welcome and valuable contribution to the new library, which
1
is
already taking very definite shape in the John Rylands Library.
The
and
print
first
response to this appeal was as prompt as it was encouraging, during the morning of the day in which the letter appeared in
several offers to purchase the collections
were received.
The
was from
the Master of
of the College, of which Prof.
Emmanuel College (Dr. Giles) on behalf Gwatkin was a Fellow, and which is
the headquarters of the exiled Belgian Professors in Cambridge. Dr. Giles proposes for the present to arrange the works comprised in this
gift in
the set of rooms which have been placed at the service of the
Belgian scholars, so that their
own
Professor of Divinity,
Canon Van
Hoonacker, may have easy access to them whenever he pleases. The " copy of the first edition of the Dictionary of National Biography," already referred to as having been presented by Mr. Heffer, is also
housed
in
Emmanuel
it
copy which used
College, and will in time take the place of the to stand in the vestibule of the library of Louvain.
We think
is
willingness to take part in
only due to those who so kindly expressed their Miss Dixon's plan, that their names should
In the order in
:
be placed on record.
they are as follows
which
their offers
were received
;
Mr. A. B. Burney,
of
London
Miss Agnes
126

; ;
Lord Muir Mackenzie ; Miss Kemp, of London and Miss F. M. Bruce, of London. AlSir George Macalpine though by the prompt action of Dr. Giles they were deprived of the
Fry, of Failand
;
the collections referred to, they very graciously privilege of presenting
allowed us to
select other
suitable
works from the same

to our assistance
library to a
given amount, or promised to
come
whenever another
advantageous opportunity should occur.
We must
Librarian of
his claim as
also gratefully
acknowledge the generous action
of the
Ann Arbor University,

"
first
come
first
Michigan, U.S.A., in renouncing " served to the two collections, in favour
of Louvain.
but
in reply to
Mr. Bishop's order was the first to reach Cambridge, a cablegram asking him to waive his claim in favour of
so.
Louvain, he promptly and generously consented to do
The
following circular letter, issued

of
by Lord Muir Mackenzie,
as
Chairman
the Executive Committee, has attracted
many
offers of
assistance, the details of
which
we hope
to
be
in
a position to print in
our next issue

'
The Executive Committee (appointed early in 1916 at a large representative meeting with Viscount Bryce, O.M., in the Chair) for
promoting the resuscitation of the Library at the University of Louvain after the War made an appeal through the Press, to which a satisfactory response
was made, and they now think that the time has come for making a more personal appeal. "The Committee have already received the promise of a considerable number of valuable books, and their experience, as well as that of the John Rylands Library at Manchester, where several
thousands of volumes have already been collected, so as to be ready for sending to Louvain when the time comes, shows that there are
many people both able and willing to help by Henry Guppy, the John Rylands Librarian, is
Committee, and there
is
their
gifts.
Mr.
of
member
the
complete co-operation between the Committee and the John Rylands Library, with the kind consent of its Governors. " The Committee, as they stated in their former appeal, suggest that sympathisers should send lists or descriptions of books, which they
may be
willing to give, to their
Butler, Librarian of the

after such lists
House
of
Honorary Secretary (Mr. Hugh Lords), [or to Mr. Guppy], who,

lists
have been collated with the
of the
books already
127
write as to the acceptance of any volumes which may presented, will be kindly offered, and as to the place to which they should eventually
be
sent.
"
It is
well to
insist
on the
fact that the
Louvain Library was a
to general library and by no means confined or mainly confined Books therefore of all kinds ecclesiastical or theological literature.
fine
and on
will be "
It
all subjects
suitable for the shelves of a University Library
welcomed.
should be added that
lists
of the gifts
and donors
will
be
cation of the
published from time to time in the BULLETIN John Ry lands Library."

In our last issue reference
the periodical publi-
was made
to the spontaneous offer of

1
Messrs. King
&
Co., of Westminster, of a collection of
79 volumes
expressed the hope that other publishers would follow their example. Mr. Fisher Unwin has been good
published by them, and
we
enough to submit a
willing
liberal
own publishing, which he was to contribute, and from which we were able to make a very For this help we are grateful, and again express selection.
list
of
works
of his
the hope that
it
may
to
stimulate other publishing houses to
do
likewise.
We are glad
daily.
be able
to give fresh proof of the
sentative character of the offers of assistance
widely reprewhich reach us almost
One
of the latest is
from the
Town
Clerk of Auckland,
New
Zealand, intimating the desire of the Council, at the suggestion of Mr. H. Shaw, a local benefactor to the local Public Library, to " donate to the University of Louvain a duplicate copy of Biblia
Latina
cum
glossa
ordinaris
Walfridi
Strabonis
et
interlineari
Anselmi.
accepted, and
land
..." It is needless to say the offer we hasten to place this enlightened Town Council on record, in the hope that
similar use of them.
has been gratefully

action of the
it
Auck-
may
stimulate the
of duplicates
librarians
and committees of other libraries in the possession
to
make
have received intimation from the Secretaries of the Egypt Exploration Fund and the Royal Meteorological Society that complete
sets of their respective publications
We
are to be forwarded as soon as they
can be accumulated.
several of the
This leads us to say that

sets
we
are assured
by
Louvain Professors that
of the transactions of the
learned societies and of the learned periodicals will be most acceptable contributions to the new library.
128

In these hurriedly written paragraphs,
interest
we
have evidence of the unabated

for replacing the
gift
and the accompanying lists, which is being evinced in
our scheme
devastated library, but

in
much remains
is
to
be done
if
the
library
which we have
contemplation
to repre-
sent anything approaching the equivalent of the library so wantonly destroyed by the vandals of Germany, and for that reason we renew
and emphasize our appeal

In order to obviate will regard
it
for assistance.
any needless duplication

if
of gifts, the Librarian
as a favour
those
who may
scheme
a view
will, in the first instance,
send to him a
wish to participate in the list of the works they
are willing to contribute, so that the register

of ascertaining
list
may be
examined, with
whether any of the
titles
already figure therein.

inad-
In our last
of contributions at
pages 437-40 we have
vertently acknowledged the gift of a long list of books as from the " The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts".
acknowledgment should have been made

"
Associates of Dr. Bray
in
the
name
of
"The
through the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, and we offer our apologies to the Secretary for our mistake.
DUDLEY BAXTER,
BAXTER
Esq., B.A., of Geneva.
With an appendix showing the (Dudley) England's cardinals. of the sacred pallium by the archbishops of Canterbury and reception Westminster. London, 1903. 8vo.
K.Q.
THE RIGHT HONOURABLE EARL BEAUCHAMP,

BRUCE (Thomas) Earl of Elgin and
Memoirs of Thomas, Ailesbury. Earl of Ailesbury, written by himself. Buckley.] [Edited by W. 2 vols. 4to. Westminster, 1890. [Roxburghe Club.]
GUILLAUME
of the life of man, englished with inby F. J. Furnivall by John Lydgate troduction, notes glossary and indexes by Katharine B. Locock. [RoxLondon, 1905. 4to. burghe Club.]
;
de Degulleville.
.
The
pilgrimage
the text edited
HOLME
(Randle)
blazon.
The academy of armory, or, a storehouse of armory and Second volume. Edited by I. H. Jeayes. [Roxburghe Club.]
4to.
of John Maundeuill, being the travels Edited by G. F. Knight (1322-56). Fol. 1889. Westminster, [Roxburghe Club.]
London, 1905.
MANDEVILLE
of
(Sir John)
The buke
Sir John Mandeville,
Warner.

TlTUS FLAVIUS SABINUS VESPASIANUS, Emperor
of
129
Rome.
Titus and
in rhymed couplets. Edited Vespasian, or the destruction of Jerusalem from the London and Oxford MSS. by J. A. Herbert. [Roxburghe
Club.]
London, 1905.
K. F.
4to.
MISS
BROTHERS,
of Haverthwaite.
ROBERTS
selection of photographs of stars, star-clusters and (Isaac) nebulae, together with information concerning the instruments and the methods employed in the pursuit of celestial photography. London,
[1893].
4to.
SACCHI (Angelo) Catalogo di 1321 stelle doppie misurate equatoriale di Merz all' osservatorio del Collegio Romano a colle misure anteriori. Roma, 860. 4to.
]
.
col
grande
confrontate
THE REV.
D. P.
BUCKLE,
M.A.,
of
Manchester.
BUCKLE (David Purdey) Bohairic lections of Wisdom from a Rylands Library MS. [Extract from the Journal of Theological Studies, Oct. 1915,
Vol. XVII, No. 65.] [London, 1915.]
8vo.
CALCUTTA: THE INDIAN MUSEUM.
ALCOCK
-
(A.)
An
Royal Indian Marine Survey Ship Investigator.
account of the deep-sea Brachyura collected by the 4to. Calcutta, 1899.
An
Indian Marine Survey Ship Investigator.

-
account of the deep-sea Madreporaria collected by the Royal 4to. Calcutta, 1898.
Indian
Catalogue of the Indian Decapod Crustacea in the collection of the Museum. Part iii, Fasc. 1 .] [Part i, Fasc. 1 -2 Part ii, Fasc. 1 4to. Calcutta, 1901-10. 4pts.
; ;
A descriptive catalogue of the Indian deep-sea Crustacea

in the Indian
Decapod
Being a revised account of the deep-sea species collected by the Royal Indian Marine Survey 4to. Calcutta, \ 901 Ship Investigator.
.
Macrura and Anomala,
Museum.
descriptive catalogue of the Indian deep-sea fishes in the Indian Being a revised account of the deep-sea fishes collected by the Royal Indian Marine Survey Ship Investigator. Calcutta, 1899.
Museum.
4to.
-
of the Indian
guide to the zoological collections exhibited in the Fish Gallery Museum. Calcutta, 899. 8vo.
1
ANDERSON (Jrm)
[Vol. 1, by J. Anderson: Vol. 2, 91. 2vols. 8vo.
Catalogue of mammalia in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Calcutta, 1881by W. L. Sclater.]
BENTHAM
(T.)
An
illustrated catalogue of the Asiatic
horns and antlers

8vo.
in the collection of the Indian
Museum.
9
Calcutta, 1908.
130

:
CALCUTTA
Annotated list of the Asiatic beetles in Indian Museum. Edited by the Superintendent, the collection of the Indian Museum. Part 1. natural history section. Family Carabidae, subfamily Cicindelinae.
By N. Annandale, and W. Horn.
Calcutta, 1909.
8vo.
Memoirs.
history section.
-
Edited by the Superintendent, Indian Museum, natural Vols. 1-5. 4to. Calcutta, 1907-15.
Records.
(A
8vo.
intendent, Indian
Museum,
Edited by the Superjournal of Indian zoology.) natural history section. Calcutta, 1907-15.
Vols. 1-11.
CLARK (Austin Hobart) The Crinoids of the Indian Ocean.

of the Indian
[Echinoderma
moths
Museum, Part
7.]
Calcutta, 1912.
4to.
of the
of India.
COTES
(E. C.) and SWINHOE (C.) 8vo. 7 pts. Calcutta, 1887-89.
A catalogue
of Oriental
DISTANT (W.
1889-92.
L.) 7 pts. 4to.
monograph
Cicadidae.
Calcutta,
FINN
(F.) guide to the zoological collections exhibited in the Bird 8vo. Calcutta^ 1900. Gallery of the Indian Museum.
List of the
birds
in
the
Indian
Museum.
Part
I.
Corvidae, Paradiseidae, 8vo. cutta, 1901.
Ptilonorhynchidae and
Crateropodidae.
Families Cal-
HOSSACK (W.
C.) Aids to the identification of rats connected with plague in India, with suggestions as to the collection of specimens. Second edition. Allahabad, 1907. 8vo.
INVESTIGATOR.
Illustrations of the zoology of H.M. Indian Marine Surveying Steamer Investigator, under the command of Commander A. Calcutta, Carpenter and of Commander R. F. Hoskyn [and others.] 4to. 16 pts. 1892-1909.
KOEHLER
the
(Rene) An account of the deep-sea Asteroidea collected by Royal Indian Marine Survey Ship Investigator. [Echinoderma of the
Indian
Museum,
part 5.]
Calcutta, 1909.
4to.
An
Indian Marine Survey Ship Investigator. Museum, part 1.] Calcutta, 1899. 4to.
account of the deep-sea Ophiuroidea collected by the Royal [Echinoderma of the Indian
An
Museum,
account
part 8.]
of
the
Echinoidea.
4to.
[Echinoderma
of
the
Indian
Calcutta, 1914.
An
Indian
-
Museum,
account of the shallow-water Asteroidea. 4to. Calcutta, 1910. part 6.]

of the
[Echinoderma of the
Illustrations
shallow-water
Royal Indian Marine Survey Ship

Indian
Museum,
part 2.]
Investigator. 4to. Calcutta, 1900.
Ophiuroidea collected by the [Echinoderma of the

KOEHLER
131
(Rene) and VANEY (C.) An account of the deep-sea Holothurioidea collected by the Royal Indian Marine Survey Ship InCalcutta, vestigator. [Echinoderma of the Indian Museum, part 3.] 1905. 4to.
-
An
account of the
littoral
Indian
Marine Survey Ship

part 4.]
Museum,
Investigator. 4to. Calcutta, 1908.
Holothurioidea collected by the Royal [Echinoderma of the Indian
MASON
of
(James
new genera and
collection of
the Mantodea, with descriptions and an enumeration of the specimens, in the the Indian Museum, Calcutta. 2 pts. Calcutta, 1889-91.
Wood)
A catalogue of
species,
8vo.
-
lection in the Indian
Figures and descriptions of nine species of Squillidae from the colMuseum. Calcutta, 1895. 4to.
NEVILL
-
(Geoffrey) Catalogue of mollusca in the Indian Fasciculus E. 8vo. Calcutta, 1877.
Museum,
Calcutta.
Hand
list
of mollusca in the Indian
Museum,
Calcutta.
Calcutta,
1878-84.
2vols.
8vo.
SCHULZE
(Franz Eilhard)
An
account of the Indian Triaxonia collected
by the Royal Indian Marine Survey Ship Investigator. The German original translated into English by Robert von Lendenfeld. Calcutta,
1902.
4to.
SCLATER
-
(William
Calcutta, 1891.
Lutley) 8vo.
List
of
snakes
in
the
Indian
Museum.
8vo.
of
List of the Batrachia in the Indian
Museum.
London, 1892.
SEWELL
proved
(R.
utility
B.
Seymour) and
and
CHAUDHURI
as mosquito-destroyers.
(B. L.) Indian 8vo. Calcutta, 1912.
fish
THOMSON
W.
(John Arthur)
HENDERSON (W.
.
D.)
An
account of
the Alcyonarians collected by the Royal Indian Investigator in the Indian Ocean. [Part 1 By
Marine Survey Ship J. A. Thomson and

J. J.
D. Henderson.
2
Part 2.
pts.
By J. A. Thomson and
of
Simpson.]
Cal-
cutta, 1906-09.
4to.
MONSIGNOR CARTON DE WIART,

minster.
Archbishop
House, West-
ORDERS.
institutae.
Ordines Anglicani.
.
Expositio historica et theologica cura et
studio commissionis ab
Herberto Cardinali Vaughan.

4to.
.
. .
... ad hoc
Londini, 1896.
Sicily,
PHILIP, of Bourbon
Bourbon-Siciles
.
.
...
.
(Discours de 12 du mois de Janvier 1916, etc.)

.
. .
le prince Philippe de Manage de princesse Marie-Louise de Bourbon-Orleans. le cardinal Amette archeveque de Paris prononce le
Prince.
la
(Discours du
G.
Bertrand
1916.
prononce
le
11
du mois de Janvier 1916,
etc.)
Neuilly,
4to.
132

M.A.,
of
THE REV. ARTHUR DIXON,

APOSTOLIC FATHERS.
S. Polycarp.
translations.
Haughton Green, Denton.
Revised
The Apostolic Fathers. Part 2. S. Ignatius. texts with introductions, notes, dissertations, and
London, 1885.
2
vols. in 3.
By
J.
B. Lightfoot.
8vo.
BIBLE
tion
ENGLISH.
and notes by B. F. Westcott. [Reprinted from the " Speaker's Com8vo. London, 1882. mentary ".]
The Gospel
according
to St. John.
With
introduc-
The
Epistle to the
Hebrews
the
Greek
8vo.
text with notes
and essays
by B. F. Westcott.
London, 1889.
:
The Epistles of St. John the Greek text with notes and essays 8vo. B. F. Westcott. London, 1883.
St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians.
tion,
by
A revised
B.
text,
with introducSixth
edition.
notes,
and
dissertations.
By
J.
Lightfoot.
London, 1880.
8vo.
Saint Paul's Epistle to the Philippians. revised text, with inand dissertations. By J. B. Lightfoot. Sixth edition. London, 1881. 8vo.
troduction, notes,
text,
revised Saint Paul's Epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon. with introductions, notes and dissertations. B. Lightfoot. By J. Fifth edition. London, 1880. 8vo.
LIGHTFOOT
preached
in the
(Joseph Barber) Leaders in the Northern Church. Diocese of Durham. London, 1890. 8vo.
of
St.
Sermons
Notes on Epistles London, 1895. 8vo.
Paul, from unpublished commentaries.
MURRAY
4to.
principles,
new English dictionary on historical (James Augustus Henry) founded mainly on the materials collected by the Philological Edited by J. A. H. Murray [and others]. Oxford, 1888, etc. Society.
In progress.
WESTCOTT
(Brooke Foss) Bishop of Durham. The Bible in the Church. popular account of the collection and reception of the Holy Scriptures New edition. London, 1879. 16mo. in the Christian Churches.
Christian aspects of
life.
London,
897.
8vo.
of
Christus Consummator
Christ in relation to
some aspects of the work and person modern thought. London, 1886. 8vo.
:
Essays in the history of religious thought in the west. 1891. 8vo.
London,
The Gospel
and
history.
of the Resurrection
edition.
Third
London, 1874.
life.
thoughts on its relation to reason 8vo.
The
Incarnation and
introduction to
common
the
1
1 .
London, 1893.
the
8vo.
Sixth
edition.
An
Cambridge and London, 88
study of 8vo.
Gospels.

WESTCOTT
Father
John.
:
133
(Brooke Foss) Bishop of Durham.
The
revelation of the
short lectures,
on the
titles
(
of the
Lord
in the
Gospel
of St.
London and Cambridge, 1884.
8vo.
The
-
revelation of the risen Lord.
Second
edition.
London and
Cambridge, 1882.
8vo.
8vo.
Social aspects of Christianity.
London and Cambridge, 1887.
of B. F. Westcott.
from the writings Thoughts on revelation and life, being selections Arranged and edited by Stephen Phillips. London,
8vo.
1891.
COLONEL
8vo.
G. E. ELIOT, of
Islip,
Oxon.
10 vols. in 5.
MACCHIAVELLI
(Niccolo) Opere.
Italia [Florence], 1826.
MISS HELEN FARQUHAR, of London. BURNS (Edward) The coinage of Scotland illustrated
Thomas
1887.
Coats, Esq., of Ferguslie
from the cabinet of
amd
other collections.
Edinburgh,
3 vols.
4to.
PROFESSOR FINLAY,
BASTIAT
.
M.D., LL.D.,
of
Glasgow.
of F.
(Frederic) Fallacies of protection being the Sophismes economiBastiat, translated from the fifth edition of the French by P.
;ues Stirling.
London, 1909.
8vo.
BEDFORD
edition.
(Charles H.)
clinical
handbook
of urine analysis.
Second
Edinburgh, 1904.
8vo.
:
BLANDFORD
treatment,
(G. Fielding) Insanity and its treatment lectures on the medical and legal, of insane patients. Second edition.
8vo.
Edinburgh, 1877.
BOUCHARD
(Charles Jacques) Lectures on auto-intoxication in disease, or Translated, with a preface, by T. self-poisoning of the individual. Oliver. 8vo. Philadelphia and London, 894.
\
CLINICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

volumes and indexes.]
8vo.
Transactions.
(-40).
Vol.
[With supplementary 45 vols. London, 1868-1909.
FERRIER (David) The Croonian

livered before the
Lectures on cerebral localisation. DeRoyal College of Physicians, June, 1890. London,
1890.
-
8vo.
On tabes dorsalis. The Lumleian Lectures delivered before the London, 1906. Royal College of Physicians, London, March, 1906.
8vo.
FlNLAYSON (Thomas Campbell)

of Professor
religion " Henry Drummond's Natural law in
Biological
an essay in criticism the spiritual world ".
Third
edition.
London, 1895.
8vo.
134

disease being the Croonof Physicians,
GREEN HOW (Edward Headlam) On Addi son's

ian Lectures for 1875, delivered before the
Royal College
revised and illustrated.
London, 1875.
8vo.
in the causation of disease
;
HAIG
(Alexander) Uric acid as a factor

.
contribution to the pathology of high arterial tension, headache, epilepsy, mental depression, and other disorders. Second edition. London,
.
.
1894.
8vo.
HARRIS (Thomas)
Post-mortem handbook, or
how
to
examinations for clinical and for medico-legal purposes. 8vo.
conduct post-mortem London, 1887.
HORSLEY
With
(Sir Victor Alexander Hayden) and STURGE (Mary D.) Alcohol and the human body an introduction to the study of the subject.
;
a chapter by
A. Newsholme.
London, 1907.
8vo.
KERR
NEALE
prudence.
(Norman) Inebriety, its etiology, pathology, treatment and Second edition. London, 1889. 8vo.
(Richard)
edition.
\
juris-
The
Third
(Appendix including the years 1891

-99.
London,
89
medical digest, or busy practitioner's vade-mecum. to March, 1899.) 2 vols. 8vo.

diagnosis of diseases of the kidney amenable to \ 902. 8vo.
:
NEWMAN
PARKER
(David)
The
surgical treatment.
Glasgow,
(Robert William) Diphtheria
its
nature and treatment.
With
special reference to the operation, after-treatment, and complications of Third edition, largely re-written. London, 1891. 8vo. tracheotomy.
PAW
epicriticism.
(Frederick William) The physiology of the London, 1895. 8vo.
carbohydrates.
An
PEKELHARING
(Cornells Adrianus) and WlNKLER (Cornelis) Beri-beri. Researches concerning its nature and cause and the means of its arrest. Translated by J. Cantlie. Edinburgh and London, 1893. 8vo.
RlNGER
1874.
(Sydney)
8vo.
A handbook of therapeutics.
the individual.
Fourth edition.
London,
ROYCE
(Josiah)
The world and
Gifford Lectures delivered

series.
before the University of Aberdeen. the moral order. York, 1901.
Second
8vo.
Nature,
man and
New
SMITH
(Philip Henry Pye) The Lumleian Lectures on certain points in the aetiology of disease, delivered before the Royal College of Physicians, 1892 ; to which is added the Harveian Oration delivered before the
College in 1893.
London, 1895.
8vo.
SUTTON
1907.
(J.
Bland) Gall-stones and diseases of the bile-ducts.
London,
8vo.
THOMSON
(John Arthur) Heredity.
London, 1908.
8vo.

MRS. BUCKLEY FISHER,
of
135
Oxford.
BANCROFT
discovery of the continent. 6 vols. 8vo.
the (George) History of the United States of America, from Thoroughly revised edition. London, 1876.
BUCKLEY
1893.
(Robert Burton)
4to.
Irrigation
works
in India
and Egypt.
London,
GREEN
4
vols.
(John Richard) History of the English people. 8vo.
London, 1881-85.
MISS AGNES FRY, of Failand, Bristol. MASSART (Jean) Esquisse de la geographic

avec une annexe.
Bruxelles, 1910.
F. E.
2
of
vols.
botanique de 8vo.
la
Belgique
MR. and MRS.
QARSIDE,
Hampstead, London.
BASSELIN (Olivier) Vaux-de-Vire d'O. Basselin et de Jean Le Houx suivis d'un choix d'anciens Vaux-de-Vire et d'anciennes chansons
Nouvelle edition, normandes. 8vo. Paris, 1858.
revue
et
publiee
par
P.
L.
Jacob.
CARR&
(Paul)
mi-cote
comedies en prose.
poemes dramatiques poesies diverses recits et 8vo. Paris, [1888].

:
HERBERT (George) The poetical works, illustrated. MlGNET (Francois Auguste Marie) Histoire de la
depuis
London, 1865.
8vo.
revolution franchise,
1789 jusqu'en
in
1 .
1814.
Septieme
edition.
Bruxelles,
1838.
2 vols
8vo.
STAEL-HOLSTEI N (Anne Louise Germaine de)

Paris, 1845.
8vo.
Baroness. Del' Allemagne.
VOLTAIRE
histoire
et (Francois Marie Arouet de) Precis du siecle de Louis du parlement de Paris. Nouvelle edition revue collationnee sur 1' edition Beuchot et 8vo. Paris, 1880. soigneusement annotee.
XV
ALBERT
ADDISON
Hurd.
B.
GHEWY,
Esq., of Buckfastleigh, Devon.
(Right Hon. Joseph) The works. London, 1854-56. 6 vols. 8vo.
With
notes by Richard
BAKER
narrative of the expedition to (Sir Samuel White) Ismailia. Central Africa for the suppression of the slave trade, organized by Ismail, Khedive of Egypt. London, 1874. 2 vols. 8vo.
COBDEN
Bright and
Edited by (Richard) Speeches on questions of public policy. J. E. T. Rogers. London, 1870. 2 vols. 8vo.
[pseud,
vols.
i.e.
J.
ELIOT (George)
don, 1876.
Mary Ann
Evans.]
Daniel Deronda.
Lon-
8vo.
GREVILLE
(Charles Cavendish Fulke)
The
Greville memoirs.
8vo.
A journal
Edited by
of the reigns of
King George IV and King William IV.

London, 1874.
3
vols.
Henry Reeve.
136

the close of
MARSH MAN
to
(John Clark) The history of India, from the earliest period Lord Dalhousie's administration. London, 1867-69.
3 vols.
8vo.
(C.
of
PRINCE
Leeson) Observations upon the topography and climate Crowborough Hill, Sussex. Second edition. Lewes, 1898. 8vo.
TREVELYAN
Macaulay.
The (Sir George Otto) Bart. London, 1876. 2 vols. 8vo.
life
and
letters
of
Lord
TVNDALL
the Royal Institution of great Britain, April 8-June 3, 1869. edition. London, 1882. 8vo.
(John) Notes of a course of nine lectures on light delivered at Eleventh
JOHN GRANT,
LE CLERC
4
les principales
Esq., of Edinburgh.
. . .
avec (jean) Histoire des Provinces- Unies des Pays Bas medailles et leur explication, etc. Amsterdam, 1723-28.
Fol.
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VERNULAEUS
tum, forma,
(Nicolaus)
magistratus,
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Academia Lovaniensis
facultates,
et
privilegia,
ejus origo, incremenscholae, collegia, viri
illustres, res gestae.
Recognita
aucta per Chnstianum a Langendonck.
Lovanii, 1667.
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KARL HAFNER,
of Zurich.
civilis libri viginti octo.
DONELLUS (Hugo) Commentariorum juris
Scipio
Gentilis recensuit, edidit, posteriores etiam libros supplevit. 1612. Fol.
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THE REV. ANDREW HALDEN, of Inverkeilor, Forfarshire. ACTON Qn n Emerich Edward Dalberg) \st Baron. Lectures
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on the N. Figgis and R. V. Laurence.
Letters to Mary, daughter of the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone with an introductory memoir by H. Paul. London, 1913. 8vo.
BALFOUR (Lady Frances)

D.D.
London,
(Peter
etc.,
Life and letters of the
... James MacGregor,

(A.D.
[1912].
8vo.
BROWN
Hume)
3
R.)]
bridge, 1899-1909.
History of Scotland. vols. 8vo.

:
80-1843).
Cam-
[CASSELS (Walter
1874.
of divine revelation.
an inquiry into the reality Supernatural religion Fourth edition. London, [By W. R. Cassels.]
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FROUDE
(James Anthony) Lectures on the Council of Trent delivered Oxford, 1892-93. London, 1896. 8vo.
Thomas Carlyle,
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a history of his
life in
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Thomas
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(Right Hon. William Ewart) The Vatican Decrees in their civil allegiance: a political expostulation. London, 1874.
GREEN
(John Richard) London, 1884. 8vo.
The
of
conquest
of
England.
Second
edition.
INNES (Cosmo) Sketches

Edinburgh, 1861.
8vo.
early
Scotch history and social progress.
MANNING
MILL
-
(Henry Edward) Cardinal. The Vatican Decrees 8vo. on civil allegiance. London, 1875. bearing
(John Stuart) Auguste
in
their
Comte and
Westminster Review.
Nature, the
Second
Reprinted positivism. edition, revised. London, 1866.
from the
8vo.
utility of religion,
and theism.
8vo.
[With introductory notice
by H. Taylor].
London, 1874.
NEWMAN
letter addressed to the Duke of Norfolk on (John Henry) occasion of Mr. Gladstone's recent expostulation. London, 1875. 8vo.
OLIPHANT
memoir of the life of John (Margaret Oliphant Wilson) LL.D. Edinburgh and London, 1888. 8vo. Tulloch, D.D.,
RAN KIN
and London, 1898.
(James) Church ideas in Scripture and Scotland. 8vo.
Edinburgh
ROBERTSON
[The (James) The poetry and the religion of the Psalms. Croall Lectures, 1893-94.] Edinburgh and London, 1898. 8vo.
(Robert Herbert) Memoir of Robert Herbert Story, D.D., Glasgow 1909. Lady Frances Balfour].
',
STORY
by
his daughters [and
8vo.
VALLANCE
T.
(William Aymer)
The
old colleges of Oxford, their architec-
tural history illustrated
and described.
London, [1912].
Fol.
WALTER HALL,
Esq., of Sheffield.
HALL
(T. Walter) Sheffield. 1297 to 1554.

. .
A catalogue
all
of the ancient
charters belonging to the twelve capital burgesses and town and parish of Sheffield, with abstracts of
.
commonalty of the
Sheffield wills
proved
-
at
York
prior to 1554.
Sheffield, 1913.
4to.
Sheffield
and Rotherham from the
12th
to
the 18th
and other documents relating to the districts of Sheffield and Rotherham with abstracts of Sheffield wills proved at York from 1554 to 1560. Sheffield, 1916.
descriptive
century.
catalogue of miscellaneous charters
4to.
HALL
deeds, pedigrees, pamphlets, newspapers, monumental inscriptions, maps, and miscellaneous papers forming the Jackson collection at the Sheffield Public Reference Library. 4to. Sheffield, 1914.
rolls,
(T. Walter) and THOMAS (A. Descriptive catalogue of the charters,
HERMANN) The City of
Sheffield.
138

S.
WINSTANLEY HASKINS,
The
"
"
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AESCHYLUS.
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With an
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FORCELLINI (Egidio) Totius
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FROISSART
3
vols.
(Jean) Les chroniques. Nouvellement revues eclaircissemens, tables et glossaire par J. A. C. Buchon.
4to.
avec notes,
Paris, 1835.
HAMERTON
1
(Philip Gilbert) Philip Gilbert

1
Hamerton
834- 1 858, and a memoir by his wife,
858- 1 894.
an autobiography, 8vo. Boston, 1 896.

:
HOWELL
8vo.
edited, annotated,
(James) Epistolae Ho-Elianae. The familiar letters of J. Howell, 2 vols. and indexed by J. Jacobs. London, 1892.
MOMMSEN
Dickson.
ditions.
(Theodor)
The
A new edition revised throughout and

5 vols.
history of
Rome
8vo.
translated
... by W.
P.
embodying recent adlengua castellana por 8vo.
London, 1901.
REAL ACADEMIA ESPANOLA.

la
Gramatica de
la
Real Academia Espanola.
Nueva
edicion.
Madrid, 1895.
STOLZ
(Friedrich) and SCHMALZ (J. H.) Lateinische Grammatik. Lautund Formenlehre. Syntax und Stilistik. Mil einem Anhang iiber Lateinische Lexikographie von F. Heerdegen. [Handbuch der Klassischen Altertums-Wissenschaft, 2,
ii.]
Miinchen, 1910.
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SWIFT
(Jonathan)
par B.
Voyages de Gulliver. Traduction H. Gausseron. Paris, [1885]. 8vo.
nouvelle et complete
165
Coleccion diri(Enrique de) Historiadores primitives de Indias. de autores espafioles, illustrada por E. de Vedia. [Biblioteca gida e XXII, XXVI.] Madrid, 1877-1906. 2 vols. 8vo.
R. P.
SHEPARD,
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\
LOCKE
Fol.
The
works.
The second
edition.
722.
3 YO!S.
MESSRS. SHERRATT & HUGHES,

ClCERO (Marcus
usum
serenissimi Delphini.
of
Manchester.
in
Tullius) Opera omnia cum delectu commentariorum,
Patavii, 1773.
16
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8vo.
Historiarum ab urbe condita libri qui supersunt Li VI US (Titus) Patavinus. Recensuit et notis illustravit J. B. L. Crevier. Parisiis,
XXXV.
1735-42.
vols.
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MlSSALE.
restitutum
positae.
-
Missale
Romanum
ex decreto sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini

dis-
...
in
quo missae novissimae sanctorum accurate sunt

4to.
Venetiis, 1748.
-1
Missae propriae sanctorum Hispanorum, quae generaliter in Hisex apostolica concessione et auctoritate summorum pania celebrantur 4to. Venetiis, 1 746. pontificum, ad formam missalis Romani redactae.
;
Missae propriae sanctorum trium ordinum fratrum minorum ad

missalis
4to.
formam
746.
-
Romani
redactae, et exactius examinatae.
Venetiis,
antiqua,
Missae propriae festorum dioecesis Ulyssiponensis, ex consuetudine et concessione Xysti V. in tola dioecesi celebrari solitae.
4to.
in
Ulyssipone, 1683.
-
Missae novae
missali
Romano
ex mandate
Rom.
Pont. Urbani
VIII., Innocentii
X.
et
XL,
XII. et XIII., Alexandri VII., dementis IX. Benedicti XIII. postremoque S.D.N. dementis Papae XII.
X. XI.
apponendae.
Ulyssipone Occidentali, 1739.
4to.
.
PLUTARCH.
Plutarchi
Omnium quae
ex ipso,
exstant operum.
vita,
et aliis utriusque linguae scriptoribus,
Accedit nunc primum aj. Rualdo
collecta digestaque. Fol. 2 vols.
[Greek and Latin.]
Lutetiae Parisiorum, 1624.
THE SIGNET LIBRARY,

Librarian.)
of
Edinburgh.
(John Minto, Esq., M.A.,
ABERCROMBY
2 vols.
(Hon. John) The pre- and proto- historic Finns, both eastern and western, with the magic songs of the West Finns. London, 898.
\
8vo.
(John) Process of Declarator (John Anderson)
:
ANDERSON
775, concern-
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and concerning With an apGlasgow.
pendix.
\Glasgow\, 1778.
4to.
166

(Richard) Journal of the Transactions
in
BANNATYNE
contest
between the adherents of Queen Mary, and those 8vo. 1570-1573. Edinburgh, 1806.
Scotland during the of her son,
BARBERINO
(Francesco) Antiquitates ecclesiae orientalis clarissimorum virorum Card. Barberini, L. Allatii, L. Holstenii, J. Morini, A. Ecchellensis, N. Peyrescii, P. a Valle, T. Comberi, J. Buxtorfii, H. Hottingeri,
etc., dissertationibus
epistolicis enucleatae
quibus praefixa
est J.
Morini
vita.
Londini, 1682.
8vo.
libri
BELLENDENUS
emendation
(Gulielmus) De statu 8vo. Londini, 1787.

:
tres.
Editio
secunda,
longe
BlOGRAPHIA BRITANNICA or, who have flourished in Great

edition, with corrections,
the lives of the most eminent persons

Britain
and
Ireland.
enlargements, and the addition of

1-5.
The second new lives
by Andrew
93.
5 vols.
Kippis.
Fol.
Vol.
[No more
1'histoire
. . .
published.]
London, 1778-
BOWLES
(William) Introduction a physique de 1'Espagne; traduite 8ro. Paris, 1776.
naturelle et a la geographic
le
par
Vicomte de Flavigny.
BURNETT (Montgomery)
of Burnetland
and Barns,
Genealogical account of the family of Burnett, in the Sheriff dom and county of Peebles.
(For members of the family only.)
Edinburgh, 1880.
4to.
CAMPBELL
Earl of
Sir
Letters from Archibald, (Archibald) gth Earl of Argyle. to John, Duke of Lauderdale (1663-70). [Edited by Argyle,
G.
Sinclair
4to.
and C. K. Sharpe.]
[Bannatyne Club.]
Edinburgh,
Lisboa,
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CASTRO
(Joao Bautista de) 4to. 3 vols. 1762-63.
Mappa de
Portugal antigo e moderno.
CHARLES
Journal,
Relation en forme de II., King of Great Britain and Ireland. du voyage et sejour que Charles. II ... a fait en Hollande, depuis le 25 May, jusques au 2 Juin, 1660. [With plates.] La Haye,
. . .
1660.
Fol.
COLMAN (George) The dramatick works. DEL PlNO (Joseph Giral) A new Spanish
the Spanish language.
London,
777.
;
vols.
8vo.
grammar
or,
1
the elements of
The second
edition.
London,
777.
8vo.
DlCUILUS.
Recherches geographiques
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De Mensura
orbis terrae, compose en Irelande, au commencement du neuvieme siecle, Paris, 1814. par Dicuil ; suivies du texte restitue par A. Letronne.
pts. in
vol.
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DRUMMOND Du HOUX
...
(William) of Hawthomden.
.
. .
The
history of Scotland from
the year 1423 until the year 1542. With a prefatory introduction by Mr. Hall, of Grays-Inn. London, 1655. Fol.
sur les affaires
(Antoine Charles) Baron De Viomenil. de Pologne, en 1771 et 1772.
Lettres particulieres 8vo. Paris, 1808.

EDINBURGH
:
167
Portrait Gallery.
Scottish National Portrait Gallery. The building and its contents.
The
Scottish National
opening ceremony.
1891.
4to.
:
Compiled by the Curator
[J.
Also a report of the M. Gray] Edinburgh,

.
EDINBURGH
history of Society of Writers to Her Majesty's Signet. the Society of Writers to Her Majesty's Signet, with a list of the members of the Society from 1594 to 1890, and an abstract of the minutes.
4to.
Edinburgh, 1890.
EDINBURGH:
University Library.
sive catalogus librorum quos Bibliothecae d.d. q. an. 1627.
Auctarium Bibliothecae Edinburgenae, Gulielmus Drummondus ab Hawthornden

Edinburgi, 1627.
[Reprinted], \Edin-
burgh, 1815.]
4to.
sei
ERIZZO
(Sebastiano) Le 4to. Venetia, 1567.
giornate mandate in
luce da L.
Dolce.
FABRONI (Angelo)
1784.
Laurentii Medicis Magnifici vita.

4to.
(Adnotationes
et
monumenta ad Laurentii Medicis Magnifici vitam

2vols. inl.
pertinentia.)
Pisis,
FVFE
(Alexander)
4to.
The
royal martyr,
K. Charles
I.
an opera.
[London],
1705.
GORDON
\
(George)
8vo.
De natura rerum quaestiones
philosophicae.
Glasguae,
758.
GORDON
(John) Observations on the structure of the brain, comprising an estimate of the claims of Drs. Gall and Spurzheim to discovery in the
anatomy
of that organ.
Edinburgh, 1817.
in
8vo.
in the years 1818-21
GRAY (WILLIAM)
GREGORY
Travels
Western Africa,
from
.
. .
the River Gambia,
...
Staff-Surgeon Dochard.
River Niger. By London, 1825. 8vo.

to the
:
W.
Gray, and
by J. Gregorie, and elegies on his

.
written or, certain learned tracts (John) Gregorii Posthuma Together with a short account of the author's life ;
:
. .
...
Death.
antiqui
London,
populorum
649-50.
4to.
illustrati.
HARDOUIN
1684.
(Jean)
Nummi
et
urbium
Parisiis,
4to.
HARINGTON
1
tract on the Succession to the Crown (A.D. (Sir John) Edited with notes and an introduction by C. R. Markham. London, 1880. 4to. [Roxburghe Club:]
602).
HARRISSE (Henry) The

1452-1494.
London, 1897.
diplomatic history of 8vo.
America
its first
chapter,
HAYCRAFT
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(John Berry) Darwinism and race progress.
London, 1895.
[HOME
and natural
(Henry)] Lord Kames. Objections against the Essays on morality religion examined. [By Henry Home, Lord Kames.]
8vo.
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168

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HURST
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and CECIL (Lord Edgar Algernon Robert) The principles Second edition. By Joseph Hurst. London, 1906.
K. Edward
IRELAND
The
Statutes of Ireland, beginning the third yere of
the second, and continuing untill the end of the Parliament, begunne in the eleventh yeare of the reign of ... King James. Newly per.
. .
used and examined.
[By Sir Richard Bolton.]

life
Dublin, 1621.
Fol.
IRVING (Washington) The

Author's revised edition.
and voyages of Christopher Columbus. 8vo. London, 850. 2 vols. in

\
1 .
ISTITUZIONE.
8vo.
Istituzione antiquario-lapidaria o sia introduzione allo studio delle antiche Latine iscrizione in tre libri proposta. Roma, \ 770.
[JAMES
(Lionel)]
On
the heels of
De Wet.
t
By
1902.
[Lionel James].
Edinburgh and London
the Intelligence Officer 8vo.
JOECHER
(Christian Gottlieb) Allgemeines Gelehrten- Lexicon, darinne die Gelehrten aller stande ... in alphabetischer Ordnung beschrieben werden. Leipzig, 1750-51. 4 vols. 4to.
KNOX
(Robert) Fish and fishing in the lone glens of Scotland.
With
history of the propagation, growth,
and metamorphoses
of the
salmon.
London, 1854.
8vo.
LELAND
(John) Reflections on the late Lord Bolingbroke's Letters on the and use of history especially so far as they relate to Christianity, study and the Holy Scriptures. The second edition. London, 753. 8vo.
; \
LINEN MANUFACTURE.
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8vo.
collection of the
Acts
of Parliament,
now
in force, relating to the linen
manufacture
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Scotland].
Edinburgh,
MACINTOSH
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The
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the scientific experiments to test the effects of trawling, and of the closure of certain areas off the Scottish shores. London, 1899. 8vo.
MACKENZIE
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short history of the Scottish
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MAITTAIRE
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(Michael) Stephanorum historia, vitas ipsorum ac libros com8vo. 2 vols. in Londini, 709.
\ 1 .
MARTENS
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relations exterieures des puissances
(Georg Friedrich von) Cours diplomatique, ou tableau des de 1'Europe, tant entre elles qu'avec 3 vols. d'autres etats dans les diverses parties du globe. Berlin, 1801.
(Antonius) De nobilitate, de principibus, de ducibus, de de advocatis ecclesiae, de comitibus, de baronibus, de militibus, comitatu Hollandiae et dioecesi Ultrajectina libri quatuor. Amstelodami,
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MATTHAEUS
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Lugd. Batavor., 1686.
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MAURICE, Prince of Orange. The tion ... of all the victories
.
169
or, a descriptriumphs of Nassau Estates granted by God to the Translated out of of the united Netherland Provinces. generall French by W. Shute. London, 1613. Fol.
:
. .
MONK
MORE
8vo.
(George)
Duke of
London,
political affairs.
Observations upon military and Albemarle. Fol. \ 671.

:
(Sir Thomas) Utopia or the happy republic Translated into English by Gilbert Burnet. romance.
philosophical
\
Glasgow,
743.
MURRAY
(Arthur Mordaunt) Imperial outposts from a strategical and With commercial aspect, with special reference to the Japanese alliance. a preface by Field-Marshal Earl Roberts. London, 1907. 8vo.
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examined.
Some
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OSMONT
PATIN
et critique
(Jean Baptiste Louis) Dictionnaire typographique, historique 2 vols. des livres rares. 8vo. Paris, \ 768.
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Patavii,
Lyceum Patavinum, sive icones et vitae professorum, 1682 publice docentium. Pars prior. [No more published.]
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PERLIN
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(Etienne) Description des royaulmes d'Angleterre et d'Escosse. Histoire de 1'entree de la reine mere dans la Grande Bretagne.
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PETERS
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PEZZANA
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PHILIPPSON
(Martin) La centre-revolution 8vo. Paris, Bruxelles, 1884.
religieuse
au
XVIs
siecle.
PHILOPOLITEIUS.
in Scotland.
... As
Memorialls for the Government of the Royall-Burghs also, a survey of the City of Aberdeen, with the
epigrams of A. Johnstoun upon some of our chief Burghs, translated

into English
by J. B[arclay]. 12mo. Aberdeen, 1685.
By
Philopoliteius
[i.e.
Alexander Skene].
accessere ApolCallistrati
PHILOSTRATUS.
lonii
Philostratorum quae supersunt omnia
Tyanensis epistolae, Eusebii liber adversus Hieroclem,
descript. statuarum.
Omnia
\
recensuit
G. Olearius.
[Greek
and
Latin.]
Lipsiae,
709.
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PLINIUS SECUNDUS (Caius) The Historic

English by Philemon Holland.
the
World:
vols. in
1.
commonly
Fol.
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called the Naturall Historic of C. Plinius Secundus.
Translated into
London, 1635.
RAMSAY
RASK
(Allan) with a glossary.
The poems.
new
2
edition, corrected,
and enlarged
London, 1800.
vols.
8vo.
(Erasmus)
edition.
A grammar
8vo.
new
of the Anglo-Saxon tongue, with a praxis. Translated from the Danish by B. Thorpe. Copen-
hagen, 1830.
ROME
Seven Wise Masters of Rome. Li Romans des sept Sages nach der Pariser Handschrift, herausgegeben von H. A. Keller. Tubingen,
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1836.
8vo.
ROSING
(Svend) Engelsk-Dansk Ordbog.
Kjbenhavn, 1899.
Transactions.
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[Vol.
1-4.]
ROYAL SCOTTISH SOCIETY OF ARTS.

Edinburgh, 1841-56. 4
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8vo.
SCOTLAND.
collection of the laws in favour of the Reformation in
Scotland, in three parts.
Edinburgh,
749.
8vo.
SERGEANT Qohn)
Ideists
:
or, the
method
Solid philosophy asserted against the fancies of the to science farther illustrated. With reflections
on Mr. Locke's Essay concerning human understanding. London, 1697. 8vo.
By
J.
S.
SHEPHERD
hundred and fourteen.
(William) Paris in eighteen hundred and two, and eighteen The second edition. London, 1814. 8vo.
SLINGSBY (Sir Henry) Original memoirs, written during the great civil war being the life of Sir H. Slingsby, and the memoirs of Capt. Hodgson. With notes, etc. [Edited by Sir Walter Scott.] Edinburgh,
;
1806.
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SMITH
what has been published on the and family history of the county
(John Russell) Bibliotheca Cantiana a bibliographical account of history, topography, antiquities, customs 8vo. of Kent. London, 1837.
:
STAUNTON
An authentic account of an (Sir George Leonard) Bart. from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China embassy taken chiefly from the papers of the Earl of Macartney, Sir Erasmus Gower, etc. London, \ 797. 2 vols. 4to.
;
.
.
[STEUART
(Sir James)] Jus populi vindicatum, or the peoples right, to defend themselves and their covenanted religion, vindicated. ... By a
[By Sir James Steuart, of Goodtrees.]
friend to true christian liberty. 8vo. [n.p.] 1669.
[STORER (James
castellated,
or, delineations of monastic, Sargant)] Ancient reliques and domestic architecture, and other interesting subjects; with historical and descriptive sketches. London, 1812-13. 2 vols.
;
8vo.

STUCK
(Johann Wilhelm)
libros
tres.
.
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171
Operum tomus
.
convivialium
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descriptionem.)
I.
primus, continens antiquitatum continens sacrorum et
sacrificiorum gentilium
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Amstelodaiiii 1695.
,
vols. in
Fol.
:
TAYLOR
which
Young.
(Brook) Contemplatio philosophica

is
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Sir
...
to
prefixed a life of the author, by his grandson, 8vo. London, 1793.
William
des
1.
THIERSCH
moyens
8vo.
(Friedrich
d'arriver
a
Wilhelm von) De
sa
1'etat
actuel
de
la
Grece
2
vols.
et
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Leipzig, 1833.
in
THUCYDIDES.
I.
De
Bekkerus.
Berolini, 1846.
bello Peloponnesiaco 8vo.
libri
octo.
Iterum
recensuit
VERGILIUS
MARC (Publius) Virgil's Aeneis, translated into Scottish verse,

of
Gawin Douglas, Bishop by Fol. Edinburgh, 1710.

the famous
Dunkeld.
new
edition.
WARREN
1885.
(William Fairfield) Paradise found
the cradle of the
race at the North Pole.

8vo.
human
study of the prehistoric world.
London,
WENTWORTH
letters
(Thomas) Earl of Strafford. The Earl of Strafforde's and dispatches, with an essay towards his life by Sir George Radcliffe. ... By William Knowler. London, 739. 2 vols. Fol.
\
WRIGHT
to
1
Guthrie) Gideon Guthrie, a monograph written 1712 Edited by C. E. G. Wright, with an introduction by the Right Rev. John Dowden, bishop of Edinburgh. London, Edinburgh
(C. E.
730.
&
1900.
8vo.
ZEILLER
serte Auflage.
(Franz Edlen von) Das natiirliche Privat-Recht. Wien, 1819. 8vo.
Dritte verbes-
MISS
C.
M. SULLIVAN,
of
Regents Park, London.
BIBLE. The Holy Bible, translated from the Latin vuloate. 5 vols. 1796-97. 8vo.
Edinburgh.
BLAIR (Hugh) Essays on

lectures on that science.
-
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The
sixth edition.
from Dr. Blair's London, 1810. 8vo.
Lectures
\
London,
787.
on rhetoric and 3 vols. 8vo.
belles lettres.
The
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BOILEAU DESPRiAUX
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La Haye,
Nouvelle edition revue, cor(Nicolas) Oeuvres. \ 722. 4 vols. 12mo.
BYRON
of
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his
CHATEAUBRIAND
ou beautes de 2 vols. 8vo.
la religion
(Frangois Rene de) Viscount. Genie du chrisbanisme, chretienne. Sixieme edition. Paris, 1816.
172

(Hugh)
short and easy introduction 12mo. London, 1812.
CLARK
to heraldry.
The
eighth
edition.
GOLDONI
note, dall' editore,
(Carlo) Scelta completa di tutte le migliori commedie il A. Montucci. 4 vols. 12mo. Lipsia, 1828.
.
.
con
HUSENBETH
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8vo.
of Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia.
JOHNSON
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:
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--
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historical,
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preface
vols.
\
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LA BRUYERE (Jean de) Les caracteres. Paris, 759. LA ROCHEFOUCAULD (Francois de) Duke. Maxims
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(John)
LlNGARD
Romans.
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England from the

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(John Gibson) Memoirs of the 7 vols. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1837-38.
Sir
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Scott, Bart.
MAINTENON
Memoires pour servir (Francoise d'Aubigne) Marquise de. a Thistoire de M. de Maintenon, et a celle du siecle passe. (Lettres de Mjde Maintenon.) [Edited by L. Angliviel de la Beaumelle.] Maes6 vols. 2mo. trie/it, \ 778-89.
1
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--
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Arcades.
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la
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OSSIAN.
The poems
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new
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Translated by James Macpherson. 2 vols. 8vo.

his life of Zoilus.
PARNELL
edition.
(Thomas) The poetical works, with 16mo. London, 1833.
Magnet

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1835.
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The
sixth
J. Langhorne, 6 London, 1795.
and
W.
8vo.
vols.
POMFRET (Jrm) The

PRECEPTOR.
Wherein
edition.
poetical works.
Magnet
edition.
London, 1833.
The Preceptor
first
containing a general course of education.
principles of polite learning are laid down in a way The seventh most suitable for ... advancing the instruction of youth.
the
London, 1783.
vols.
8vo.
RACINE
(Jean) Oeuvres.
Paris, 1810.
vols.
8vo.
RUSSELL
man.
(William)
\
The
revolutions in
Asia and Africa. London, 793. 2 vols.

history of
history of ancient Europe ; with a view of the In a series of letters to a young noble-
8vo.
: .
.
The
modern Europe
A new
edition, with a con-
tinuation, terminating at the death of Alexander, the in 1825. 6 vols. 8vo. London, 1827.
Russian Emperor,
Nouvelle edition.
(Marie de Rabutin Chantal) Marquise de. 12mo. 10 vols. Paris, 1801.

(William)
Recueil des
lettres
SHAKESPEARE
The
plays.
Edinburgh, 1804.
:
vols.
12mo.
[SMITH (Horace) and
(James)] Rejected addresses or the new theatrum Fourth edition. London, poetarum. [By Horace and James Smith.] 1812. 12mo.
sentimental journey through France and Italy. (Lawrence) Zadig or the book of fate an oriental history, translated from the French of M. de Voltaire. London, 1839. 32mo.
;
STERNE
TASSO
(Torquato) La Gerusalemme liberata, publicata da A. Buttura. 4 vols. 32mo. Parigi, 1822.

(Publius) Comoediae sex ad fidem editionis Zeunianae accurate recensitae. 8vo. Londini, 1825.
TERENTIUS AFER
TOOKE (Andrew) The

heathen
gods, London, 1798.
and
8vo.
of.
Pantheon, representing the fabulous histories of the most illustrious heroes. The thirtieth edition.
TRENT
Max.
Council
Catechismus
concilii
Tridentini,
Pii
V.
Pontif.
juasu promulgatus.
Parisiis, 1830.
vols.
32mo.
The
catechism of the Council of Trent.

J.
Translated into English
by the Rev.
Donovan.
Dublin, 1829.
romane.
8vo.
VERRI
(Alessandro)
Le
notti
Parigi, 1826.
vols.
12mo.
174

(John)
all
WATKINS
containing
...
persons of 8vo.
biographical, historical, and chronological dictionary i the lives, characters, and actions of the most eminent Third edition. London, 1807. ages and all countries.
YALDEN
16mo.
(Thomas) The poetical works.
Magnet
edition.
London,
833-
ARTHUR SYKES,
EPISTOLAE.
Esq., of Roundhay, Leeds.

:
the Latin text with an Epistolae obscurorum virorum English rendering, notes, and an historical introduction by F. G. Stokes. London, 1909. 8vo.
short history of the English people. Illustrated Richard) London , Edited by Mrs. J. R. Green and Miss K. Norgate. 4 vols. 8vo. 1892-94.
GREEN Qohn
edition.
HAMILTON
(Antoine) Count.
Memoirs
of the
Count de Gramont
con-
taining the amorous history of the English court under the reign of Charles II. Edited by H. Vizetelly. London. 1889. 2 vols. 8vo.
MALTHUS
1890.
(Thomas Robert)
its
An
essay on the principle of population

effects
or.
a view of
past
and present
on human happiness.
London*
8vo.
Lucretius, epicurean
MASSON Qohn)
London, 1909.
and poet.
Complementary volume.
life
8vo.
RICHARDSON
by
(Samuel)
The
works.
With a
1.
sketch of his
and writings,
the Rev. E. Mangin.
London, 181
19
vols.
:
8vo.
extent, causes,
SANGER
effects
(William
W.) The
history of prostitution
its
and
throughout the world.

8vo.
New
York,
895.
8vo.
SCOTT
48
(Sir Walter) Bart.
The Waverley
novels.
Edinburgh, 1859-60.
vols.
SHAKESPEARE
genius,
(William)
The
works.
With
a/
memoir, and essay of his

vols.
by Barry Cornwall.
Select works.
London, 1846.
London, 1891.
history of
8vo.
SWIFT Qonathan)
8vo.
WESTERMARCK
1894.
8vo.
(Edward) The
human
marriage.
London,
WRIGHT
Wright.
(Joseph)
The
English dialect dictionary.
Edited by Joseph
London, [1896-1905].
vols.
4to.
ROBERT WARDLE,
MONTAIGNE
Esq., of Swinton, Manchester.
(Michel de) Essais avec des notes de tous les commentateurs. Edition revue sur les textes originaux. 8vo. Paris, 1876.
Reflexions et Pensees de Blaise Pascal. maximes de La Rochefoucauld. Caracteres de La Bruyere. Oeuvres Considerations sur les moeurs de ce siecle > completes de Vauvenargues.
MORALISTES pRANQAIS.
par Duclos.
Paris, 1869.
8vo.

DR. Q.
C.
175
WILLIAMSON,
The
of
Hampstead, London.
First edition,
ASCHAM
1870.
(Roger)
8vo.
Scholemaster.
the second edition, 1571,
by E. Arber.
Edited by
[English Reprints.]
1570; collated with London,
Toxophilus,
1545.
E. Arber.
[English
Reprints.]
London, 1868.
8vo.
AUREL1US ANTONINUS (Marcus) The

translated from the
and
notes,
meditations of Marcus Aurelius, Greek by J. Collier revised, with an introduction by A. Zimmern. London, 1891. 8vo.
;
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
thirty- eighth
for the
advancement
of science.
. . .
Report of the
meeting of the British Association in August, 1868. London, 1869. 8vo.
held at Norwich
BUDGE
and
Syrian anatomy, pathology, (Ernest Arthur Thompson Wallis). " The Syriac text, edited the book of medicines ". therapeutics, or
from a rare manuscript, with an English translation by E. A. Wallis 8vo. 2 vols. Oxford, etc., 1913. Budge.
CUST
(Robert Needham) Linguistic and oriental essays, written from the Second series. London, 1887. 8vo. year 1847 to 1887.
1
Linguistic and oriental essays, written from the year Fifth series. Vol. 1. London, 1898. 8vo.
840
to
897.
DESCARTES
writings, selected 8vo.
(Rene) The philosophy of Descartes in extracts from his and translated by H. A. P. Torrey. New York, 1892.
FENELON
(Francois de Salignac de la Mothe) The adventures of Telenew translation, revised by F. Fitzgerald. machus, son of Ulysses.
London, 1792.
4to.
1
.
GASCOIGNE
1575.
2.
(George)
Certayne notes
of instruction in
English verse,
The
1576.
8vo.
Edited
Steele Glas, 1576. 3. The complaynt of Philomene, London, 1868. by E. Arber. [English Reprints.]
GOOGE
(Barnaby) Eglogs, epytaphes, and sonettes, 1 563. Arber. London, 1871. 8vo. [English Reprints.]
Edited by E.
GUEULLETTE (Thomas
(Tartarian tales).
Simon) The thousand and one quarters of an hour. Edited by L. C. Smithers. 8vo. London, 1893.
HABINGTON
Reprints.]
(William) Castara.
The
1
third edition of
1
1640
edited and
collated with the earlier ones of
634,
635, by E. Arber.
[English
London, 1870.
8vo.
HOWARD
sonettes
(Henry) Earl of Surrey. Tottel's miscellany. Songes and by H. Howard, Earl of Surrey, Sir T. Wyatt the elder, N. Collated with the second edition of Grimald, and uncertain authors. 1557, by E. Arber. London, 1870. 8vo. [English Reprints.]
176

Collated with (James) Instructions for forreine trayell, 1642. Edited by E. Arber. [English Reprints.]
8vo.
HOWELL
the second edition of 1650.
London, 1869.
HUME
first
(David) The
philosophy of
Hume
as contained in extracts from the
book and the first and second sections of the third part of the second book of the Treatise of human nature, selected, with an introduction by
H. A. Aikins.
New
York, 1893.
8vo.
LEWES
1892.
(George Henry)
8vo.
biographical history of philosophy.
London,
LOCKE
(John)
The
cerning human
E. Russell.
New
philosophy of Locke in extracts from the Essay conunderstanding, arranged, with introductory notes, by J.
York, 1891.
8vo.
LVLY
The anatomy of wit, 1579. Euphues and his (John) Euphues. Edited by E. Arber. London, England,f\ 1580. [English Reprints.] I c\ s c\
lOOO.
OVO.
MORE
Second and revised edition, 556. (Sir Thomas) Utopia. 8vo. London, 1869. by E. Arber. [English Reprints.]
1
Edited
NAUNTON
1870.
(Sir Robert) Fragmenta regalia. Reprinted from the third London, posthumous edition of 653, by E. Arber. [English Reprints.]
1
8vo.
PHILOXENUS, Bishop of Mabug.

of
The discourses of Philoxenus, Bishop Edited from Syriac manuscripts of the sixth and seventh centuries, in the British Museum, with an English translation by E. A. Wallis Budge. London, 1894. 2 vols. 8vo.
Mabbogh, A.D. 485-519.
(George)
PUTTENHAM
Arber.
The
arte of English poesie,
589.
Edited by E.
[English Reprints.]
London, 1869.
8vo.
REID (Thomas) The
" philosophy of Reid as contained "in the Inquiry into the human mind on the principles of common sense with introduction and selected notes by E. H. Sneath. New York, 1892. 8vo.
;
SIDNEY (Sir
Philip)
An apologie for poetrie,

London, 1868.
8vo.
1595.
Edited by E. Arber
[English Reprints.]
SPINOZA
first,
(Benedictus de) The philosophy of Spinoza as contained in the " second and fifth parts of the Ethics," and in extracts from the third and fourth, translated and edited, with notes, by G. S. Fullerton. Second edition enlarged. New York, 1894. 8vo.
(Nicholas) Roister Doister.
UDALL
Eton College, by E. Arber.

with
illustrations
[English Reprints.]
Edited from the unique copy, now at London, 1869. 8vo.
VlLLIERS (George) 2nd Duke of Buckingham.

from
[English Reprints.]
The
Edited
rehearsal,
1672,
previous plays, etc. London, 1868. 8vo.
by E. Arber.
WATSON
Reprints.]
(Thomas) Poems, [1582]-93. London, 1870. 8vo.
Edited by E. Arber.
[English

WEBBE
WEBBE
Arber.
177
(Edward) His
(William)
trauailes, 1590.
Edited by E. Arber.
[English
Reprints.]
London, 1868.
8vo.
[English Reprints.]
discourse of English poetrie, 1586. London, 1870. 8vo.
Edited by E.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

for scientific
[1908-14].
-
business, 1908 (-1913). 25 P ts. 8vo.
Proceedings of the general meetings London, (Index 1901-1910.)
Transactions.
Vol. 18 (-20).
London, 1908-13.
13 pts.
4to.
JOHN WINDSOR,
ATENEO.
artes.
Esq., of Mickle Trafford, near Chester.
El Ateneo periodico de literatura espanola, ciencias y bellas 4to. Sevilla, [1874-75]. [No. 1-24, Dec. 1874-Nov. 1875].
EEC HER (H. C.
a journey from Lake R.) trip to Mexico, being notes of about the With an appendix Erie to Lake Tezcuco and back. who inhabited Mexico, etc. Toronto, \ 880. 8vo. ancient nations
.
A
.
BREHM
(Alfred
Edmund) Brehms
Tierleben.
Kleine Ausgabe fur Volk
und Schule.
Schmidtlein.
Zweite Auflage, ganzlich neubearbeitet von Richard 3 vols. 8vo. Leipzig und Wien, 893.
\
DAVILLIER
DlEZ
(Jean Charles) Baron. L'Espagne. Illustree de 309 gravures, 4to. dessinees sur bois, par Gustave Dore. Paris, 1874.
(Friedrich Christian) Etymologisches Bonn, 1853. 8vo. Sprachen.
Worterbuch der romanischen

les
DURUY
7 vols.
(Victor) Histoire des

8vo.
Romains depuis
Nouvelle
jusqu' a 1'invasion des barbares.
edition.
temps les plus recules Paris, 1879-85.
HAACKE
1893.
(Wilhelm) Die Schopfung der Tierwelt.

8vo.
Leipzig
und Wien,
2
vols.
KERNER
8vo.
(Anton) Pflanzenleben.
Leipzig
et
und Wien, 1890-91.

nature
LlAIS (Emmanuel) L'espace physique de 1'univers Paris, [1866]. Dargent.

. .
celeste
.
la
preface de 8vo.
M.
tropicale, description Babinet, dessins de Yan*
MARCOY
(Paul) \pseud. i.e. Laurent Saint Cricq] journey across South America, from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean. Illustrated with engravings drawn by E. Riou, and printed maps in colours. 4to. London, 1873-74. 2 vols. in 4.
. .
.
PARKS AND GARDENS.

scribed and illustrated.
The famous
parks and gardens of the world de4to. 1880. London,

neubearbeitete Auflage.
RANKE
(Joannes)
Leipzig
Der Mensch. Zweite, ganzlich und Wien, 894. 2 vols. 8vo.

\
SCHILLER
(Johann Christoph Friedrich von) Schillers sammtliche 2 vols. in 1. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1869.
Werke.
178

Afrika.
SlEVERS (Wilhelm)
Eine allgemeine Landeskunde.

Leipzig
Leipzig
und Wien,
-
1891.
8vo.
Amerika.
8vo.

und Wien,
1893.
1894.
Asien.
8vo.
Leipzig
und Wien,
TURNER
sions
(Thomas A.) Argentina and the Argentines.

the
Notes and impres1885-90.
a five years' sojourn in London, 1892. 8vo.

of
Argentine Republic,
le
UjFALVY
1880.
(Marie)
4to.
De
Paris a Samarkand,
Ferghanah,
le
Kouldja
et la
Siberie Occidentale.
Impressions de voyage d'une Parisienne.
Paris,
WELLS
(James
W.)
2
Exploring and travelling three thousand miles through

to
Brazil from
Rio de Janeiro
vols.
Maranhao.
Second
edition,
revised.
London, 1887.
8vo.
ABERDEEN
THE UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
BULLETIN OF THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY
MANCHESTER
VOL. 4
BY THE LIBRARIAN
SEPTEMBER, 1917-JANUARY,
1918
No.
WE
stated,
list
are glad to be able to report that interest in the scheme, which has for its object the reconstruction THE
of the Library of the University of
in
Louvain,
LIBRARY
SCHEME. December, 1914, by the Governors of the John Ry lands Library, has shown no signs of abate^ ment during the past year, notwithstanding the increasing number of
and which was inaugurated
other projects which daily clamour for public support. As evidence of this sustained interest it needs
that
since
only
of
to
be
the
publication,
in
August
last,
the
sixth
have actually received library, the aggregate to nearly two thousand further gifts, amounting in volumes, whilst many other definite promises of help have still ta
of
contributions to the
new
we
materialize.
Unfortunately, the
demands upon our space
in the present issue

lists
render
it
necessary for us to
hold over the detailed

;
of the
works
comprised have much pleasure in number of volumes contributed respectively by each. As we have already pointed out in previous reports on the prothe generous response which our gress of the scheme, appeals have evoked has resulted in a collection of works which constitutes an excellent beginning of the
in these gifts until next quarter
meantime, we the names of the donors, with the recording

but, in the
new
library.
Yet,
when
it
is
remembered
that the collection of books so wantonly destroyed by the numbered upwards of a quarter of a million of volumes, it
that
if
Germans
is
evident
the work of replacement

to
is
to
be accomplished, very much
more remains
It
is,
be done.
the utmost confidence that
therefore, with
emphasize our appeal
for further offers of help,
we renew and which may take the
form, either of suitable books or of contributions of money, to assist 12
ISO
us in this endeavour to restore the library resources of the crippled
and exiled University.

In the light of recent events
we
are encouraged to believe that
the time approaches
when
Belgium's wounds will heal,
when
her
country will be evacuated by the enemy, and morally and materially greater than ever before she will pursue in peace her high destiny,
strong in the memories of an heroic past,
and
in the affectionate esIt is
teem
of all
who
love liberty and admire valour.
for that reason
we
of
solicit
when
a prompt and generous response to this appeal, so that the time arrives for the return of the exiled scholars to the scene
as well as of painful
happy
memories
a day which
may be
nearer
we shall be in a position to provide them than most of us suppose with a live up-to-date library, adequate in every respect to meet their requirements, and ready to be placed upon the shelves prepared for its
reception for immediate use.
In this
way we
shall
be doing for the great
little
nation of Bel-
gium
It is a is at present powerless to do for herself. she needs, and it is whilst she is still in exile that we present help want to demonstrate our determination to secure her restoration, and
that
which she
thus give to her noble Sovereign and his people tangible proof of the
high regard in which
we
and
for the heroic
sacrifices
hold them, for their incomparable bravery, which they have made in their honour-
able determination to remain true to their pledges of neutrality by

refusing to listen to
Germany's infamous proposals.

in this
In order to obviate
may
wish to participate
first
any needless duplication of gifts, those who scheme are requested to be good enough,
in the
instance, to send to the writer, the Librarian of the
John
Rylands Library, Manchester, the titles of the works they are willing to contribute. He will be glad also to advise would-be donors as to
the
titles
of suitable works.
ABERDEEN
University.
Per P.
of
J.
Anderson, Esq.,
5
M. A.,
vols.
Librarian.
Second contribution
F. Harrington
377
vols.
ARDLEY,
late of
Esq., of
Teddington.
RECENT GIFFSTO
Mrs. BEARD,
Knutsford.
48
vols.
The Right Hon. Earl BEAUCHAMP, K.G. 5 vols. (Additional.) The Rev. H. P. BETTS, M.A., of Petersfield. 24 vols. The Committee of the BoLTON Public Library. Per Archibald
Sparke, Esq., Librarian.
10
vols.

The BRITISH
School at Rome.
of the British
181
Per A. H. Smith, Esq., M.A.,

vols.
Museum.
7 vols. Miss E. L. BROADBENT, of Manchester. Miss F. N. BRUCE, of Bethnal Green. 6 vols.
The
Right Rev. Dom CABROL, 105 vols. borough.
The Abbey
of St. Michael,
Farn-
Senora Aurelia Castello de GONZALEZ, of Habana, Cuba. 3 vols. Robert H. CLAYTON, Esq., of Didsbury.
vols.
A. W. COATES,
Esq., of Carlisle.
60
vols.
The The
(Additional.) Right Rev. the Abbot of DOWNSIDE Abbey, near Bath. 2 1 vols. Mr. and Mrs. FlGAROLA-CANEDA, Biblioteca Nacional, Habana,
Rev. Arthur DlXON, M.A., of Denton.
5 vols.
Cuba.
45
vols.
1
Andrew HALKETT, Esq., of Ottawa, Canada. vol. Bernard HALL, Esq., of Manchester. 162 vols. Sir William HARTLEY, of Southport. Per Professor A.
D.D.
Messrs.
S. Peake,
231
vols.
1
Mrs. Winstanley HASKINS, of London.
vol.
vols.
HEFFER
&
Sons, of Cambridge.
of
The The
Dr.
Rev. A.
Du
Boulay HlLL,
Mrs. Charles
Misses
HUGHES,
East Bridgford. of Manchester. 1 vol.
35
vols.
HUMPHRY, of London. 5 vols. Jamieson B. HURRY, M.A., of Reading.

In
13 vols.
Mrs. JAMESON, of Bowdon.

son, Esq.
1
memory
5 vols.
of the late
John
W.
Jame-
vols.
T. JESSON,
The
Esq., of Cambridge. Governors of the JOHN
RYLANDS
89
vols.
Library.
(Additional.)
In
memory
of their colleague, the late Professor

etc.
James
Hope
Moulton, D.D., LittD.,
Miss KEMP, of Regent's Park, London. Howard C. LEVIS, Esq., of London.
135
1
vols.
vol.
(Additional.)
Millett, Esq.
1
The
University Press of
LIVERPOOL.
Per D.
vol.
(Additional.)
Miss LONSDALE, of London. vol. W. R. MACDONALD, Esq., of Edinburgh. 26 vols. J. G. MlLNE, Esq., of Farnham.
1
vols.
The
Daughters of the
condra.
late
Rev. T.
O'MAHONY,
D.D., of Drum-
20
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182
C. T.

OWEN,
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J.
10 vols. Esq., of Cambridge. Natural History Society. 196 vols. TORQUAY T. Fisher UNWIN, Esq., of London. 3 vols. (Additional.)
Day THOMPSON,
The
Library of the Surgeon- General's Office,

1
WASHINGTON, U.S.A.
vol.
Mrs. Isaac
WATTS,
of
Altrincham.
vols.
take this opportunity of congratulating Sir Adolphus the Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge, upon the attain-
We
W. Ward,
ment (on 2 December) of his eightieth birthday. Sir PHUS Adolphus was for many years closely and actively identified
with the development of the educational

in the
life
of Manchester.
For
the
twenty-two years (commencing Chair of History and English Poetry
as long ago as
1866) he
filled
Owens
College, and sub-
sequently, for a period of seven years (1890-97), he occupied the From 1886 to 1890, and again from Principalship of the College.
1896 he was Vice- Chancellor of Victoria University, a period which was distinguished by the growing prestige and influence
to
1894
Adolphus migrated to Cambridge to take up the Mastership of Peterhouse, the Corporation of Manchester conferred upon him the honorary freedom of the City.
of the University.
In
1900,
when
Sir
He has
filled the presidential chair of
the British
Academy,
Historical, the
Chetham and
several other societies,
the Royal and we are proud
to number him amongst the Trustees of the John Ry lands Library, in which capacity he has rendered valuable service to the institution. The vacancy on the Council of Governors of the John Rylands
caused by the lamented death of Professor James Hope Moulton, has been filled by the appointLibrary,
APPOINT-
NEW^GOV^
ment
of the
syriology in
Rev. C. L. Bedale, M.A., Lecturer in As- ERNOR. the University of Manchester, and one of the late Dr.
staff of
is
Moulton's colleagues on the

at
the
Wesleyan Training College

one of
responsible for the transof
Didsbury.
Mr. Bedale
at present overseas, acting as
H.M.
Chaplains to the Forces.

transliteration,
He
was
scription,
and
translation
the Sumerian tablets*
LIBRARY NOTES
which forrted the
"
subject of the
AND NEWS
183
in
volume published by the Library

in the
1915, entitled
Sumerian Tablets
the
first
John Rylands Library".
We
take
this,
opportunity, of officially confirming the an-
nouncement which has already been given wide publicity DR in the columns of the press, of the acceptance by Dr. REW3EL Rendel Harris, of the cordial invitation extended to him
by the Governors
his retirement
of
the John
Rylands Library, on the occasion

Friends, at
of
from the Directorship of Studies at the Woodbrooke
Settlement of the Society of
Birmingham, to
settle
in
Manchester and become

ripe
officially
attached to the Library, where his

in the de-
and varied scholarship will velopment of its resources, and in the

Founder, which was
to establish in
be of inestimable service
fuller realization of the
aim
of
its
Manchester a home
of scholarly
research, in other words,

of learning.
an
institution
devoted to the encouragement
Dr. Harris
is
no stranger to Manchester.
For many years he
has been a valued contributor to the library series of lectures, and has
In this and in always attracted large and appreciative audiences. other ways he has been ever ready to place his stores of learnmany ing at the service of the public, whether preachers, students, or the
ordinary seekers after knowledge, in a form which

tive
was
at once attract-
and
illuminating.
It
may be
said, therefore, that not
alone will
the John Rylands Library benefit by his migration to the northern city, for those of us who know him best, and have felt the influence
of the subtle will
charm
of his personality, are convinced that his
mean a
great accession of strength both to the intellectual

life
coming and to
the religious
of the city.
Dr. Harris,
we
of
are glad to say,

his
is
from the
to
effects
trying ordeal of
making a splendid recovery last spring, and is hoping
be able
to
take up his residence in Manchester at Easter.
He
will find a most cordial
welcome awaiting him from
all
sections of the
community, not only in the city proper, but in that wider area of which the city is rightly regarded as the metropolis.
the present time Dr. Harris is actively engaged, in collaboration with Dr. Mingana, on the second volume of " The Odes
At
and Psalms
of
Solomon," the publication

is
of
which
is
eagerly awaited.
The
manuscript
practically ready
for the printer,
and the volume
may be looked
for in the course of the
next few months.
184
Mr. William Poel, the Founder and Director of the Elizabethan Stage Society, has compiled a most interesting Chrono- WILLIAM logical Table, showing what is proved and what is not SHAKE" Life and Work," in two proved about Shakespeare's the first of which deals with the Elizabethan WORK. sheets,
Period,
1616.
These
1564-1603, the second with the Jacobean Period, 1603sheets were printed in the October and November
"Monthly Letter" which is written and published by Mr. Poel, for the Shakespeare League. Such has been the interest " " which the publication of this Table has evoked, that a new edition is
issues of the
necessary
if
the
demand
for copies is to
be
satisfied.
In these circum-
stances, at the request,
and with the permission,
of
Mr. Poel,
it
will
be reprinted, in a revised form, in the next issue of the BULLETIN. " It will also be published in a separate form as one of The John
Rylands Library Reprints," in the usual binding, copy, by the Manchester University Press.
"
at
one
shilling per
Mr. Poel explains that the Table" is not written for the experts, though it seems to be useful to them, to some extent, for reference. I wrote it, says Mr. Poel, in the hope that some public curiosity might be aroused, to urge students to make fresh endeavours to search for evidence with which to make good the many blanks, and also to
discredit
if
possible the
"
Tradions
"
which
in
my
opinion are un-
worthy
It
of consideration.
may
not be out of place to remind readers that a few copies

:
remain of Mr. Poet's illustrated monograph, entitled " Some Notes on Shakespeare's Stage and Plays," which
after
POEL ON
SPEARE'S
appearing
in the
BULLETIN was
published separ-
These may be obtained January of last year. from the Manchester University Press, at the original
ately in
price of one shilling each.

It
will interest readers to
know
that
Professor Tout's article on
"
Mediaeval
issue, is
Town
last
Planning," which appeared in our regarded by experts as the most complete
PROFESSOR
and
i
authoritative
. .
monograph on the
Indeed, it represents planning in the mediaeval penod. such a real contribution to the history of the subject that permission has been sought and given for its republication in " The Town Planning Review," the periodical which is edited by Professor Abercrombie for
-111-
subject of
town
TOWN
PLANNING.
185
the Department of Civic Design in the University of Liverpool. are glad to know that in this way Professor Tout's work will obtain
the wider publicity which
it
We
deserves.
Copies of the separate edition of this monograph, in the John Rylands series of Reprints, may still be obtained from the Manchester
University Press, at the price of eighteen pence each. The subject of town planning is exciting a good deal of attention
just
now
for reasons
which are not
far to seek,
and
it is
MANCHESOF
CIVIC
interesting to learn that the establishment of a
School of
Civic Design work of the
may be one of
University of
the next developments in the
Manchester.
At
present
only London and Liverpool have such departments, but there are special reasons why Manchester, as the centre of a great urban community, should add to the activities of
side of social teaching.
its
University this important
With
of
the return to peace conditions a

will
new era
little
in the
development
town
life
open up.
There has been
building of residential
areas for three or four years,
up there
will
preparation of
be great broad schemes on town-planning

its
and when the leeway comes to be made need for foresight and skilled guidance in the
lines.
A School
of
Civic Design takes within

It
scope
all
questions of
covers social and economic aspects like civic
urban development. law and building re-
gulations, as well as
more material aspects
like the laying out of areas,
and
architectural
for the surveyor
and
It types of buildings. provides a training-ground architect, as well as the municipal administrator.
The
architectural department of
under the
joint control of the University, the
Manchester University, which is Manchester Education

of Architects,
is
Committee, and the Manchester Society

to stimulate interest in the subject
endeavouring
with
by
the organization of public lectures,

of such a department,
to prepare the
its
way
and
for the establishment

staff.
own
chair
Professor Tout's lecture, from which his

therefore most timely.
monograph was elaborated, was

In our last issue
we
published an interesting article on
"
Coptic
Literature in the John Rylands Library," from the pen of the Rev. D. P. Buckle, in which the writer incidentally referred to the valuable contribution
versions
S CRIPTUR-
T,V 8
)
UOTA
'
which the Coptic COPTIC
and homiletic
literature
make
to the textual criti-
cism and interpretation of the Bible.
186

In the present issue
list
by giving a
of
Mr. Buckle follows up this general statement quotations and allusions which he has drawn from
in the
one of the early Coptic manuscripts
John Rylands Collection.
He has commented upon certain features of the passages cited, and has collated them with the readings to be found in the published texts
doing so has stumbled upon what he believes to be interesting evidence of the existence of two Sahidic versions, one independent and one related to the Bohairic.
of the Coptic versions,
in
and
Coptic students will be able, by the aid of the facsimile which accompanies the article, to follow Mr. Buckle in his argument.
announced, at Florence, at the ripe age of ninety years, of Senator Pasquale Villari, one of the most note- DF ATH OF worthy of Italy's modern historians. Villari was born in PASQUALE
is
The
death
Naples
in
1827, and was thus one of the few Italians

the
first
who saw
had
and
last
war
of
liberation.
In
847
his
political
opinions rendered him suspect to the Neapolitan Government, and he

to seek refuge in
Florence,
where except
living
for three years spent in
Pisa he lived
down
life,
it
to the time of his death.
For many years he led
a very quiet
foreigners, but
torical studies
earning
scanty
was during
to
those years that he
by teaching Italian to commenced the his-
which were
wherever
that
historical
research
is
make him famous, not only in Italy, but cultivated. It was during these years
which were
at
he began
to collect the materials
to
blossom into the
"
Life of Savonarola," the

is
work which
Both
once made him famous, and
by which he
his
perhaps best known.

".
A few years later he published

works were quickly
trans-
"
Life of Machiavelli
into
of these
lated
English, as well as other
European languages.
Villari
was for a time Minister of Public Instruction, but it is as humanist and educator rather than as politician that he is best known. He published upwards of 400 volumes and pamphlets, and we are
greatly indebted to Professor Bonacci for the volume of extracts
which
he has gathered from
Villari's works, dealing with the contributions
that ancient, mediaeval,
and modern
Italy
have made to
historian's
civilization,
and which was actually published on the

birthday, as a tribute to his scholarship.
eighty-ninth
One
writer describes Villari

intel-
as a
man
of short
but dignified
lost a
stature,
whose innate modesty,

failed to attract.
lectual brilliancy,
and winning charm never

familiar figure,
Cambridge has
by the death
of Dr.
James
LIBRARY NOTES
Bass-Mullinger, after
nearly
fifty
AND NEWS
j
187
fifty-five
years connection with the town, and
University.
the years spent on his great history of He began with an essay on "Cambridge
AMES
BASS-MUL-
Characteristics in the Seventeenth Century,"
which had
valuable chapter on the
Cambridge
Platonists,
and then
settled
down
For some time he lectured on history at St. John's, acting the while as Librarian of the College, and wrote several essays " But his History" was his chief work, subsidiary to his main work. and after three large volumes had appeared in 1873, 1884, and
to his great work.
He he received the honorary degree of LittD. was still at work, when death claimed him, on the fourth volume, which was to have brought the history down to the middle of the
191
1
respectively,
eighteenth century.
It
is
to
be hoped that
it
will
be taken up by
some other hand and carried

It
to a successful conclusion.
may
interest
our readers to
at
know
Oxford
that
appointed Romanes Lecturer

year.
for the present
Mr. Asquith has been MR. AS-
The
list
of lecturers
on
this
foundation began with
ROMANES
Mr.
ley,
W.
E. Gladstone, and has included Professor

J.
Hux- LECTURER,
Mr. A.
Balfour,
Lord Morley, and President Roosevelt.

it
No
appointment was made last year. It is not generally known that for some considerable time
was
-
practically Lord Morley's intention to give the library of THE ACTON LIBRARY the late Lord Acton to Mansfield College, Oxford.
Eventually, after the most careful consideration, he decided to bestow

this gift
field,
on Cambridge University.
If
the library
very considerable additions to the buildings
had gone to Manswould have been
necessitated,
and that was one
of the
main reasons which decided the
matter.
It is
doubtful whether any publishing season within living
memory
has shown greater signs of activity than the year 1917, and that in spite of three years of war with all its attendant
difficulties.
THE LITER ARY OUTof poetry.
The
literary
output includes some
300
But
been
"
novels,
it is
some 200 war books, and very many volumes
in serious books, especially biographical, that
the season has
specially noteworthy. Sir
Dilke";
"
R.
J.
Godlee's
;
Life of John
Keats"
kin
"
;
The Life of Sir Charles "Lord Lister"; Sir Sidney Colvin's " Mrs. Creighton's Life of Thomas HodgThese include
"
Recollections of Seventy-two Years of the
Hon. William
188

* '
Selections from the Correspondence of Lord Warren Vernon " " " Letters of John Henry Newman another volume of Acton "Some Hawarden Letters, 1878-1893, written to Mrs. Drew (Miss
; ;
"
Mary
Life
Gladstone) before and after her marriage
"
and Letters
of
of Stopford
Brooke"
H.
P. Jack's " Noel Williams's Life

;
L.
and Letters
Admiral
"
Sir Charles Napier," a salt of the old school,

;
and Lord Morley's

worthy.
Recollections"
to mention only the
most note"
Beyond
"
collections
all
doubt the book

is
of the year
is
Lord Morley's
Re-
the moral stature of a great and distinguished personality, which will have a place among the great
which
the
self- revelation of
autobiographies.
These
recollections
are interesting because of the

looks at the world
man who
writes,
who
tells
us
how he
and
its
great
issues, but they are also interesting because he tells us what he thinks of the men with whom he has worked, of his friends, and of the public
men
of his day.
One
writer has remarked that the book comes at
a curiously appropriate moment to show that a man may be a great that he need not always shout with politician and yet a gentleman
;
the
crowd
and that a busy

or
life
spent in doing the world's immediate

great
work need not prevent a man from keeping touch with the
realities of
life,
from having a keen sense
of
the majesty of living
and
being.
The volumes
are full of pen portraits.
Here
is
a group of famous
statesmen at Althorp
Lord Spencer's
Seat, the original
home
into
of the
famous Spencer Collection, now one of the glories of this " also of Manchester After dinner we went in 1891.
think
small
library
and
I
what
was the most

one
of
fascinating
room
ever
saw
in
a house
great or
the libraries lined with
well-bound books on white
enamelled shelves, with a few but not too many nick-nacks lying about, and all illuminated with the soft radiance of many clusters of wax
candles.
picture to
remember
Spencer, with his noble carriage,
and
fine red
beard
Gladstone] seated on a
; *
low
stool, discoursing
as usual, playful, keen, versatile
Rosebery, saying
*
;
little,
but
now and
then launching into a pleasant mot Harcourt, cheery, expansive, Like a scene of one of Dizzy's novels, and all the actors, men witty.
with parts to play. The rare books they unbent over, the treasures of The men are Althorp, have now gone to a northern city. ..." save two, and can meet no more." gone
'

It is
189
undoubtedly true
to say that
not so
much upon
boasts.
his political as
Lord Morley's reputation rests upon his literary work, of which he
belongs the credit of having written the best biography of Rousseau, the best biography of Voltaire," and the best " has already Life of Gladstone biography of Diderot, whilst his taken rank as one of the classical biographies in the English language.
nowhere
To him
high tribute to the place the writer of these recollections holds is paid by the press, in the great space which it has devoted to notices
of the work.
Another book
(in the list) of
no
little
is
charm and
alive
significance,
interest
every
page and almost every
line
of
which
with
"
is,
Some
The place of honour in this volume is given to Letters ". Ruskin, but other great names included amongst the correspondents are the Duke of Argyll, Sir Edward Burne- Jones, Robert Browning,
Hawarden
Professor Stuart, Professor Sidgwick, Alfred Lyttleton,
four.
It It is
and A.
J.
Bal-
a definite contribution to the history of a great generation.

left
seems that Mr. Gladstone
behind him forty volumes of
diaries,
and
that Mrs.
Drew
raised the question of their
publication in
whole or
in part.
MR. W. E. Lord Gladstone how- STONE'S

-
ever discouraged the suggestion because, to quote his DIARIES own words " The diaries are a daily record of conscience, unique
:
in their rigidity of
self-examination and introspection.

to the public save for
At
pre-
sent they are

*
unknown
some
extracts in
Lord
Morley's Life '. The justification of his public action lies not in the diaries but in his public statements. In the domain of moral principle
it is,
of course, very difficult, but his inmost soul cannot

It
be
laid bare
as an answer to scurrility."
will be noticed that the possibility of

is
the ultimate publication of the diaries
not disclaimed.
books dedicated to one person have been awaited with " greater eagerness by the public than Mr. Gerard's GERARD'S Four Years in Germany ". The volume is charmingly
Few
My
MENTÔF
dedicated
"To my
small but tactful family of one
my GERMANY.
less felicitous
wife/' a dedication which is only equalled by the no words employed by Dr. Nansen in the dedication
of
"Farthest
North"
to his wife as
"To Her who

is
christened the ship and
had
the courage to wait".
Mr. Gerard's book

and her
perfidy, but
is
not only the greatest indictment of
Germany
one of the heaviest blows which has been
190
aimed
first

at the Kaiser,
and
it
has been
felt.
The
hit
Kaiser will be the

like
to
admit that an ambassador

of respect.
who
can
back
Gerard
is
worthy
In our next issue
we hope
to publish amplifications of the follow-
ing three lectures, which have been delivered from time

to time in the
NEXT
"
John Rylands Library.

in
The
Venetian
History," by Conway, Dragons and Rain Gods/' by Professor G. Elliot Smith, " Puritan Idyll Richard Baxter ( 6 5- 69 ) M. D., F.R.S. and and his Love Story/' by the Rev. Frederick J. Powicke, M.A.,
Litt.D.
Point of
;
View
"
Roman
Professor R. S.
Ph.D.
Two
of Lucretius/'
of the articles appearing in the present issue "
"
:
The
Poetry
i
by Quintessence of Paulinism," by Professor Peake, will be republished almost immediately by the Manchester University
Press,
at
Professor Herford, and
The
REPR NTS OF
contribution on
the price of one shilling each. Professor Elliot Smith's " " is to be Incense and Libations expanded, by the
inclusion of other important matter, dealt with

lecture
by the author in his and Rain Gods," into a volume which will be Dragons issued shortly by the same publishers. The volume will be uniform
on
"
with
"The
Ascent
appeared
last year,
Olympus," by Dr. Rendel Harris, which and will probably be published at the same price
of
of five shillings.
INCENSE
AND
LIBATIONS.
BY G. ELLIOT SMITH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY IN THE VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER.
is
commonly assumed
that
many
of the
elementary practices
stone buildings,
IT
that
of civilization,
such as the erection of rough
whether houses, tombs, or temples, the
crafts of the carpenter
and the stonemason, the carving
of statues, the customs of pouring out
libations or burning incense, are such simple
and obvious procedures
any people might adopt them without prompting or contact of any kind with other populations who do the same sort of things. But if such apparently commonplace acts be investigated they will be None of these things that found to have a long and complex history.
was attempted cumstances became focussed in some strained some individual to make the
seem so obvious
to us of obviousness
until
a multitude of diverse
cir-
particular community,
and con-
discovery.
Nor did
the quality
become apparent even when the enlightened discoverer had gathered up the threads of his predecessor's ideas and woven them into the fabric of a new invention. For he had then to begin
the strenuous fight against the opposition of his fellows before he could
induce them to accept his discovery.

against their preconceived ideas
significance of 'the progress
He
had, in
fact, to
contend
and
their lack of appreciation of the
them
of
"
its
he had made before he could persuade obviousness ". That is the history of most inventions
since the
world began.
But
because tradition has

to us
it
made
begging the question to pretend that such inventions seem simple and obvious
it is
unnecessary to inquire into their history or to assume that any people or any individual simply did these things without any inis
struction
1
when
the
spirit
moved
it
or
him
so to do.
elaboration of a Lecture on the relationship of the Egyptian practice of mummification to the development of civilization delivered in the John Rylands Library, on 9 1916.
An
February,
191
192

The
customs of burning incense and making libations in religious ceremonies are so widespread and capable of being explained in such
plausible, though infinitely diverse,
ways
that
it
has seemed unneces-
sary to inquire
more deeply
l
into
their real origin
and
significance.
For example, Professor
Toy
disposes of these questions in relation to
claims that when burnt before incense in a summary fashion. " " it is to be regarded as food, though in course of time, the deity
He
"
was lost, a convenwas attached to the act of burning. tional significance more refined demanded more refined food for the gods, such as ambrosia and period
the recollection of this primitive character
when
nectar, but these also
were
This, of course,
is
finally given up." a purely gratuitous assumption, or series of asis
sumptions, for which there

there
no
real
evidence.
Moreover, even
if
were any
really early literature to justify such
statements, they
explain nothing.
Incense-burning
it
claim be granted as
explanations, for
is
was
all
of
if Prof. Toy's But a bewildering variety of other " " which the merit of being simple and obvious
is
just as
mysterious
before.
claimed, have been suggested.
The
reader
who
is
curious about
these things will find a luxurious crop of speculations

series of encyclopaedias."
I
by consulting a
"
shall content
myself by quoting only one more.

in
Frankincense
sacrifices
and other
spices
were indispensable
temples where bloody

of
Solomon's temple formed part of the religion. atmosphere must have been that of a sickening slaughter-house, and the fumes of
incense could alone enable the priests and worshippers to support
it.
The
This would apply to thousands of other temples through Asia, and doubtless the palaces of kings and nobles suffered from uncleanliness
and
insanitary arrangements
:
and required an antidote
to evil smells to
make them
It is
endurable.**
an altogether delightful anachronism to imagine that religious

the ancient
ritual in
and aromatic East was inspired by such squeamthe twentieth century might
ishness as a
British sanitary inspector of
experience
1 -
"
Introduction to the History of Religions/' p. 486.
on
p.
"
might start upon this journey of adventure by reading the article " Incense in Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. 3 Samuel Laing, " Human Origins," Revised by Edward Clodd, 1903,
He
38
\/V
FIG.
i.
THE CONVENTIONAL EGYPTIAN REPRESENTATION OF THE BURNING OF

INCENSE AND THE POURING OF LIBATIONS
(Period of the
New
Empire)
after
Lepsius
INCENSE
But
if
AND
LIBATIONS
193
there are these
many
diverse
and mutually destructive
it follows that reasons in explanation of the origin of incense-burning, and obvious". the meaning of the practice cannot be so "simple as to the sense in For scholars in the past have been unable to agree
which these adjectives should be applied. But no useful purpose would be served by enumerating a
collec-
tion of learned fallacies and exposing their contradictions when the true explanation has been provided in the earliest body of literature
that
has
come down from
antiquity.
refer
to
the
Egyptian
"
Pyramid Texts". Before this ancient testimony

it
is
examined
certain general principles
involved in the discussion of

In this connexion
is
such problems should be considered. appropriate to quote the apt remarks made, in
reference to the practice of totemism,

difficult
by
.
Professor Soil as.

.
"If
it is
it is
to conceive
how
such ideas
originated
at
all,
still
more difficult to understand how they should have arisen repeatedly and have developed in much the same way among races evolving
It is at least simpler to independently in different environments. and may have suppose that all [of them] have a common source
. . .
been carried
1
...
to remote parts of the world."
do not
think that anyone
who
conscientiously
and without bias
examines the evidence relating to incense-burning, the arbitrary details

of the ritual
and the peculiar circumstances under which
it is
practised
in different countries, can refuse to admit that so artificial a
custom
must have been dispersed throughout the world from some one centre
where
it
was
devised.
fact that emerges from an examination of these "obvious explanations" of ethnological phenomena is the so-called failure on the part of those who are responsible for them to show any
The
remarkable
adequate appreciation of the nature of the problems to be solved. They know that incense has been in use for a vast period of time, and
that the practice of burning
it
is
very widespread.
certain
They have been

less
so familiarized with the custom

for
its
and
more or
vague excuses
perpetuation that they
show no
realization of
how
strangely
obvious meaning the procedure is. The reasons usually given in explanation of its use are for the most part merely paraphrases of the traditional meanings that in the course of
irrational
and devoid
of
"
Ancient Hunters," 2nd Edition, pp. 234 and 235.
194
history

have come
it.
to
be attached
to the ritual act or the
words used
to designate
as a rule,
Neither the ethnologist nor the priestly apologist will, admit that he does not know why such ritual acts as pour-
ing out water or burning incense are performed,
and
that they are
wholly inexplicable and meaningless to him.

that the real inspiration to perform such rites
is
Nor
will they confess
the fact of their preacts of devotion, the
decessors having
of
handed them down as sacred
which has been entirely forgotten during the process of meaning transmission from antiquity. Instead of this they simply pretend that
Stripped of the glamour which religious emotion and sophistry have woven around them, such
is
the significance of such
acts
obvious.
pretended explanations become transparent subterfuges, none the less real because the apologists are quite innocent of any conscious intention
to deceive either themselves or their disciples.
It
should be
sufficient
have been handed down by tradition for them But in response to the instinctive as right and proper things to do.
that such ritual acts
impulse of
a
all
human
beings, the
mind seeks
is
for reasons in justification
of actions of
is
which the
real inspiration
unknown.
common fallacy to suppose that men's actions are inspired It mainly by reason. The most elementary investigation of the psychology of everyday life is sufficient to reveal the truth that man is not, as a
rule, the
1
pre-eminently rational creature he

is
is
commonly supposed
to
be.
He
impelled
to
most
of his acts
stances of his personal experience,
by and the conventions
his instincts, the circum-
of the society
But once he has acted or decided upon in which he has grown up. a course of procedure he is ready with excuses in explanation and In most cases these are not the attempted justification of his motives.
real reasons, for
in fact are
to analyse their motives or without help to understand their own feelings competent
few human beings attempt
and the
real significance of their actions.
There
is
implanted in
man
the instinct to interpret for his own satisfaction his feelings and sensaBut of necessity this is tions, i.e. the meaning of his experience.
mostly of the nature of rationalizing, i.e. providing satisfying interpretations of thoughts and decisions the real meaning of which is hidden.
Now
tion will
1
must be patent that the nature of this process of rationalizadepend largely upon the mental make-up of the individual
it
On
this
subject see
Elliot
Smith and Pear,
"
Shell
Shock and
its
Lessons," Manchester University Press, 1917,
p. 59.
INCENSE
of the
AND
LIBATIONS
which
his
195
body
of
knowledge and
traditions with
mind has beinfluences
come
to
stored in the course of his personal experience.
The
which he has been exposed, daily and hourly, from the time of his birth onward, provide the specific determinants of most of his beliefs
Consciously and unconsciously he imbibes certain definite ideas, not merely of religion, morals, and politics, but of what is the correct and what is the incorrect attitude to assume in most of the
and views.
circumstances of his daily

his beliefs
life.
These form the

Reason plays a
staple currency of
surprisingly small
and
his conversation.
part in this process, for
most human beings acquire from their fellows
the traditions of their society which relieves
them
of the necessity of
undue thought.
of his
The
very words
in
which the accumulated
traditions
community are conveyed
to
each individual are themselves
charged with the complex symbolism that has slowly developed during the ages, and tinges the whole of his thoughts with their subtle and,
to most
men, vaguely appreciated shades
of
meaning.
During
this
process of acquiring the fruits of his community's beliefs and experiences every individual accepts without question a vast number of apparently
to
simple customs and ideas. . He is apt to regard them as obvious, and assume that reason led him to accept them or be guided by them,
although
when
the specific question
is
put to him he
l
is
unable to give
their real history.
Before leaving these general considerations

certain
elementary
facts
of psychology
I want to emphasize which are often ignored by
those
who
investigate the early history of civilization.
First,
the multitude and the complexity of the circumstances that
are necessary to lead
men
all of
to
make even
the simplest invention render
the concatenation of
these conditions wholly independently
on
the highest degree improbable. Until very definite and conclusive evidence is in any individual case forthcoming
occasion in
it
second
can safely be assumed that no ethnological ly in customs or beliefs has ever been made twice.
significant innovation
Those
by
critics
who have
work
recently attempted to dispose of this claim
referring to the
of the
Patent Office thereby display a singular
lack of appreciation of the real point at issue.
For the ethnological
For a fuller discussion of certain phases of this matter see my address on " Primitive Man," in the Proceedings of the British Academy, 1917,
especially pp. 23-50.
13
196
problem
to share
is

concerned with different populations
who
are assumed not
any common heritage

resort to the
of acquired knowledge, nor to
have had
in-
any
contact, direct or indirect, the
one with the

all
other.
But the
ventors
who
Patent Office are
of
them persons supcivilization

;
plied with information from the storehouse of our
common
and the inventions which they seek
to protect
from imitation by others
are merely developments of the heritage of all civilized peoples. Even when similar inventions are made apparently independently under
such circumstances, in most cases they can be explained by the fact that two investigators have followed up a line of advance which has
been determined by the development

ledge.
of the
common body
in the
of
know-
This general discussion suggests another factor the human mind.
working of
When
man
to
results
certain vital needs or the force of circumstances
compel a
embark upon a certain train of reasoning or invention the which his investigations lead depend upon a great many circumstances. Obviously the range of his knowledge and experience
to
and the general ideas he has acquired from

large part in shaping his inferences.
It
is
his fellows will
play a
quite certain that even in
the simplest problem of primitive physics or biology his attention will
be directed only
to
some
his
of,
and not
all,
the factors involved, and that
him to form a wholly knowledge inadequate conception even of the few factors that have obtruded But he may frame a working hypothemselves upon his attention. thesis in explanation of the factors he had appreciated, which may
the limitations of
will permit
seem perfectly exhaustive and

him, but to those
final,
as well as logical
and
rational to
who come
after him,
with a wider knowledge of the
and a wholly man's solution different attitude towards such problems, the primitive may seem merely a ludicrous travesty.
properties of matter
and the nature
of living beings,
But once a tentative explanation of one group of phenomena has been made it is the method of science no less than the common
tendency of the
human mind
It is
to buttress this theory with analogies
and
fancied homologies.
into a generalisation.
this
In other
words the
isolated facts are built
up
important to
;
remember
that in most cases
mental process begins very early
so that the analogies play a veiy
obtrusive part in the building
up
of theories.
As
a rule a multitude
INCENSE
Hence
AND
is
LIBATIONS
197
or unconsciously in shaping of such influences play a part consciously
any
belief.
the historian
ascertaining
faced with the difficulty, often
(among scores of factors that dein the building up of a great generalization) finitely played some part the real foundation upon which the vast edifice has been erected. First, refer to these elementary matters here for two reasons. I
of quite insuperable,
and secondly, because they are so often overlooked by ethnologists because in these pages I shall have to discuss a series of historical events in which a bewildering number of factors played their part.
;
In sifting out a certain

I
do not pretend
thought.
to
I want to make it clear that more than a small minority of the have discovered
number
of them,
most conspicuous threads
in the
complex texture
of the fabric of early
human
Another
considerations
fact that
is
emerges from these elementary psychological

In the course of
the vital necessity of guarding against the misunder-
standings necessarily involved in the use of words.
long ages the originally simple connotation of the words used to denote many of our ideas has become enormously enriched with a meaning
which
of
in
some degree
reflects
the chequered history of the expression

writers
for
human aspirations. Many make use of such terms, peoples

and
"
who
in
example, as
"
discussing
ancient
"
soul,"
religion,"
gods," without stripping them of the accretions of complex symbolism that have collected around them within more recent times,
become involved
in difficulty
For example, the use
of the terms
and misunderstanding. " " "

soul
"
soul- substance
in
is
or
much
of the literature relating to early or relatively primitive people
fruitful of
misunderstanding.
For
it
is
quite clear from the context
that in
"
life
"
many
or
cases such people
"
vital
meant to imply nothing more than the absence of which from the body for principle," But
to translate such a
any prolonged period means death.

simply as " "
life
is
word
inadequate because all of these people had some theoretical views as to its identity with the "breath "or to its being in the nature of a material substance or essence. It is naturally impossible to
find
any one word or phrase

for
in
our
own
language to
among varying shades of meaning which cannot adequately express the symbolism distinctive of each place and To meet this insuperable diffisociety. " the term vital essence" is open to least culty perhaps objection.
express the exact idea,
every people there are
198
In

my
last
Rylands
lecture
sketched in rough outline a tenta-
tive explanation of
civilization that is
the world-wide dispersal of the elements of the now the heritage of the world at large, and referred
to the part played

arts,
by Ancient Egypt
in the
development
I
of
certain
customs, and beliefs.
On
the present occasion
propose to exgreater detail,
amine certain aspects
of this process of
development
in
and
tice
to study the far-reaching influence exerted

of
by the Egyptian pracit,
mummification, and the ideas that were suggested by
in
starting
new
trains of thought, in stimulating the invention of arts
and
crafts that
body
of customs
were unknown before then, and in shaping the complex and beliefs that were the outcome of these potent
intellectual ferments.
In speaking of the relationship of the practice of mummification to
the development of civilization, however,

the influence
it
have
in
mind not merely
exerted upon the moulding of culture, but also the part played by the trend of philosophy in the world at large in determining the Egyptian's conceptions of the wider significance of embalming, and
the reaction of these effects upon the current doctrines of the meaning of natural phenomena.
No
as the
it
doubt
it
will
be asked
at the outset,
what
possible connexion
can there be between the practice of so fantastic and gruesome an art
embalming
of the
dead and the building up
of civilization ?
Is
conceivable that the course of the development of the arts and

of the essential
crafts,
the customs and beliefs, and the social and political organizations
fact
in
any
elements of civilization
left
has been deflected
a hair's breadth to the right or directly, of such a practice ?

In previous essays
this
as the outcome, directly or in-
'
and
lectures
have indicated
how
intimately
custom was related, not merely to the invention of the arts and crafts of the carpenter and stonemason and all that is implied in the " matrix of civilibuilding up of what Professor Lethaby has called the
zation," but also to the shaping of religious beliefs
1
and
ritual practices,
"
The
Influence of Ancient Egyptian Civilization in the East and in

Jan. -March, 1916.
America," The Bulletin of the John Rylands Library,

2
"
:
and
Press Studies Presented to William Ridgeway, Cambridge, 1913, p. 493 "Oriental Tombs and Temples," Journal of the Manchester Egyptian and Oriental Society, 1914-1915, p. 55.
:
The Migrations of Early Culture/* 1915, Manchester University " The Evolution of the Rock cut Tomb and the Dolmen," Essays
INCENSE
which developed
in association
AND
LIBATIONS
have also suggested the
199
with the evolution of the temple and the

I
conception of a material resurrection.

reaching significance of an
fication in
far-
indirect influence of the practice of

It
mummi-
the history of civilization.

1
prompting the earliest great For has been preserved.
was mainly responsible for maritime expeditions of which the history

centuries the quest
of
resins
many
and
for balsams for embalming and temple ritual, motives which induced coffin-making, continued to provide the chief the Egyptians to undertake sea-trafficking in the Mediterranean and
for use in
and wood
Red Sea. mately made it

the
The knowledge and

possible for the
afield.
It is
experience thus acquired

their pupils to
ulti-
Egyptians and
push
their
adventures further
impossible adequately to estimate the
vastness of the influence of such intercourse, not merely in spreading
abroad throughout the world the germs of our

but
also,
common
civilization,
by
bringing into close contact peoples of varied histories

progress.
and
traditions, in stimulating
Even
if
the practice of mummifi-
cation
had exerted no other noteworthy effect in the history of the world, this fact alone would have given it a pre-eminent place. Another aspect of the influence of mummification I have already
discussed,
and do not intend
to consider further in this lecture.

it
refer to the
manifold ways in which
affected the history of medicine
and pharmacy.
turies, to
By
accustoming the Egyptians, through thirty cen-
the idea of cutting the
human
corpse,
it
made
it
possible for
Greek
physicians of the
Ptolemaic and
later ages to initiate in
Alex-
andria the systematic dissection of the
human body which popular
prejudice forbade elsewhere, and especially in Greece itself. Upon this foundation the knowledge of and the science of medicine anatomy
has been built up." But in fication exerted far-reaching
many
other
effects, directly
ways the practice of mummiand indirectly, upon the
development
"
of medical
and pharmaceutical knowledge and methods. 3
Ships as Evidence of the Migrations of Early Culture," Manchester University Press, 1917, p. 37.
Egyptian Mummies," Journal of Egyptian Archceology, Vol I July, 1914, p. 189. Such, for example, as its influence in the acquisition of the means of preserving the tissues of the body, which has played so large a part in the development of the sciences of anatomy, pathology, and in fact biology in The practice of mummification was largely responsible for the general. attainment of a knowledge of the properties of many drugs and especially
Part
III,
*
"
200
There
then this prima-facie evidence that the is Egyptian mummification was closely related to the development of But what I am architecture, maritime trafficking, and medicine.
practice of
chiefly
concerned with in the present lecture

it
is
the discussion of the
much
and
vaster part
played
in
shaping the innermost beliefs of mankind
directing the course of the religious aspirations and the scientific opinions, not merely of the Egyptians themselves, but also of the
world
It
at large, for
many
centuries afterward.
had a profound influence upon the history of

ill-defined ideas of physiology
human
1
thought.
The vague and
and psychology, which

in
definite
had probably been developing since Aurignacian times were suddenly crystallized into a coherent structure and
Europe, form
by the musings
new
But at the same time the Egyptian embalmer. found expression in the invention of the first deities, philosophy
of the
all
the establishment of the foundations upon which
religious ritual
was subsequently
minister the rites
tion.
built up,
and the
initiation of
a priesthood to adof
which were suggested by the practice
mummifica-
THE BEGINNING OF STONE- WORKING.

During the
last
few years
I
out the fundamental fallacy underlying

tion in ethnology, here.
2
have repeatedly had occasion to point much of the modern speculaof repeating these strictures
and
have no intention
But
it
is
a significant fact that,
when one
leaves the writings
of professed ethnologists
jects written
and turns
to the histories of their special sub-
by
scholars in kindred fields of investigation, views such
of those
which
acquisition of a influence. The

for so
But it was not merely in the restrain putrefactive changes. knowledge of material facts that mummification exerted its
and medicine, which prevailed which are embalmed for all time in many our common speech, was closely related in its inception to the ideas which
humoral theory
of pathology
centuries and the effects of
shall discuss in these pages.
The
Egyptians themselves did not
profit to
any appreciable extent from the remarkable opportunities which their practice The sanctity of these of embalming provided for studying human anatomy. ritual acts was fatal to the employment of such opportunities to gain knowNor was the attitude of mind of the Egyptians such as to permit ledge. the acquisition of a real appreciation of the structure of the body.
1
See my address, " Primitive Man,'* Proc. Brit. Academy, 191 7. " The Origin of the Pre-Columbian See, however, op. cit. supra ; also Civilization o< America," Science, N.S., Vol. XLV, No. 1158, pp. 241246, 9 March, 1917.
2
INCENSE
as
I
AND
LIBATIONS
201
have been
often setting forth will
be found to be accepted without
the obvious truth. question or comment as " Architecture/* written There is an excellent little book entitled
by Professor
particular
R. Lethaby for the Home University Library, that I refer to this affords an admirable illustration of this interesting fact.
W.
work because
it
gives lucid expression to
some
arts
of the ideas
that
wish to submit
for consideration.
"Two
"
have changed
*
the surface of
the world, Agriculture and Architecture
(p. 1).
To
large degree architecture" [which
civilization "]
"
is
"
an Egyptian art
he defines as "the matrix of " we shall for in Egypt (p. 66)

:
best find the origins of architecture as a
Nevertheless Professor Lethaby
whole" (p. 21). bows the knee to current
tradition
when he makes
ably learnt
its
the wholly unwarranted assumption that
Egypt probremarkable
is
art
from Babylonia.
He
claim in spite of his frank confession that

of a primitive age in
puts forward "

little
this
or nothing
known
Mesopotamia.
At
a remote time the art of
Babylonia was
is
that of a civilized people.
As
has been said, there
a great similarity between this art and that of dynastic times in Yet it appears that Egypt borrowed of Asia, rather than the Egypt.
reverse."
[He
gives
no reasons
for this opinion, for
which there
"
is
If no evidence, except possibly the invention of bricks for building.] the origins of art in Babylonia were as fully known as those in Egypt,
the story of architecture might have to begin in Asia instead of

( P . 67).
"
Egypt
But
facts
later
on he speaks
in a
:
more convincing manner
of the
known
first
says (p. 82) Greece entered on her period of high-strung invention in the arts was over the heroes of Craft,
when he
When
life
the time of
like
Tubal Cain
and Daedalus, necessarily belong to the infancy of culture. The phenomenon of Egypt could not occur again the mission of Greece was rather to settle down to a task of gathering, interpreting, and bringing to perfec;
tion Egypt's gifts.
The
is
if
tight compartments, as
arts of civilization were never developed in watershown by the uniformity of custom over the modern
'
world.
that, like
Further,
Japan,
it
any new nation enters into the circle of culture it seems must borrow the capital '. The art of Greece could
Ideas hardly have been more self-originated than is the science of Japan. of the temple and of the fortified town must have spread from the East, the square-roomed house, columnar orders, fine masonry, were all Egyptian.
Elsewhere
have pointed out that

1
it
was the importance which
Of), tit.
supra.
202
the Egyptian

came
to attach to the preservation of the
for the
dead and
to
the making of
adequate provision
deceased's welfare
that
gradually led to the aggrandisement of the tomb. 1 this impelled him to cut into the rock, and, later
In course of time
still,
suggested the
substitution of stone for brick in erecting the chapel of offerings
above
The Egyptian burial customs were thus intimately related to ground. the conceptions that grew up with the invention of embalming. The
evidence in confirmation of
scientiously examines
it
this is so precise that
every one
must be forced
to the conclusion that
who conman did
not instinctively select stone as a suitable material with which to erect temples and houses and forthwith begin to quarry and shape it for
such purposes.
There was an intimate connexion between the

for building
this reason,
first
use of stone
for
and the
practice of mummification.
of
It
and not from any abstract sense

Professor Lethaby claims,
that
"
was probably
at the
wonder
of art," as
"
magic
ideas of sacredness, of
ritual tightness, of
magic
stability
verse,
and
of perfection of
and correspondence with the uni" came to be associform and proportion

for
ated with stone buildings.
At
first
stone
was used only
pharaoh alone was entitled to use it fact that he was divine, the son and incarnation on earth
god.
It
such sacred purposes and the for his palaces in virtue of the
of the
Sun-
to other countries,
rigid
was only when these Egyptian practices were transplanted where these restrictions did not obtain, that the wall of convention was broken down.
in
Even
tic
Rome
until
well into the Christian era

of plastered brick
".
"
'
the largest domes-
and
civil
buildings
were
Wrought masonry
monuments, triumphal
(Lethaby,
seems to have been demanded only arches, theatres, temples and above
op.cit.p. 120). Nevertheless
hieratic tradition
for the great

all for
the Coliseum."
Rome was
mainly responsible for breaking down the which forbade the use of stone for civil purposes.
Roman architecture the engineering element became paramount. was this which broke the moulds of tradition and recast construction " into modern form, and made it free once more 30). (p.
In
It
1
"
For the
earliest
poses, see
my
statement in the Report
evidence of the cutting of stone for architectural purof the British Association for 1914,
P 212.
.
INCENSE
stone for building.
AND
LIBATIONS
203
But Egypt was not only responsible for inaugurating the use of For another forty centuries she continued to be
the inventor of
new
devices in
architecture.
From
time
to
time
which developed in Egypt were adopted by her neighbours and spread far and wide. The shaft- tombs and mast abas of the Egyptian Pyramid Age were adopted in various localities
methods
of building
in the region of the Eastern

in
Mediterranean, with certain modifications
each place, and

in later
in
turn
became the models which were roughly
copied
ages
by
the wandering dolmen-builders.
The round
tombs
of
Crete and Mycenae were clearly only local modifications of
their square prototypes, the
Egyptian Pyramids of the Middle Kingart
dom.
Egypt,
the
'
While
this
/Egean
its
it
passed on
of
in
ideals to the north
gathered from, and perhaps gave to, and west of Europe, where
productions
p.
the
Bronze
Age
clearly
show
its
influence"
(Lethaby,
2
78)
of
the chambered
mounds
of the Iberian peninsula of
and Brittany,
Orkneys.
New
Grange
in
Ireland
and
Maes Howe
/Egean
in the
In the East the influence of
these
modifications
possibly be seen in the Indian stupas and the dagabas of Ceylon, as the stone stepped pyramids there reveal the effects of contact just
may
with the
civilizations of
Babylonia and Egypt.
Professor Lethaby sees the influence of Egypt in the orientation of Christian churches (p. 33), as well as in many of their structural de1
tails (p.
142)
in
the
domed
roofs, the
iconography, the symbolism,

1
and the decoration
Mohammedan
For
it
Byzantine architecture (p. buildings wherever they are found.

architecture
of
38)
and
in
was not only the

its
Christendom that received

also.
of Greece, Rome, and from Egypt, but that of Islam inspiration
These buildings were

in
Arabic
"
origin.
not, like the religion itself, in the

is
main
When
1
the
new
quite negligible. strength of the followers of the Prophet was consoli-
Primitive Arabian art itself
Especially in Crete, Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, and the North
African
Littoral.
For an account
historique Celtique et
of the evidence relating to these
bibliographical references, see
Urgeschichte Europas," 1905, pp. 74 and 75; and Louis Siret, " Les Cassiterides et 1'Empire Colonial des Pheniciens," L'Anthropologie, T. 20, 1909, p. 313.
Miiller,
Sophus
"
Manuel d'ArcheoIogie Gallo-Romaine," T. 1, 1912, pp. 39Q et seg. ;

Dechelette,
"
monuments, with
full
prealso
204

"
dated with great rapidity into a rich and powerful empire, it took over the arts and artists of the conquered lands, extending from North
Africa to Persia
(p.
1
58)
and
it
is
known*
how
this
influence
spread as far west as Spain
and as
far east as Indonesia.
'The
B.C.,
Pharos
at
Alexandria,
the great lighthouse built about
280
almost appears to have been the parent of all high and isolated towers. Even on the coast of Britain, at Dover, we had a Pharos which . . .
was
of
it
in
some degree an
at
imitation
of the
Alexandrian one."
The
Pharos
Boulogne, the round towers of Ravenna, and the imitations
of
elsewhere in Europe, even as far as Ireland, are other examples "

influence.
its
But
in
addition the Alexandrian Pharos had

it
as
great
an
effect
as the prototype of Eastern minarets as
had
for
Western towers "(p. 115).

I
have quoted so extensively from Professor Lethaby's
brilliant little
book
to give this independent testimony of the vastness of the influence
by Egypt during a span of nearly forty centuries in creating " and developing the Most of this wider matrix of civilization ". dispersal abroad was effected by alien peoples, who transformed their
from Egypt before they handed on the composite product to some more distant peoples. But the fact remains that the great centre of
gifts
exerted
original inspiration in architecture
was Egypt.
Egyptian
The
art
original incentive to the invention of this essentially
the desire to protect and secure the welfare of the dead. The importance attached to this aim was intimately associated with the
was
development
of the practice of mummification.
With
of
this tangible
and
persistent evidence of
I
the general scheme
of spread of the arts of building
can
"
now
turn to the consideration
some
of
the other,
more
also,
vital,
manifestations of
human thought "

itself,
and
aspirations,
which
like the
matrix of civilization
grew up
dead.
I
in intimate association with the practice of
embalming the
have already mentioned Professor Lethaby's reference to architecture and agriculture as the two arts that have changed the surface of
the world.
It is
interesting to note that the influence of these
two
in-
gredients of civilization
was
diffused
intimate association the one with the other.
abroad throughout the world in In most parts of the world

distinctive
the use of stone for building and Egyptian methods of architecture
made
their
first
appearance along with the peculiarly
form
INCENSE
of agriculture
AND
LIBATIONS
205
Babyshaping
and
1
irrigation
so intimately associated with early
lonia
and Egypt. But agriculture also exerted a most profound influence
in
the early Egyptian

I
body
of beliefs.
shall
now
call attention to certain features of
the earliest
mummies,
and then
discuss
how
the ideas suggested
by the
practice of the art of
embalming the dead were affected by the early theories of agriculture and the mutual influence they exerted one upon the other.
THE ORIGIN OF EMBALMING.

have already explained how the increased importance that came to be attached to the corpse as the means of securing a continuI 2
ance of existence led to the aggrandizement of the tomb. Special care was taken to protect the dead and this led to the invention of
making of a definite tomb, the size of which rapidly increased as more and more ample supplies of food and other offerings
coffins,
and
to the
But the very measures thus taken the more efficiently to protect and tend the dead defeated the primary object of all this care. For, when buried in such an elaborate tomb, the body no longer be-
were made.
came
desiccated and preserved

it
by
in
the forces of nature as so often
happened when
dry sand.
It is
was placed
a simple grave directly in the hot

in the
of
fundamental importance
that these factors
argument
set forth
here to
remember
came
into operation before the time of
the First Dynasty.
They were
responsible for impelling the Proto-
Egyptians not only to invent the
wooden
coffin,
the stone sarcophagus,
the rock-cut tomb, and to begin building in stone, but also to devise
measures for the
artificial
preservation of the body.
But
in addition
to stimulating the
art of
architecture
and the
development of the first real mummification other equally far-reaching
results in the region of ideas
and
beliefs
From
two
the outset the Egyptian embalmer

:
grew out of these was clearly
practices.
inspired
by
ideals
(a) to preserve the actual tissues of the
body with a
disturbance of the integrity of the surface of the body ; and At first (b) to preserve a likeness of the deceased as he was in life.
1
minimum
"
Perry,
Irrigation,"
2
Memoirs and P roc. Manch.

supra.
The Geographical
Distribution of Terraced Cultivation and Lit. and Phil. Soc., Vol. 60, 1916.
op. cit.
206
it

naturally attempted to
was
it
make
this
if
were
possible, or alternatively,
its
when
simulacrum of the body itself this ideal was found to be

portrait statue.
It
unattainable, from
wrappings or by means of a
that
it
was soon recognized

balmer
to
was beyond
succeed
in
mummifying
the powers of the early emthe body itself so as to retain a

alive
1
recognizable likeness to the
man when
time such attempts were repeatedly made,
although from time to until the period of the
Dynasty, when the operator clearly was convinced that he achieved what his predecessors, for perhaps twenty- five centuries, had been trying in vain to do.
XXI
had
at last
EARLY MUMMIES.
In
the earliest
attempts at
of bandages,
mummification
known (Second Dynasty) examples of Egyptian 2 the corpse was swathed in a large series
into shape to represent the form of
which were moulded
the body.
In a later (probably Fifth
Dynasty)
mummy,
found
in
1 892 Medum, by had been impregnated with a resinous paste, which while still plastic was moulded into the form of the body, special care being bestowed
Professor Flinders Petrie at
the superficial bandages
upon the modelling of the face and the organs of reproduction, so as Professor to leave no room for doubt as to the identity and the sex.
Junker has described
4
an interesting
series
of
variations
of
these
In two graves the bodies were covered with a layer of practices. stucco plaster. First the corpse was covered with a fine linen cloth
:
then the plaster was

(p. 252).
1
put on, and modelled into the form of the

cases
it
But
in
two other
on
"
was not
the
whole body
that
body was
See
my volume
Museum.
Elliot Smith,
"
The Royal Mummies," General
Catalogue of
the Cairo
-
The Earliest Evidence of Attempts at MummificaReport British Association, 1912, p. 612: compare also Egypt," " Burial Customs of Ancient Egypt," London, 1907, pp. 29 and J. Garstang, 30. Professor Garstang did not recognize that mummification had been
G.
tion in
attempted.
3
G.
Elliot
Smith,
"
Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1910

Journal of Egyptian
History of Mummification in Egypt," Proc^ " also Egyptian Mummies," Part III, July, 1914, Plate Archeology, Vol. I,
:
The
XXXI.
Excavations of the Vienna Imperial Academy of Sciences Pyramids of Gizah, 1914," Journal of Egvptian Archeology\ Vol. 1914, P 250.
.
14
at
I,
the
Oct.
FlG.
3.
A MOULD
TAKEN FROM A LIFE-MASK FOUND BY MR. QUIBELL
IN
THE PYRAMID OF TETA
INCENSE
covered with
claims that this
AND
LIBATIONS
207
this layer of stucco,
was done
"
Professor Junker but only the head. the head was regarded apparently because
as the organs of taste, sight,
smell,
as the most important part,
and
hearing were contained in it ". and more obtrusive reason that the face affords the means of identifying
the
But surely there
was the
additional
modelling of the features was intended of the body which had been primarily as a restoration of the form In other cases, where no attempt altered, if not actually destroyed.
individual
!
For
this
was made
to restore the features in such durable materials as resin or
stucco, the linen-enveloped

of the eyes painted of the face.
upon
it
head was modelled, and a representation so as to enhance the life-like appearance

earliest
These
facts
prove quite conclusively that the
attempts to
reproduce the features of the deceased and so preserve his likeness, Thus the itself. was were made upon the wrapped
mummy
mummy
intended to be the portrait as well as the actual bodily remains of the In view of certain differences of opinion as to the original sigdead.
nificance of the funerary ritual,
later
which
shall
have occasion
to discuss
on (see
p.
0),
it is
A discovery
a
made by Mr.
l
important to keep these facts clearly in mind. J. E. Quibell in the course of his ex-
cavations at Sakkara
suggests that, as an
outcome
of these practices
new procedure may have been

of a death-mask.
making
devised in the Pyramid Age the For he discovered what seems to be the
mask taken
directly from the face of the

this
Pharaoh Teta
(Fig. 3).
time also the practice originated of making a life-size statue of the dead man's head and placing it along with the portrait actual body in the burial chamber. These "reserve heads," as they
About
have been called, were usually made found one made of Nile mud."
of fine limestone, but
Junker
Junker believes that there was an intimate relationship between the plaster- covered heads and the reserve-heads. They were both
expressions of the
same
idea, to preserve a
lost
all
simulacrum of the deceased
when
*
his actual
body had
recognizable likeness to him as he
"
at Saqqara," 1907-8, p. 113. great variety of experiments that were being made at the beginning of the Pyramid Age bears ample testimony to the fact that the o; iginal inventors of these devices were actually at work in Lower Egypt
-
Excavations
The
at that time.
208
was when

alive.
The one method aimed

body and the
decayed.
"it
is
at
combining
in the
same
the other at making a more life-like portrait apart from the corpse, which could take the place of object the actual
likeness
;
the latter
when
it
any have no statue- chamber and probably possessed no statues. The statues [of the whole body] certainly were made, at any rate partly, with the intention that they should take the place of the decaying
.
Junker heads
.
states further that

.
no chance that the
substitute-
entirely, or at
rate chiefly, are found in the
tombs that
body,
although later
the idea
was
modified.
of]
The
placing of
the
substitute-head in [the burial
chamber
the mastaba therefore be-
came unnecessary
at the
moment when
the complete figure of the dead

>
now commonly called the serdab above was introduced." The ancient Egyptians themselves called ground] " the serdab fa&pr-twt or statue-house," and the group of chambers, the tomb-chapel in the mastaba, was known to them as the forming
[placed in a special chamber,
important to remember that, even when the custom of making a statue of the deceased became fully established, the original idea of
It is
restoring the form of the

sight of.
mummy
itself
or
its
wrappings was never
lost
Dynasties to
give
it
attempts made in the XVIII, and pack the body of the mummy itself and by a life-like appearance afford evidence of this.
The
XXI
and
XXII
means
artificial
In the
New
Empire and in Roman times the wrapped mummy was sometimes But throughout Egyptian history modelled into the form of a statue.
it
was a not uncommon
practice to provide a painted
mask
for the
wrapped mummy,
deceased.
or in early Christian times merely a portrait of the
custom there also persisted a remembrance Professor Gars tang records the fact that ginal significance.
this
2
With
of its oriin the
XII
Dynasty,
when
statue
mummy, no
1
painted mask was placed upon the wrapped The underor statuette was found in the tomb.
the Serdab, "Journal of Egyptian Archeology, Vol. Ill, Part IV, Oct., 1916, p. 250. The word serdab is merely the Arabic word used by the native workmen, which has been adopted and converted into a technical term by European archaeologists.
2
" Aylward M. Blackman, The A'a-House and
<9/>
cit.
17'
<v
FIG.
4.
PORTRAIT STATUE OF AN EGYPTIAN LADY OF THE PYRAMID AGE
INCENSE
AND
LIBATIONS
l
209
with takers apparently realized that the mummy which was provided the purposes for which statues the life-like mask was therefore fulfilling
were devised.
So
also in the
New
ling of the actual
mummy
so as to restore
Empire the packing and modelits life-like appearance were
for a statue. regarded as obviating the need the further consideration of the I must now return to
Old Kingdom
statues.
desire,
All these varied experiments were inspired by the same But when the to preserve the likeness of the deceased.
sculptors attained their object,

portraits,
which must ever remain marvels of technical
and created those marvellous life-like skill and artistic

minds
of the
the old ideas that surged through the feeling (Fig. 4),
remains Pre-dynastic Egyptians as they contemplated the desiccated

of the
dead were strongly
reinforced.
The
earlier people's thoughts
were turned more specifically than heretofore to the contemplation of the nature of life and death by seeing the bodies of their dead preserved whole and incorruptible
as an
;
and,
if
their actions
can be regarded
expression of their ideas,

in
they began to wonder what

to prevent
was
lacking
feeling
these physically complete bodies

acting like living beings.
them from
results
and
Such must have been the

life
of their puzzled contemplation of the great problems of
and death.
Otherwise the impulse to make more certain the preservation of the body by the invention of mummification and to retain a life-like
by means of a sculptured statue reBut when the corpse had been rendered incorruptible and the deceased's portrait had been fashioned with realistic The perfection the old ideas would recur with renewed strength.
representation of the deceased
mains inexplicable.
then took more definite shape that if the missing elements of vitality could be restored to the statue, it might become animated and
belief
the dead
man would
live
again in his vitalized statue.
This prompted
a more intense and searching investigation of the problems concerning the nature of the elements of vitality of which the corpse was deprived at the time of death. Out of these inquiries in course of time a
2 highly complex system of philosophy developed.
1
It is
perhaps the
a remarkable fact that Professor Garstang, who brought to light best, and certainly the best-preserved, collection of Middle
Kingdom mummies
had
really
"
been embalmed
The
ever discovered, failed to recognize the fact that they (pp. cit. p. 171). reader who wishes for fuller information as to the reality of
these beliefs and
how
seriously they
were held
will find
them
still
in active
210
But

in the earlier tinftes
with which
am now
concerned
it
found
practical expression in certain ritual procedures, invented to convey to the statue the breath of life, the vitalising fluids, and the odour and
sweat of the
feeling
living
body.
Apparently the
seat of
knowledge and
left
of
was
retained in the
body when
to
the heart
was
in situ
it
so
that the only thing

sible for the
needed
awaken consciousness and make

heed
of his friends
pos-
dead man
to take
and
to act volun-
tarily
was
at
to present offerings of
functions of the heart.
But the element

1
blood to stimulate the physiological of vitality which left the
body
In
death had to be restored to the statue, which represented the

earlier attempts
~
deceased in the ka -house.
my
to interpret these problems,

portrait
adopted the
view that the making
of
statues
of the practice of mummification.
was the direct outcome But Dr. Alan Gardiner, whose

enables him
to look at
intimate knowledge of the early
literature
such problems from the Egyptian's a modification of this interpretation.
own
point of view, has suggested Instead of regarding the custom
of making statues as an outcome of the practice of mummification, he thinks that the two customs developed simultaneously in response
to the twofold desire to preserve both the actual
body and a repreearliest
sentation
of
the features of the dead.
But
think this suggestion

at-
does not give adequate recognition to the fact that the

tempts
actual
at funerary portraiture
mummies.
This
fact
were made upon the wrappings of the and the evidence which I have already
admirable account of Chinese philosophy wall be operation in China. " found in De Croat's Religious System of China,'* especially Vol. IV, Book II. It represents the fully developed (New Empire) system of Egyptian
influences, as well as
An
ways by Babylonian, Indian and Central Asiatic by accretions developed locally in China. 1 A. M. Blackman, " The A'tf-House and the Serdab," The Journal of Egyptian Archeology, Vol. Ill, Part IV, Oct., 1916, p. 250.
belief modified in various
Migrations of Early Culture," p. 37. " The Tomb of AmenDr. Alan Gardiner (Davies and Gardiner, I think, overlooked certain statements in emhet," 1915, p. 83, footnote) has, my writings and underestimated the antiquity of the embalmer's art for he attributes to me the opinion that "mummification was a custom of rela3
;
"
tively late
growth
".
presence in China of the characteristically Egyptian beliefs concerning the animation of statues (de Groot, op. cit. pp. 339-356), whereas the practice of mummification, though not wholly absent, is not obtrusive, might perhaps be interpreted by some scholars as evidence in favour of the
The
INCENSE AND. LIBATIONS
211
quoted from Junker make it quite clear that from the beginning the embalmer's aim was to preserve the body and to convert trie mummy
itself
into a
simulacrum
skill
of
the deceased.
to
When
he realized that
enable him to accomplish this was not adequate his technical double aim, he fell back upon the device of making a more perfect
and
realistic portrait
statue apart from the
mummy.
But, as
have
already pointed out,
he never completely renounced his ambition of the mummy itself and in the time of the New Empire transforming he actually attained the result which he had kept in view for nearly
;
twenty centuries. In these remarks

statues.
have been referring only to funerary portrait
Centuries before the attempt was made to fashion them modellers had been making of clay and stone representations of cattle and human beings, which have been found not only in Predynastic " " graves in Egypt but also in so-called Upper Palaeolithic deposits
in
Europe.
But the fashioning

for funerary
of realistic
and
art,
life-size
human
portrait- statues
purposes was a
new
in
the
way
have
tried to depict.
No
which gradually developed in doubt the modellers made use
of the skill they
had acquired
the practice of the older art of rough
impressionism.
Once
vided for
the statue
it
serdab
it
was made a stone-house (the serdab) was proabove ground. As the dolmen is a crude copy of the can be claimed as one of the ultimate results of the practice
development of the custom of making statues independently of mummificaBut such an inference is untenable. Not only is it the fact that in most parts of the world the practices of making statues and mummifying the dead are found in association the one with the other, but also in China the essential beliefs concerning the dead are based upon the supposition that the body is fully preserved (see de Groot, It is chap. XV.). quite evident that the Chinese customs have been derived directly or indirectly from some people who mummified their dead as a There can regular practice. be no doubt that the ultimate source of their to do these
tion.
inspiration
was Egypt.
I
things
this quite
depict the souls of the viscera as

(p.
need mention only one of many identical peculiarities that makes De Groot says it is "strange to see Chinese certain. fancy
71).
The same custom

were
first
protective deities
(Reisner).
1
" with animal forms prevailed Egypt, where the "souls "or given animal forms in the Nineteenth Dvnastv
distinct individuals
in
;
Op.
cit.
supra, Ridgeway Essays
also
Man,
1913, p. 193
212

It is
of mummification.
clear that the conception of the possibility of
a life beyond the grave assumed a more concrete form when it was realized that the body itself could be rendered incorruptible and its
distinctive traits could
be kept alive by means of a portrait statue. There are reasons for supposing that primitive man did not realize or
1 contemplate the possibility of his own existence coming to an end. Even when he witnessed the death of his fellows he does not appear
to
have appreciated the
fact that
it
was
really the
end
of
life
and not
But if merely a kind of sleep from which the dead might awake. the corpse were destroyed or underwent a process of natural disintegration the fact
If
these considerations,
in
was brought home to him that death had occurred. which early Egyptian literature seems to suggest,
be borne
mind, the view that the preservation of the body from corruption implied a continuation of existence becomes intelligible.
At
first
the subterranean chambers in which
housed were developed into a many-roomed house

complete in every
detail."
the actual body was for the deceased,
But when the statue took over the function
of representing the deceased, a dwelling
ground.
This developed into
was provided the temple where the

offerings of
for
it
above
relatives
and
friends of the
dead came and made the
food which were
regarded as essential for the maintenance of existence.
The
For
at
evolution of the temple
was thus the
direct
outcome
of the
ideas that
grew up in connexion with the preservation of the dead. was nothing more than the dwelling place of the reBut when, for reasons which I shall explain later animated dead.
first it
dead king became deified, his temple of offerings became the building where food and drink were presented to the god,
(see p. 220), the
not merely to maintain his existence, but also to restore his consciousness and so afford an opportunity for his successor, the actual king,
to consult
offerings
him and obtain

ritual
his advice
and help.
The
presentation of
restoring con-
and the
procedures for
at
first
animating and
sciousness to the
dead king were
directed solely to these ends.
But
in course of time, as their original
purpose became obscured, these
services in the
1
temple altered in character, and their meaning became
See Alan H. Gardiner, "Life and Death (Egyptian)," Hastings'

in
Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. 2 See the quotation from Mr. Quibell's account
Report of the British Association for 1914,
p.
my
statement in the
215.
INCENSE
rationalized into
acts of
AND
LIBATIONS
of prayer
213
and
homage and worship, and
later times, acquired an ethical and moral supplication, and in much absent from the original conception of significance that was wholly
The earliest idea of the temple as a place of the temple services. Even in our times the offertory offering has not been lost sight of.
still
finds a place in
temple
services.
THE
The
SIGNIFICANCE OF LIBATIONS.
central idea of this lecture
was suggested by Mr. Aylward

1
M.
and
Blackman's important discovery of the actual meaning of incense

libations to the
The earliest body of Egyptians themselves. literature preserved from any of the peoples of antiquity is comprised in the texts inscribed in the subterranean chambers of the Sakkara
Pyramids
of the Fifth
forty-five centuries ago,

1
and Sixth Dynasties. were first brought

scholars
to light in
These documents, written modern times in
880-8
and
since the late Sir
translation of them,
many
But
Gaston Maspero published the first have helped in the task of elucidatfor
ing their meaning.
it
remained
Blackman
to discover the ex-
planation they give of the origin
and
significance of the act of pouring

is
out libations.
"
The
general meaning of these passages

is
quite clear.
it
The
corpse of the deceased
dry and
it
shrivelled.
To
revivify
the
vital fluids that
have exuded from

for
[in
the process of mummification]

life
must be restored,
again.
not
till
then will
us,
return
and the heart beat

to
This, so the texts
show
was believed
be accomplished
"
(pp. cit.
by
offering libations to the
accompaniment
of incantations
p. 70).
In the
first
three passages quoted
Texts "the
libations are said to

".
by Blackman from the Pyramid be the actual fluids that have issued
"
a different notion
is
from the corpse

introduced.
his
In the next four quotations
It is
not the deceased's
own
exudations that are to revive

2
shrunken frame but those of a divine body, the [god's

'
fluid]
that
The
.
Significance of Incense
and Libations
Ritual,'* Zeitschrift fiir
Agyptische Sprache
actual
in Funerary and Temple und Altertumskunde, Bd. 50, in hieroglyphics and adds in a footnote :
1912, P 69.
-
the translation
'
Mr. Blackman here quotes the "

"
god's fluid
word
The
Nile was supposed to
and the following explanation be the fluid which issued from
Osiris.
expression in the Pyramid texts
may
refer to this belief

if
the dead
"
The
[in
the
Pyramid
Age
it
would have been more accurate
he had said the dead
214
came from the corpse of Osiris himself, the juices that dissolved from his decaying flesh, which are communicated to the dead sacramentwise under the form of these libations."
This dragging-in
of the life-giving
of Osiris is especially significant.
For the analogy

Just as
power
of
water that
is
specially associated with Osiris

ritual of
played a dominant part in suggesting the

water,
libations.
it
when
to
applied to the apparently dead seed, makes

life,
germinate
and come
and, as
so libations can reanimate the corpse.
These general
at the time,
specific
biological theories of the potency of

1
water were current
shall explain later
(seep. 218), had possibly received

l
application to
in the
man
long before the idea of libations developed.

of the cult of Osiris
For,
development
the general fertilizing
power
king, in identified
water.'*
1
whose Pyramid
with
Osiris
the
inscriptions
were found]
"
being usually was Nile
since the water
used
in the libations
The voluminous
in the latest edition of in
literature relating to Osiris will "
"
The Golden Bough

this
by
Sir
be found summarized But James Frazer.
remarkable compilation of evidence it is necessary to call particular attention to the fact that Sir James Frazer' s interpretation is permeated with speculations based upon the modern ethnological dogma of independent evolution of similar customs and beliefs without cultural contact between the different localities where such similarreferring the
reader to
ities
their appearance. complexities of the motives that inspire and direct human activities are entirely fatal to such speculations, as I have attempted to indicate (see
make
The
above, p.
jections to Sir
But apart from this general warning, there are other obIn his illuminating article upon James Frazer's theories. Osiris and Horus, Dr. Alan Gardiner (in a criticism of Sir James Frazer's "The Golden Bough: Adonis, Attis, Osiris; Studies in the History of Oriental Religion," Journal of Egyptian Archeology^ Vol. II, 1915, p. 122) insists upon the crucial fact that Osiris was primarily a king, and " " that it is the role of the living king being invarialways as a dead king," ably played by Horus, his son and heir ". He states further " What Egyptologists wish to know about Osiris beyond anything else is how and by what means he became associated
1
95).
with the processes of vegetable
life ".
An
examination of the literature
relating to Osiris and the large series of homologous deities in other countries (which exhibit prima facie evidence of a common origin) suggests the idea that the king who first introduced the practice of systematic irrigation there-
by
for reasons
laid the foundation of his reputation as a beneficent reformer. When, which I shall discuss later on (see p. 220), the dead king became deified, his fame as the controller of water and the fertilization of the
became apotheosized also. I venture to put forward this suggestion only because none of the alternative hypotheses that have been propounded
earth
INCENSE
of water
AND
soil
LIBATIONS
specific exemplification in
215
the
when
applied to the
found
Malinowski potency of the seminal fluid to fertilize human beings. who are ignorant of the has pointed out that certain Papuan people,
fact that
women
are fertilized
by
sexual connexion, believe that they
can be rendered pregnant by The study of folk-lore and early

in the distant past
rain falling
beliefs
upon them (op. cit. infra). makes it abundantly clear that

no clear
distinction
which
am now
and
the
discussing
was
life
made between
into being
fertilization
vitalization,
between bringing new
and reanimating
The
process of fertilization of
body which had once been alive. the female and animating a corpse or a
to the
statue
were regarded as belonging
same category
of biological for
processes.
The
'
sculptor
'
who
carved
the
portrait- statues
the
Egyptian's tomb was called sankh, "he who causes to live,*' and " the word to]fashion (nts) a statue is to all appearances identical
with ms,
'
'
to give birth
'V
Thus
the Egyptians themselves expressed in
words the ideas which
an independent study
of the ethnological evidence
showed many other

2
peoples to entertain, both in ancient and modern times. The interpretation of ancient texts and the study of the beliefs of
less
cultured
birth," "to give
modern peoples indicate that our expressions "to give life," "to maintain life," "to ward off death," "to
:
insure good luck," "to prolong life," "to give life to the dead," "to " to give fertility," animate a corpse or a representation of the dead," " to impregnate," "to create," represent a series of specializations of meaning which were not clearly differentiated the one from the other
in early times or
among
relatively primitive
modern people.
seem
to
of
be
body
known
It is
offer an adequate explanation of, the concerning Osiris. a remarkable fact that in his lectures on " The Development of
in
acccordance with, or to
facts
Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt," which are based upon his own studies of the Pyramid Texts, and are an invaluable storehouse of information, Professor J. H. Breasted should have accepted Sir James Frazer's views.
These seem
actual Egyptian texts
be altogether at variance with the renderings of the and to confuse the exposition. 1 Dr. Alan Gardener, quoted in my " Migrations of Early Culture," see also the same scholar's remarks in Davies and Gardiner, " The p. 42 Tomb of Amenemhet," 1915, p. 57, and " new Masterpiece of Egyptian Sculpture," The Journal of Egyptian Archceology, Vol. IV, Part I,
to to
:
me
Jan., 1917.
2
" Wilfrid Jackson, Shells as Evidence of the Migrations of Early Culture," 1917, Manchester University Press.
See
J.
216

evidence brought together in Jackson's work clearly suggests
The
that at a very early period in
human
history, long before the ideas that
found expression
tion
in the Osiris story
had
materialized,
men
entertained
in all its literal crudity the belief that the external
organ of reproducfrom which the child emerged at birth was the actual creator of
life.
the child, not merely the giver of birth but also the source of
The
objects
widespread tendency
attribute to
of the
human mind
to identify similar
and
them the powers
of the things they
mimic led
primitive
men
to assign to the
It
cowry- shell all

off
these life-giving
and
birth-giving virtues.
birth, to
became an amulet
to give fertility, to assist at
maintain
life,
to
ward
danger, to ensure the life hereafter,
to bring luck of
shell also
came
to
any sort. Now, as the giver of birth, the cowrybe identified with, or regarded as, the mother and
family
;
creator of the
human
and
in course of time, as this belief
became
and
first
it
rationalized, the shell's maternity received visible expression
became
the dead
personified as an actual
woman,
the Great Mother, at
nameless and with ill-defined features.
But
at a later period,
when
king Osiris gradually acquired his attributes of divinity,
and a god emerged with the form of a man, the vagueness of the Great Mother who had been merely the personified cowry-shell soon
disappeared and the amulet assumed, as Hathor, the form of a real woman, or, for reasons to be explained later, a cow.
The
fertility
influence of
these developments reacted

;
conception of the water-controlling god, Osiris
upon the nascent and his powers of
were enlarged
to include
many
of the life-giving attributes of
Hathor
EARLY BIOLOGICAL THEORIES.

Before the
it is
full significance of
these procedures can be appreciated
and
to try to get at the back of the Proto- Egyptian's mind I understand his general trend of thought. specially want to make it clear that the ritual use of water for animating the corpse
essential
to
or the statue
of biology
was merely a
specific application of the general principles
which were then
current.
It
was no mere
It
childish
makewhich
;
believe or priestly subterfuge to regard the pouring out of water as a
means
and
of animating
a block of stone.
was a
conviction for
the Proto- Egyptians considered there

their faith in the efficacy of
was a
substantial scientific basis

is
water to animate the dead
to
be
INCENSE
AND
LIBATIONS
217
which is made regarded in the same light as any scientific inference a specific application of some general theory at the present time to give The Proto- Egyptians clearly beconsidered to be well founded.
lieved in the validity of the general biological theory of the life-giving Many facts, no doubt quite convincing to them, properties of water.
testified to the
soundness of their theory.
They
accepted the principle
with the same confidence that modern people have adopted Newton's Law of Gravitation, and Darwin's theory of the Origin of
Species,
certain
and applied it to explain many phenomena or to justify procedures, which in the light of fuller knowledge seem to
ludicrous.
modern people puerile and
But the early people obviously

their actions as rational.
took these procedures seriously
and regarded
theory
The
fact that their early biological
was inadequate ought not

to fall into the error
to mislead
modern
scholars
and encourage them
of supposing that the ritual of libations
inference.
was not based upon a serious do not accept the whole of Darwin's " Law," but this does not mean teaching, or possibly even Newton's that in the past innumerable inferences have been honestly and con-
Modern
scientists
fidently
It
made
in specific application of these general principles.
should examine more closely the Proto- Egyptian body of doctrine to elucidate the mutual influence of
is
important, then,
that
it
and the ideas suggested by the practice of mummification. It is not known where agriculture was first practised or the circumstances
which led men
In
to appreciate the fact that plants
could be cultivated.
many
parts of the
world agriculture can be carried on without
artificial irrigation,
part of
and even without any adequate appreciation on the But when it came to the farmer of the importance of water.
in
be practised under such conditions as prevail

essential for the
artificial
Egypt and Mesopo-
tamia the cultivator would soon be forced to realize that water
was
growth means by which the
of plants,
soil
and
that
it
was imperative
It is
to devise
might be
fact
irrigated.
not
known
where
or
by whom
this cardinal
first
came
to
be appreciated,
whether by the Sumerians or the Egyptians or by any other people. But it is known that in the earliest records both of Egypt and Sumer the most significant manifestations of a ruler's wisdom were the making
of irrigation canals
facts are
and the controlling
of water.
Important as these
from
their bearing
they had an
infinitely
upon the material prospects of the people, more profound and far-reaching effect upon the
218
beliefs of

mankind.
Groping
after
some explanation
fertile
of the natural
phenomenon
to
it,
that the earth
became
when water was
applied
and that seed burst
into life
under the same influence, the early
formulated the natural and not wholly illogical idea that water was the repository of life-giving powers. Water was equally
biologist
necessary for the production of
life
and
for the
maintenance of
life.
At an
man and
in animals.
early stage in the development of this biological
other
animals
were brought within
the
scope
of
theory the
generalization.
For the drinking of water was a condition of existence The idea that water played a part in reproduction was
fact.
co-related with this
Even
at
the present time
many
aboriginal peoples in Australia,
Guinea, and elsewhere, are not aware of the fact that in the process of animal reproduction the male exercises the physiological
role of fertilization.
1
New
There are widespread
indications throughout the world that the
appreciation of this elementary physiological

at a relatively recent period in the history of
knowledge was acquired

mankind.
It is difficult
to believe that the fundamental facts of the physiology of fertilization
animals could long have remained unknown when men became The Egyptian hieroglyphs leave no doubt that breeders of cattle.
in
the knowledge
was
fully appreciated at the period
when
"
is
the earliest
picture- symbols were devised, for the verb by the male organs of generation. But,
"
to beget
represented
as
the
domestication of
it is
animals
may have been
earlier
than the invention of agriculture,
quite likely that the appreciation of the fertilizing powers of the
male
animal
may have been, and probably was,
definitely
more ancient
than the earliest biological theory of the fertilizing power of water. I have discussed this question to suggest that this earlier knowledge
that
animals
could
be
fertilized
by the seminal
properties.
fluid
was
certainly brought within the scope of the wider generalisation that
water
itself
was endowed with
fertilizing
Just as water
fertilized the earth so the

1
semen
fertilized the female.
Water was
Australia
Baldwin Spencer and Gillen, "

;
"Across Australia"
Northern Territory of Australia

:
".
"The Northern Tribes of Central and Spencer's " Native Tribes of the For a very important study of the
whole problem with special reference to New Guinea, see B. Malinowski, " Baloma the Spirits of the Dead," etc., Journal of the Roval Anthropological Institute, 1916, p. 415.
INCENSE
AND
LIBATIONS
219
necessary for the maintenance of life in plants and was also essential As both the earth and women in the form of drink for animals.
could be
other.
1
fertilized
The
earth
came
by water they were homologized one with the to be regarded as a woman, the Great
Mother.
When
the fertilizing water

Isis
came
to
be
personified in the
person of Osiris his consort
was
identified with
the earth which
was
fertilized
by water.
an Egyptian king represents him 3 This using the hoe to inaugurate the making of an irrigation-canal. was the typical act of benevolence on the part of a wise ruler. It is
One
of the earliest pictures of
not unlikely that the earliest organization of a community under a definite leader may have been due to the need for some systematized
control of irrigation.
In
any case the
earliest rulers of
Egypt and
Sumer were
essentially the controllers and regulators of the water

fertility
supply and as such the givers of
and
prosperity.
Once men
first
not the end of all

1
consciously formulated the belief that death was 4 things, that the body could be re-animated and
space and time as Ancient Egypt and
In places as far apart in
Modern
fer-
America.
2
With
reference to the assimilation of the conceptions of
human
tilization
of
and watering the soil and the widespread idea among the ancients " he who irrigates," Canon van Hoonacker gave regarding the male as
:
Louis Siret the following note " In Assyrian the cuneiform sign for water is also used, inter alia, to express the idea of begetting (banfi). Compare with this the references In Isaiah xlviii. 1 we read Hear ye from Hebrew and Arabic writings. house of Jacob, which are called by the name of Israel, and are this, and in Numbers xxiv. 7, Water come forth out of the waters of Judah shall flow from his buckets and his seed shall be in many waters '. " The Hebrew verb (shangat) which denotes sexual intercourse has, in Arabic (sadjald), the meaning to spill water '. In the Koran, Sur. 36, " v. 6, the word maun (water) is used to (L. Siret, designate semen
' ,
M.
'
Questions de Chronologic et d' Ethnographic Iberiques," Tome I, 1913, p. 250). " 'Quibell, Hieraconpolis, Vol, I, 260, 4. 4 In using this phrase I want to make a clear distinction between the phase of culture in which it had never occurred to man that, in his individual case, life would come to an end, and the more enlightened stage, in which he fully realized that death would inevitably be his fate, but that
in spite of
It is
it
"
his real existence
would
continue.
the fact that he could
man appreciated an animal or his fellow-man. But for a long time he failed to realize that he himself, if he could avoid the process of meclear that at quite an early stage in his history
kill
220

it
consciousness and the will restored,
was
natural that a wise ruler
who, when
alive,
continue to be consulted.
;
had rendered conspicuous services should after death The fame of such a man would grow with
;
his good deeds and his powers would become apotheosized age he would become an oracle whose advice might be sought and whose
be
help be obtained in grave "

deified," or at
crises.
In other
words the dead king would

alive.
any
rate credited with the ability to confer even
greater boons than he

It
is
was
able to
do when
first
no mere coincidence that the
"
"
god
should have been
was
a dead king, Osiris, nor that he controlled the waters of irrigation and Nor, for the reasons that I specially interested in agriculture.
phallic
of fer-
have already suggested, is it surprising that he should have had attributes, and in himself have personified the virile powers
1
tilization.
In attempting to explain the origin of
the ritual procedures of
burning incense and offering libations it is essential to realize that the creation of the first deities was not primarily an expression of religious
belief,
but rather an application of science to national
affairs.
It
was
the logical interpretation of the dominant scientific theory of the time

tor the practical benefit of the living
;
or in other words, the
means
devised for securing the advice and the active help of wise rulers after their death. It was essentially a matter of practical politics and applied science.
It
became
religion
only
when
the
advancement
of
knowledge superseded these primitive

as soothing traditions for the thoughts
cultivate.
scientific
theories
and
left
them
and
aspirations of
mankind to
For by the time the adequacy of these theories of knowledge began to be questioned they had made an insistent appeal, and had come to be regarded as an essential prop to lend support to
web of man's conviction of the reality of a life beyond the grave. moral precept and the allurement of hcpe had been so woven around
them
that
no force was able to
strip
away
this
body
of consolatory
chanical destruction
in existence so
not continue to exist.
by which he could kill an animal or a fellow-man, would The dead are supposed by many people to be still Once the body begins to as the body is preserved. long
disintegrate even the most unimaginative of men can entirely repress the idea of death. But to primitive people the preservation of the body is a token that existence has not come to an end. The corpse is equally
merely sleeping.
1
Breasted, op.
cit.
p. 28.
INCENSE
beliefs
;
AND
LIBATIONS
221
and they have persisted for all time, although the reasoning by which they were originally built up has been demolished and forgotten
several millennia ago.
It is
not
known where
Osiris
was
born.
In other countries there
are homologous deities, such as Ea,
Tammuz, Adonis, and
Attis,
which are certainly manifestations of the same idea and sprung from the same source. Certain recent writers assume that the germ of the But if so, Osiris-conception was introduced into Egypt from abroad.
nothing
is
known
for certain of its place of origin.
In
any case there
can be no doubt that the distinctive features of Osiris, his real personality
and character, were developed in Egypt. For reasons which I have suggested already
water
in cultivation
it is
probable that the
significance of
was not
realized until cereals
were
cultivated in
some such place as Babylonia or Egypt.

Babylonian Ea coming
is
1
But there are

from abroad by
very definite legends of the
way of the Persian Gulf. The early history of Tammuz

in
veiled in obscurity.
Somewhere
some
scientific
South Western Asia or North Eastern Africa, probably within a

of the
few years
theorist,
development of the
art of agriculture,
interpreting the
body
of empirical
knowledge acquired by
cultivating cereals,
life-giving
was the great propounded This view eventually found expression in the element.
the view that water
specific application in the invention of libations
Osiris-group of legends.
This theory found
and
upon the general body of doctrine and gave it a more sharply defined form. The dead king also became more real when he was represented by an actual embalmed body and a life-like statue, sitting in state upon his throne and
holding in his hands the emblems of his high office. Thus while, in the present state of knowledge,
justifiable to claim that the Osiris- group of deities
it would be unwas invented in
incense.
These
practices in turn reacted
Egypt, and certainly erroneous to attribute the general theory of the fertilizing properties of water to the practice of embalming, it is true
that the latter
1
was
responsible for giving Osiris a
much more
concrete
even the probability, must be borne in mind that arising from the waters may be merely another way of expressing his primary attribute as the personification of the fertilizing powers of water.
possibility, or
The
the legend of
Ea
222

"
and clearly-defined shape, of making a god in the image of man/' and for giving to the water-theory a much richer and fuller significance
than
it
had
before.
symbolism so created has had a most profound influence upon the thoughts and aspirations of the human race. For Osiris
The
was
the prototype of
;
all
the gods
priests
his ritual
was
the basis of
all
religious ceremonial
his
who
conducted the animating cere-
monies were the pioneers of a long series of ministers who for more than fifty centuries, in spite of the endless variety of details of their
ritual
and the character
of their temples,
have continued to perform
ceremonies that have undergone remarkably
little essential change. the chief functions of the priest as the animator of the god Though and the restorer of his consciousness have now fallen into the back-
ground
in
most
religions, the ritual acts (the incense
and
libations, the
offerings of food
and blood and the
rest) still persist in
many
countries
the priest still appeals by prayer and supplication for those benefits, which the Proto- Egyptian aimed at securing when he created Osiris
as a god to give advice and help.
The
"
prayer for rain
is
the earliest
form of
religious appeal.
In using the terms

earliest
"god" and
of confusion
is
religion" with reference to the
form of Osiris and the beliefs that grew up with reference to

introduced.
him a potent element
During the last fifty centuries the meanings of those two words have become so complexly enriched with the glamour of a mystic symbolism that the Proto- Egyptian's conception of Osiris and the
Osirian beliefs must have been vastly different from those implied
in the
Osiris words "god" and "religion" at the present time. was regarded as an actual king who had died and been reanimated.
could bestow upon his former subjects the benefits of his advice and help, but also could display such human weaknesses as malice, envy, and all uncharitableness.
In other
words he was a
man who
Much modern
discussion completely misses the
to recognize that these so-called
capable of acts of
mark by the failure were really men, equally "gods" beneficence and of outbursts of hatred, and as one
became accentuated the same deity could become a Vedic deva or an Avestan dceva, a dens or a devil, a god of kindor the other aspect
ness or a
demon
acts
of wickedness.
earliest
The
which the
"
"
gods
were supposed
to perform
INCENSE
were not
at
first
AND
LIBATIONS
223
They were merely the regarded as supernatural. was supposed to be able to confer, by boons which the mortal ruler and rendering the land fertile. It controlling the waters of irrigation
was only when
his
powers became apotheosized with a halo
of
accum-
ulated glory (and the growth of knowledge revealed
the insecurity
of the scientific basis upon which his fame was built up) that a priesthood, reluctant to abandon any of the attributes which had captured the popular imagination, made it an obligation of belief to accept these
supernatural powers of the gods for which the student of natural phenomena refused any longer to be a sponsor. This was the parting of
the
of
ways between science and religion and thenceforth the attributes " " the gods became definitely and admittedly superhuman.
;
As
have already stated
(p.
2 3) the
1
original object of the offering
of libations
was
thus clearly for the purpose of animating the statue of
the deceased and so enabling
him
to continue the existence
which had
merely been interrupted by
the incident of death.
In course of time,
however, as definite gods gradually materialized and came to be rethey also had to be vitalized by offerings of Thus the pouring out of libations came to be an act of worship of the deity and in this form it has persisted until our own times in many civilized countries.
presented
by
statues,
water from time to time.
But not only was water regarded as a means of animating the dead or statues representing the dead and an appropriate act of worship, in
that
an idol and the god dwelling in it was thus able to Water also became an essential part hear and answer supplications.
it
vitalized
of
any
act of ritual rebirth.

life.
giving of
The
initiate
a baptism it also symbolized the was re-born into a new communion of faith.
As
In scores of other
of
ways
the
same conception
of the life-giving properties
water was responsible for as
many
applications of the use of liba-
tions in inaugurating
new
It is
enterprises, such as
"
christening
"
ships
and
blessing buildings.
important to
remember
that according to early
Egyptian
beliefs the continued existence of the
dead was wholly de-
Unless this animating pendent upon the attentions of the living. was performed not merely at the time of the funeral but also ceremony
at stated periods afterwards,
1
and unless the
friends of the deceased
This occurred
at
a later epoch
when
the attributes of the water-conof the birth-giving
trolling deity of fertility
became confused with those

p.
mother goddess (vide injra,
230).
224
THE JOHN RYLANDS. LIBRARY

and
drink, such a. continuation of existence
periodically supplied food
was
impossible.
But the development

other directions.
ultimately
into
had far-reaching effects in The idea that a stone statue could be animated
of these beliefs
to
became extended
in
mean
that the
dead man could enter

and wide, that and that
;
and dwell
a block of stone, which he could leave or return

this arose the beliefs,
to at will.
From
which spread
far
the dead, ancestors, kings, or deified kings, dwelt in stones
they could be consulted as oracles, who gave advice and counsel. But as any mortal at his death could thus enter into a stone, another crop of legends concerning the petrification of
men and
animals also
In other words the acts of dying and then entering into developed. the stone were merged into one simultaneous process and the living man or creature at once became transformed into stone.
;
crop of myths concerning men and animals dwelling in stones, as well as the petrifaction stories, which are to be found
All
this rich
encircling the globe from Ireland to
these early Egyptian attempts to solve the mysteries of death,
America, can be referred back to and to

1
acquire the
means
of circumventing fate.
These
But
beliefs at first
may have concerned human

of revictualling
beings only.
in course of time, as the
number
of
duty tombs and temples tended
an increasingly large
models,
to tax the resources of the

for the real things
people the practice developed of substituting

the dead.
reality
or even pictures, of food-animals, vegetables, and other requisites of
And
these objects
of a ritual
and
pictures
were restored
to life or
by means
which was
essentially identical with that

2
used for animating the statue or the mummy of the deceased himself. It is well worth considering whether this may not be one of the
basal factors in
explanation
of the
phenomena which the
late Sir
Edward Tylor
So
all,
labelled "animism".
if
from being a phase of culture through which many, peoples have passed in the course of their evolution, may
far
stories see
not
it
not
of
instructive, as revealing the intimate connexion of such ideas with the beliefs regarding the preservation of the body,
For a large series of these Perseus". But even more

J. J.
E. Sidney Hartland's
"
Legend
see
:II,
M. de
Groot,
"
The
Religious System of China," Vol. IV,

cit.
Book
1901.
2
In this
connexion see de Groot, op.
pp.
356 and 415
INCENSE
.
AND
LIBATIONS
225
have been merely an

given
so definite a
just hinted,
artificial
form
in
conception of certain things, which was Egypt, for the specific reasons at which I
have
Against this talk in an animistic fashion.
and from there spread far and wide ? view may be urged the fact that our
own
is
children
But
is
not this due in some measure to
the unconscious influence of their elders ?
Or
at
most
it
not a
volved in
anthropomorphism necessarily inwhich is vastly different from what spoken languages, " animism" ? the ethnologist understands by whether this be so or not there can be no doubt that the But " " of the early Egyptians assumed its precise and clear-cut animism
ill-defined
all
vague and
attitude of
distinctive features as the result of the
growth
of ideas suggested
the attempts to
offerings of food
make mummies and

and other funerary
statues of the
requisites.
by dead and symbolic
Thus incidentally there grew up a belief in a power of magic by means of which these make-believe offerings could be transformed into
realities.
But
it is
important to emphasize the fact that originally the
conviction of the genuineness of this transubstantiation was a logical and not unnatural inference based upon the attempt to interpret
natural phenomena,
and then
to
influence
1
them by
imitating
what
were regarded as the determining factors. In China these ideas still retain much
of their primitive influence
belief in Referring to the Chinese " the identity of pictures or images with the beings they represent de " " *' Groot states that the kw an shuh or is a main branch magic art
and
directness of expression.
"
of Chinese witchcraft ".

soul,
life,
It
consists essentially of
"
the infusion of a
and
in
activity into likenesses of beings, to thus render
them
fit
to
work
some
direction desired
this infusion
is
effected
:
by
blowing or breathing, or spurting water over the likeness indeed breath or kki, or water from the mouth imbued with breath, is
identical with
1
yang
substance or
in
life."
were inade" *' continued to make quate to attain the desired end while the magician the pretence that he could attain that end by ultra-physical means.
the fact that the measures taken
;
" became " magical growth of knowledge revealed

It
our
sense
of
the
term only when the
De
Groot, op.
cit. p.
356.
226

INCENSE.
So
But
far
have referred
in detail only to the offering of libations.
this
was only one
of several procedures for animating statues,
mummies, and food- offerings. I have still to consider the ritual pro" cedures of incense-burning and opening the mouth ". From Mr. Blackman's translations of the Egyptian texts it is clear
that the burning of incense
was intended
to restore to the statue (or
mummy) body and that this was part of the procedure considered necessary to animate the statue. He says " the belief about incense [which is explained by a later document, the Ritual of Amon] apparently does not occur in the Old Kingthe
the odour of the living
dom
religious texts that are preserved to us, yet
it
may
quite well
be
as ancient as that period.

p. 75).
That
is
certainly Erman's view
"
(pp. cit.
He
gives the following translation of the relevant passage in the
Ritual of Amon
(XII, 11): "The god comes with body adorned which he has fumigated with the eye of his body, the incense of the god which has issued from his flesh, the sweat of the god which has
fallen to the ground,
which he has given

the people
72).
In
to all the gods.

flesh lives,
...
It is
the
Horus
eye.
If it lives,
vigorous" (pp.
cit. p.
live, thy thy members are his comments upon this passage Mr.
Blackman
states
"
:
In the light of the
Pyramid
libation-formulae the
expressions in this text are quite comprehensible.
Like the libations

1
the grains of incense are the exudations of a divinity,
'the fluid
which issued from

. .
.
sweat descending to the ground. 'odour of the god,' but the " " Both (pp. at. p. 72). grains of resin are said to be the god's sweat
his flesh/ the god's
is
Here
incense
not merely the
rites,
the pouring of libations and the burning of incense, are performed to revivify the body [or the statue] of god for the same purpose
and man by
1
restoring to
it its
lost
moisture"
(p. 75).
In attempting to reconstitute the circumstances
which led
to the
As
incense-tree
shall explain later (see page 228), the idea of the divinity of the was a result of, and not the reason for, the practice of incense-
As one of the means by which the resurrection was attained burning. incense became a giver of divinity ; and by a simple process of rationalization the tree which produced this divine substance became a god. The reference to the " eye of the body," I shall discuss later (see
p. 242).
INCENSE
to
of
AND
LIBATIONS
227
invention of incense-burning as a ritual act, the nature of the problem
be solved must be recalled.
Among
the most obtrusive evidences
death were the coldness of the
skin, the lack of perspiration
and
of
It is important to realize what the phrase the odour of the living. " " would convey to the Proto- Egyptian. From odour of the living
the earliest Predynastic times in Egypt make extensive use of resinous material
it
had been the custom

an
essential
to
as
ingredient
of
(what a pharmacist would

cosmetics.
call
the adhesive
"vehicle")
their
One
1
of the results of this practice in a hot climate of a strong
must
have been the association

living person.
aroma
of resin or
balsam with a
Whether
or not
is
it
was
the practice to burn incense
to give pleasure to the living
not known.
The
fact
that such a
procedure was customary among their successors may mean that it was really archaic, or on the other hand the possibility must not be
overlooked that
it
may be merely
the later vulgarization of a practice
which
originally
was devised
for purely ritual purposes.
The
burning
it
of incense before a corpse or statue
was intended
life.
to
convey
to
the
warmth, the sweat, and the odour
of
When
cense
was
established that the burning of inas an animating force and especially a giver of life to potent
the belief
became well
to
the dead
it
naturally
it
came
be regarded as a divine substance
in the
As the grains of incense consisted of the exudation of trees, or, as the ancient texts express it, " their sweat," the divine power of animation in course of time became
sense that
had the power
of resurrection.
transferred to the trees. They were no longer merely the source of the life-giving incense but were themselves animated by the deity whose drops of sweat were the means of conveying life to the mummy.
The
reason
why
the deity which dwelt in these trees
was
usually
identified
with the Mother- Goddess will become clear in the course of
the subsequent discussion (p. It is 228). probable that this was due to the geographical circumstance that the chief source of mainly incense
was Southern Arabia, which was

goddesses of fertility.
personifications of the life-giving
also
the
home
of
the primitive
originally nothing more than amulets from the Red Sea. cowry Thus Robertson Smith's statement that " the value of the gum of the acacia as an amulet is connected with the idea that it is a clot of
1
For they were
It
scents
would lead me too and unguents, which
far afield to enter into a discussion of the use of is closely related to this question.
15
228

i.e.,
menstruous blood,
inversion of cause
that conferred
that the tree

effect.
It
is
woman
The
"
is
probably an
to the
and
was the value attached

tree.
gum
is
animation upon the
rest of
the legend
merely a rationalization based upon the idea that the tree was identiThe same criticism applies to his further fied with the mother-goddess.
contention (p. 427) with reference to
"
the religious value of incense"
which he claims
s
to
be due
to
it
the fact that
"
like the
gum
of the
amora
it is
(acacia) tree,
...
was an animate
or divine plant ".
but
the development of tree-worship, the origin of the sacredness of trees must be assigned probable to the fact that it was acquired from the incense and the aromatic
Many
factors played a part in
woods which were
credited with the
power
of animating
the dead.
But at a very early epoch
many
"
other considerations helped to confirm
and extend the conception

life of
of deification.
When
Osiris
was
buried, a
sacred sycamore grew up as

Osiris "."
with life-giving
the visible symbol of the imperishable But the sap of trees was brought into relationship water and thus constituted another link with Osiris.
sap was also regarded as the blood of trees and the incense that exuded as the sweat. Just as the water of libation was regarded as
the fluid of the body of Osiris, so also,
tion, the incense
The
by
this process of rationaliza-
came
to possess a similar significance.
For reasons precisely analogous to those already explained in the case of libations, the custom of burning incense, from being originally a
ritual act for
animating the funerary statue, ultimately developed into an act of homage to the deity.
But
it
also acquired
3
gods developed, be regarded as the vehicle which wafted the deceased's soul to the
4
a special significance when the cult of skyfor the smoke of the burning incense then came to
sky or conveyed there the requests of the dwellers upon earth. "The soul of a human being is generally conceived [by the
Breasted, p. 28. Religion of the Semites," p. 133. For reasons explained on a subsequent page (246). 4 It is also worth considering whether the extension of this idea may as a not have been responsible for originating the practice of cremation device for transferring not merely the animating incense and the supplications of the living but also the body of the deceased to the sky- world.
y
1
"
The
This, of course, did not happen in Egypt, but in some other country which adopted the Egyptian practice of incense- burning, but was not hampered by the religious conservatism that guarded the sacredness of the corpse.
INCENSE
AND
;
LIBATIONS
229
Chinese] as possessing the shape and characteristics of a human being, ... the spirit of an animal is the and occasionally those of an animal
animal or of some being with human attributes and speech. shape But plant spirits are never conceived as plant-shaped,, nor to have plantwhenever forms are given them, they are mostly characters
of this
. .
.
represented as a man, a
woman,
or a child,
and often
also. as
it
an animal,
to
dwelling in or near the plant, and emerging from
at times
do
harm, or to dispense blessings. ... Whether conceptions on the animation of plants have never developed in Chinese thought and worship
before ideas about
human
ghosts
had become predominant
in
mind and custom, we cannot say
"
but the matter seems probable (De Groot, op. cit. pp. 272, 273). Tales of trees that shed blood and that cry out when hurt are common in Chinese literature (p. 274)
:
also of trees that lodge or can change Southern Arabia] into maidens of transcendant beauty (p. 276).
[as also in
;
It is
further significant that

their residence in
amongst the
stories of souls of
taking
" a fox, a dog, an old being is usually a woman, accompanied by " raven or the like (p. 276). Thus in China are found all the elements out of which Dr. Rendel
up
and animating
trees
and
plants, the
men human
Harris believes the Aphrodite cult was compounded in Cyprus, the animation of the anthropoid plant, its human cry, its association with
a beautiful maiden and a dog.
2
The immemorial custom of planting trees on graves in China is " the desire to strengthen supposed by De Groot (p. 277) to be due to
body from corruption, for which reason trees such as pines and cypresses, deemed to be bearers of great vitality for being possessed of more shen than other But may not such trees, were used preferably for such purposes".
the soul of the buried person, thus to save his
beliefs also
grave is ceased ?
be an expression of the idea that a tree growing upon a developed from and becomes the personification of the de-
The
significance of the selection of pines
be compared
in Babyand Phoenicia, and the myrrh- and frankincense- prolonia, Egypt, ducing trees in Arabia and East Africa. They have come to be
1
to that associated with the so-called
"
and cypresses may

"
cedars
"
The Ascent
of
Olympus," 191
7.
collection of stories relating to human beings, generally " dwelling in trees, see Hartland's Legend of Perseus ".
For a
women,
230

"
soul- substance,"
accredited with
since their use in mummification,
and
as incense
and
for
making
coffins,
has
made them
the means for
attaining a future existence.
Hence in
course of time they
came
"
to
be
regarded as charged with the spirit of vitality, the

substance
In
".
shen or
soul-
China
also
it
was because
the
woods
of the pine or
fir
and the
Cyprus were used for making coffins and grave- vaults and that pinewas regarded as a means of attaining immortality (De Groot, op. cit. pp. 296 and 297) that such veneration was bestowed upon these " At an early date, Taoist seekers after immortality transplanted trees. 1 that animation [of the hardy long-lived fir and cypress ] into themresin
selves
by consuming the
resin of those trees, which, apparently, they
looked upon
in
men and animals (p. 296). Thus in the Far East there
all of
as coagulated soul -substance, the counterpart of the blood "
are found
iij
intimate association the
one with the other
the bizarre assortment of beliefs out of which
the Cypriote Aphrodite is supposed by Dr. Rendel Harris to have been compounded, as well as those which the ritual of incense and
libations
was
responsible for originating in

in these
Egypt
Elsewhere
Mother
which
"
Goddess
"
pages
it
is
explained
distinctly
how
the vaguely defined
and the more
anthropoid
Water
"
God,"
originally developed quite independently the one of the other, ultimately came to exert a profound and mutual influence, so that many
of the attributes
which
originally
belonged to one of them came to be
shared with the other.
Many
factors played a part in this process of
blending and confusion of sex.
As
shall explain later,
when
the
be regarded as the dwelling or the impersonation of Hathor, the supposed influence of the moon over water led to a further assimilation of her attributes with those of Osiris as the controller
to
of water,
moon came
which received
link that
is
definite expression in a lunar
form of Osiris.
this
But the
address
is
most intimately related to the subject of
incense- trees.
1
provided by the personification of the Mother-Goddess in For incense thus became the sweat or the tears of the
that the
The
fact
fir
" " and cypress are hardy and long-lived
is
not the reason for their being accredited with these life-prolonging qualities. But once the latter virtues had become attributed to them the fact that the " " trees were hardy and long-lived may have been used to bolster up the belief by a process of rationalization.
INCENSE
Great Mother
of Osiris.
just as the
AND
LIBATIONS
231
fluid
water of libation was regarded as the
THE BREATH OF
Although the pouring
of
LIFE.
libations
and the burning
of
incense
played so prominent a part in the ritual of animating the statue or the " mummy, the most important incident in the ceremony was the opening of the
mouth/* which was regarded as giving it the breath of life. l Elsewhere I have suggested that the conception of the heart and
life,
blood as the vehicles of
feeling, volition,
and knowledge may have

or under
been
extremely ancient.
It is
not
known when
"
life*'
what circumentertained.
stances the idea of the breath being the
was
first
The
fact that in certain primitive
systems of philosophy the breath
was
beliefs
supposed to have something to do with the heart suggests that these may be a constituent element of the ancient heart-theory. In
of the rock- pictures in
some
air-passages are represented leading to the heart.

little
America, Australia, and elsewhere the But there can be
to the ideas regarding the
doubt that the practice of mummification gave greater definiteness " " " and heart breath," which eventually
led to a differentiation
between
their
2 supposed functions.
As
the
body they " life'*. The breath was clearly could no longer be regarded as the " element" the lack of which rendered the body inanimate. the It was therefore regarded as necessary to set the heart working. The
heart then
that feels
heart and the blood
were obviously present
in
the dead
came
to
be looked upon
as the seat of knowledge, the organ
and
wills during
to
the
body seem
as expressions of
waking life. All the pulsating motions of have been regarded, like the act of respiration, " the vital principle or life," which many ethnological
"
soul substance".
writers refer to as
joints
The neighbourhood
of certain
head,
where the pulse can be felt most readily, and the top of the where pulsation can be felt in the infant's fontanelle, were by some Asiatic peoples as the places where the could leave or enter the body. possible that in ancient times this belief was more widespread
life
therefore regarded
substance of
It is
"
2
Primitive
Man," Proceedings of the British Academy, 1917,
p. 41.
the interrelation between complexity and intricacy of " " " the functions of the breath is revealed in Chinese heart," and the
The enormous
philosophy (see de Groot,
op. cit.
Chapter VII. inter alia).
232
than
it is

now.
It
affords an explanation of the motive for trephining
the skull among ancient peoples, to afford a more ready passage for " " to and from the skull. vital essence the " The Socratic Doctrine of the Soul," Professor In his lecture on
l
John Burnet has expounded the meaning of early Greek conceptions of the soul with rare insight and lucidity. Originally, the word V^X 7? meant "breath," but, by historical times, it had already been
the
mean courage in and secondly the breath of life, the presence or place, absence of which is the most obvious distinction between the animate
specialized in
first
two
distinct
ways.
It
had come
to
and the inanimate, the "ghost" which a man at death. gives up the body temporarily, which explains the phenoit may also But quit
"
"
menon of swooning (knro\\ivyLa). was also the thing that can roam
It
seemed natural
to suppose
is
it
at
large
when
the
body
asleep,
and even appear to another sleeping person in his dream. Moreover, since we can dream of the dead, what then appears to us must be These considerajust what leaves the body at the moment of death.
tions explain the
world-wide
belief in the
"
"
soul
as a sort of
double
of the real bodily
man, the Egyptian ha? the

is
Italian
genius, and the

in
Greek V^X
?-
Now
feels
this
double
not identical with whatever

life.
it
is
us that
and wills during our waking be blood and not breath.
That
their
is
generally supposed to
What we
belong to
and perceive have the body and perish with it.

feel
seat in the heart
they
It is
only
when
the shades have been allowed to drink blood that
consciousness returns to
them
to
for a while.
At
one time the

it
i//u ^77
was supposed
to dwell with the
body
in
the grave, where

vivors, especially
had
be supported by the
offerings of the sur-
by
libations (\ocu).
Egyptian psychologist has carried the story back long before the times of which Professor Burnet writes. He has explained " his
conception of the functions of the
1 *
An
heart (mind) and tongue
'
'.
When
Second Annual Philosophical Lecture, Henriette Hertz Trust, Proceedings of the British Academy, Vol. VII, 26 Jan., 1916. 2 The Egyptian ka, however, was a more complex entity than this
comparison suggests.
INCENSE
the heart.
It is
AND
who
LIBATIONS
brings forth every issue
"
233
the eyes see, the ears hear, and the nose breathes, they transmit to
he (the heart)
and
it
is
the tongue which repeats the thought of the heart/ "There came the saying that Atum, who created the gods, stated
concerning Ptah-Tatenen
'
He
is
the fashioner of the gods.
He made Then the gods

That
Osiris
likenesses of
their bodies to the satisfaction of their hearts.
entered into their bodies of every

"
wood and
every
stone and every metal/

these ideas are really ancient
Isis is
is
shown by the
3
fact that in
life
the Pyramid Texts
represented conveying the breath of
to
The ceremony of by "causing a wind with her wings". the mouth" which aimed at achieving this restoration of "opening the breath of life was the principal part of the ritual procedure before the statue or
mummy.
As
have already mentioned
(p.
5),
the sculptor
who
causes to live,"
that
modelled the portrait statue was called he who " " to fashion a statue is identical with and the word
"
which means "to give birth ". The god Ptah created man by Similarly the life-giving sculptor made modelling his form in clay.
the portrait which
existence,
when
and
it
was to be the means of securing a perpetuation of " was animated by the opening of the mouth," by
Egypt a vast
libations
incense.
As
the outcome of this process of rationalization in
crop of creation-legends came into existence, which have persisted with remarkable completeness until the present day in India, Indonesia,
China, America, and elsewhere.
A statue of
is is
stone,
wood, or clay
to
is
it
fashioned, and the ceremony of animation the breath of life, which in many places
performed
convey to
supposed to be brought
down from
In the
the sky.
Egyptian
legends that
beliefs, as well as in most of the world-wide were derived from them, the idea assumed a definite
form that the

substance," or
1
vital principle (often referred
to as the
"
soul,"
"
soul-
"
double ") could
exist apart
from the body.
Whatever
Breasted, op.
Op.
4
cit.
W.
J.
cit. pp. 44 and 45. 3 45 and 46. Ibid. p. 28. pp. has collected the evidence preserved in a remarkable Perry
series of Indonesian legends in his recent book, ture of Indonesia ". But the fullest exposition of the
"The
Megalithic Culis
provided
in the
Chinese literature
whole subject summarized by de Groot (op. cit.).
234

it is
the explanation,
vital principle
clear that the possibility of the existence of the
apart from the
body was
entertained.
It
was supposed
could return to the body and temporarily reanimate it. It could enter into and dwell within the stone representation of the " " Sometimes this so-called soul was identified with the deceased.
that
it
T
breath of
life,
which could enter
into the statue as the result of the
ceremony
It
of
"opening the mouth".
has been commonly assumed by Sir

accept
his theory of
Edward Tylor and

of the
those
who
animism that the idea
"soul" was
based upon the attempts to interpret the phenomena of dreams and shadows, to which Burnet has referred in the passage quoted above.
The
fact that
when a
people and
of
person is sleeping he may dream of seeing absent having a variety of adventures is explained by many
peoples by the hypothesis that these are real experiences which befell the "soul" when it wandered abroad during its owner's sleep. man's shadow or his reflection in water or a mirror has been inter-
But what these speculations leave out of preted as his double. account is the fact that these dream- and shadow-phenomena were
probably merely the predisposing circumstances which helped in the
of (or the corroborative details
development
which were added
to and,
by
rationalization,
incorporated in) the
"
soul-theory," which other
circumstances were responsible for creating."

I
have already called attention
(p.
of the psychological speculations
in
195) to the fact that in many ethnology too little account is
taken of the enormous complexity of the factors which determine even the simplest and apparently most obvious and rational actions of men.
I
of
must again remind the reader that a vast multitude of factors, many them of a subconscious and emotional nature, influence men's deci-
sions
and
opinions.
But once some

he will
definite state of feeling inclines a

call
man
to a certain conclusion,
stances to buttress his decision,

rationalization.
up a host of other circumand weave them into a complex net of

it
Some
"
such
"
;
process undoubtedly took place in the
development of
1
animism
and though
is
not possible yet to
See, however, the reservations in the subsequent pages. The thorough analysis of the beliefs of any people makes
this
abundantly clear.
this (op. cit.
De
Groot's monograph
is
an admirable
illustration of
Chapter
VII.).
Both
in
the significance of the
shadow are
later
Egypt and China the conceptions and altogether subsidiary.
of
INCENSE
reconstruct the
AND
LIBATIONS
growth
of the idea, there
235
can be
whole
history of the
no question that these early strivings after an understanding of the nature of life and death, and the attempts to put the theories into
practice to reanimate the dead, provided the foundations
have been
built
up during the
last fifty centuries
upon which a vast and com-
plex theory of the soul.
In the creation of this edifice the thoughts
and the
aspirations of countless millions of peoples
have played a
part,
but the foundation was laid
down when
the Egyptian king or priest
claimed that he could restore to the dead the "breath of life" and, " 1 by means of the wand which he called the great magician," could
The wand is supposed by some enable the dead to be born again. scholars to be a conventionalized representation of the uterus, so that
power of giving birth is expressed with literal directness. Such be" " are found to-day in scattered liefs and stories of the magic wand localities from the Scottish Highlands to Indonesia and America.
its
In this sketch
ception of vast complexity.
have referred merely to one or two aspects of a conBut it must be remembered that, once the
to play with the idea of a vital essence capable
mind
of
of
man began
an
of existing apart from the

life,
illimitable field
body and to identify it with the breath was opened up for speculation. The vital
principle could manifest itself in all the varied expressions of human Expersonality, as well as in all the physiological indications of life. " of dreams led men to believe that the soul" could also leave perience
the
body temporarily and enjoy varied experiences. But the concreteminded Egyptian demanded some physical evidence to buttress these
intangible ideas of the wandering abroad of his vital essence.
He
was
made
a statue for
it
to dwell in after his death
but such a view
only because he had already convinced himself " " that the life- sub stance could exist apart from his body as a double " " twin which reproduced the form of his real self. or
seriously entertained
Searching for material evidence to support his faith primitive man not unnaturally turned to the contemplation of the circumstances of his birth. All his beliefs concerning the nature of life can ultimately
be referred back to the story of When an infant is born it

placenta to which
it is
his
is
own
origin, his birth or creation.
accompanied by the
after-birth or
linked
prehension of the significance of these structures

1
by the umbilical cord. The full comis an achievement of

op. tit. p. 59.
Alan H. Gardiner, Davies and Gardiner,
236
modern
marvel.

science.
To
primitive
man
But once he began
to play with the idea
they were an incomprehensible that he had a

could leave the sleeping
double, a vital essence in his
own shape which
body and lead a separate

tangible evidence
1
existence, the placenta obviously provided

reality.
of
its
The
considerations
set
forth
by
Blackman, supplementing those of Moret, Murray and Seligman, and others, have been claimed as linking the placenta with the ka. Much controversy has waged around the interpretation of the
An excellent Egyptian word ka, especially during recent years. of the arguments brought forward by the various disputants summary " up to 1912 will be found in Moret's Mysteres Egyptiens ". Since then more or less contradictory views have been put forward by Alan
Gardiner, Breasted, and Blackman.
It
is
not
my
intention to inter-
vene
ture
;
in a dispute as to the
meaning
of certain phrases in ancient litera-
but there are certain aspects of the problems at issue which are
so intimately related to
my
main theme as
to
make some
reference to
them unavoidable.
The development
two
bodies, his actual
his
vital
of the
custom of making statues
of the
dead
necessarily raised for solution the problem of explaining the deceased's
mummy
and
his portrait statue. in
on earth
occasions
principle dwelt
the former, except
During life on those
when
the
man was
asleep.
His
actual
pression to all the varied attributes of his personality.
body also gave exBut after death
the statue
became the dwelling place
of these manifestations of the
spirit of vitality.
Whether
or not the conception arose out of the necessities unavoid-
ably created by the making of statues, it seems clear that this custom must have given more concrete shape to the belief that all of those elements of the dead man's individuality which left his body at the
time of death could
shift as
shadowy double
is
into his statue.
At
the birth of a king he

all
exactly reproducing
his
accompanied by a comrade or twin This double or ka is intimately features.

in the life to
associated throughout
fare.
life
and
come with the

"
king's
wel-
In fact Breasted claims that the
ka
was a kind
of superior
" Some Remarks on an Emblem upon Aylward M. Blackman,

of
the
Head
Ancient Egyptian Birth-Goddess," Journal of Egyptian " The Pharaoh's Archeology, Vol. HI, Part 111, July, 1916, p. 199- and Placenta and the Moon-God Khons," ibid. Part IV, Oct., 1916, p. 235.
an
INCENSE
AND
LIBATIONS
237
fortunes of the individual in the heregenius intended to guide the " he had his abode and awaited the coming of his there after"
.
.
earthly companion 'V
The ka death the deceased "goes to his ka, to the sky". he brings him food which they controls and protects the deceased
At
:
eat together.
It is
important clearly to keep in mind the different factors involved

-
in this conception
(a)
The
statue of the deceased
is
animated by restoring to
it
the
breath of
life
and
all
the other vital attributes of which the early
Egyptian physiologist took cognisance.

(b)
At
"
the time of birth there "
came
into being along with the
child a
(c)
twin
whose
destinies
were
the
closely linked with the child's.
As
the result of animating the statue the deceased also has
restored to
him
his character,
"
sum
of his attributes," his indi-
viduality, later raised to the position of
a protecting genius or god, a

2
Providence
who
or
watches over
I
his well-being.
The
breath of
points that
life,
want
is
to call attention to are,
first,
that the
animus,
;
not identical with .the ka, as Burnet sup-
poses (pp.
of the
ka
secondly, that the adoption of the conception as a sort of guardian angel which finds its appropriate habitacit.
supra)
tion in a statue that has
been animated does not necessarily conflict with the view so concretely and unmistakably represented in the tombpictures that the
ka
is
also a double
who
is
born along with the indi-
vidual.
This material conception
of the
ka
is,
as a double
as
who
is
born with
3
and closely linked
to the individual
Blackman has emphasized,
very suggestive of Baganda beliefs and rites connected with the placenta. At death the circumstances of the act of birth are reconstituted, and for
this rebirth the placenta
which played an
essential part in the original
process
is
restored to the deceased.
May
not the original meaning of
the expression
"he
goes to his
ka" be
literal
description of this
reunion with his placenta ? " Breasted denies Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt," p. 52. that the ka was an element of the personality. 2 For an abstruse discussion of this problem see Alan H. Gardiner, " Personification (Egyptian),'* Hastings* Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, pp. 790 and 792.
1
Op.
cit.
supra.
238

"
Blackman makes the suggestion that on the analogy of the beliefs entertained by the Hamitic ruling caste in Uganda/' according to " the placenta, or rather its ghost, would have been supposed Roscoe,
1
the Ancient Egyptians to be closely connected with the individual's " he maintains was also the case with the god or propersonality, as " 2 of the Babylonians. Unless united with his twin's tecting genius
by
{i.e.
his placenta's] ghost the
dead king was an imperfect

lacking."
deity,
i.e.
his
directing intelligence
was impaired or
In China, as the quotations from
de Groot
(pp. cit. p.
396) have
is
shown, the placenta

welfare.
In
when placed under

life
felicitous
circumstances
able
to ensure the child a long
and
to control his
mental and physical
view
of the claims put

it is
the placenta with the ka,
of interest to
forward by Blackman to associate note Moret's suggestion
concerning the fourteen forms of the ka, to which von Bissing assigns
" puzzled to explain what possible connexion there could be between the Pharaoh's placenta and the moon beyond the fact that it is the custom in Uganda to expose the king's placenta each new moon and anoint it with butter. To those readers who follow my argument in the later pages of this discussion the reasoning at the back of this association should be plain
1
Mr. Blackman
is
enough.
The moon was regarded
as the controller of menstruation.
The
placenta (and also the child) was considered to be formed of menstrual The welfare of the placenta was therefore considered to be under blood. the control of the moon.
The anointing with butter is an interesting illustration of the close connexion of these lunar and maternal phenomena with the cow. The placenta was associated with the moon also in China, as the following quotation shows.
" in the Siao *rh fang or According to de Groot (pp. cit. p. 396), Medicament for Babies, by the hand of Ts'ui Hing-kung [died 674 A.D.], it is said The placenta should be stored away in a felicitous spot under
'
:
the salutary influences of the sky or the moon ... in order that the child may be ensured a long life ". He then goes on to explain how any interference with the placenta will entail mental or physical trouble to the child.
'
The
it is
facilitate parturition, to
etc." (p. 397).
It blood, gives rest to the heart, nourishes the breath, and strengthens the tsing" (p. 396). These attributes of the placenta indicate that the beliefs of the Baganda are not merely local eccentricities, but widespread and sharply defined in-
used as the ingredient of pills to increase fertility, bring back life to people on the brink of death and " in medicines for lunacy, convulsions, epilepsy, the main ingredient " increases the
placenta also
is
terpretations.
*
Op.
cit. p.
241.
INCENSE
AND
LIBATIONS
He
239
the general significance "nourishment or offerings". puts the " the elements of material and whether they do not personify question
intellectual prosperity, all that
is
necessary for the health of
body and
"
spirit
(pp. cit. p. 209).
The
placenta
is
credited with
all
the varieties of life-giving potency

It
that are attributed to the Mother-Goddess.
therefore controls the
welfare of the individual and,

ensures his good fortune.
derivation from
like all
maternal amulets (vide supra),

its
But,
probably by virtue of
it
supposed
and
intimate association with blood,
also ministered
to his mental welfare.

In
my
essential
I
Rylands Lecture I referred to the probability that the elements of Chinese civilization were derived from the West.
last
had hoped that before the present statement went to the printer I would have found time to set forth in detail the evidence in substantiation of the reality of that diffusion of culture.
Briefly the chain of proof
is
composed
of the following links
(a)
the intimate cultural contact between Egypt, Southern Arabia, Sumer,
and El am from a period

;
at
least
as early as the First
Egyptian
(6) the diffusion of Sumerian and Elamite culture in very Dynasty early times at least as far north as Russian Turkestan and as far east
as Baluchistan
turquoise,
(c)
at
some
later period the quest of gold,
copper,
north as
and jade led the Babylonians (and their neighbours) as far the Altai and as far east as Khotan and the Tarim Valley,
pathways were blazed with the distinctive methods of and irrigation (d) at some subsequent period there was
;
where
their
cultivation
an easterly diffusion
of
of culture
(e) at least as early as the seventh century B.C. there
from Turkestan into China proper and was also a spread

;
Western
I
culture to
China by
sea.
have already referred to some of the distinctively Egyptian traits in Chinese beliefs concerning the dead. Mingled with them are other
equally definitely Babylonian ideas concerning the liver. It must be apparent that in the course of the spread of a complex of religious beliefs to so great a distance, system only certain of their
features
people, each of
would survive the journey. Handed on from people to whom would unavoidably transform them to some
Western
beliefs
extent, the tenets of the

of their details
and have many excrescences added
would become shorn of many to them before the
Chinese received them.
In the crucible of the local philosophy they
240

until the resulting
would be assimilated with Chinese ideas

assumed a Chinese appearance.
reinforced.
compound
is
When
these inevitable circumstances
are recalled the value of any evidence of Western influence

to the ancient
strongly
According and the shen.
Chinese
man
has two
souls,
the
kwet
The
the more ancient of
former, which according to de Groot is definitely the two (p. 8), is the material, substantial soul,
terrestrial part of the
which emanates from the

of yin substance. and on his death
in his grave.
Universe, and
is
formed
of
In living
it
man
it
operates under the
name
p'oh,
returns to the earth
and abides with the deceased
The shen
or immaterial
soul
emanates from the etherial
celestial
part of the cosmos and consists of

actively in the living
yang
it
substance.
When
"
operating
human body,
it
is
called
khi or
breath," and
hwun ; when
spirit,
separated from
after death
it liv.es
forth as a refulgent
styled
ming?
also, in
But the shen
spite of its sky-affinities, hovers
about the
There may grave and may dwell in the inscribed grave-stone (p. 6). be a multitude of shen in one body and many "soul-tablets" may
be provided
for
them
(p. 74).
is
Just as in
Egypt the ka
said to
"
"
which
shen.
(Moret, p. to the ethereal part of the food as its khi,
resides in nourishment
symbolize the force of life 2), so the Chinese refer

1
i.e.
the
"breath"
of
its
The
forth
of
careful study of the

in his great
mass
of detailed evidence so lucidly set
by de Groot
superficial
many
monograph reveals the fact that, in spite differences and apparent contradictions, the early
Chinese conceptions of the soul and its functions are essentially identical with the Egyptian and must have been derived from the same
source.
From
pages
it
the quotations which
have already given
in
the foregoing
appears that the Chinese entertain views regarding the func-
tions of the placenta
which are
identical with those of the
Baganda,
and a conception
of the souls of
analogies with those of Egypt. shed any clearer light than Egyptian literature does upon the prob-
presents unmistakable Chinese beliefs do not Yet these
man which
lem
of the possible relationship

1
between the ka and the

Groot, p. 5.
filacenta.
De
INCENSE
In the Iranian
AND
LIBATIONS
241
domain, however, right on the overland route from the Persian Gulf to China, there seems to be a ray of light. Accord" The later Parsi books tell us ing to the late Professor Moulton, that the Fravashi is a part of a good man's identity, living in heaven
and
reuniting with the soul at death.

it
It
is
not exactly a guardian
angel, for
shares in the development or deterioration of the rest of
the man."
In fact the Fravashi
is
not unlike the Egyptian

'
ka on
the one
side
'*
and the Chinese shen on the

*
other.
"
(p.
They
are the
Manes,
the good folk
144)
they are connected with the stars in their
capacity as spirits of the dead (p. 143), and they "showed their paths to the sun, the moon, the sun, and the endless lights," just as the
.kas guide the dead in the hereafter. The Fravashis play a part in the annual All Soul's feast (p. 144)
precisely analogous to that depicted
2
Egyptian of the Middle Kingdom.
by Breasted in the case of an All the circumstances of the
two ceremonies are
essentially identical.
Now
Professor
Moulton
suggests that the
derived from the Avestan root var, " " birth- promotion mean 142). (p.
"
to impregnate,"
word Fravashi may be and fravasi

this
As
he associates
with
childbirth the possibility suggests itself whether the "birth- promoter"
not be simply the placenta. Loret (quoted by Moret, p. 202), however, derives the word " ika from a root signifying to beget," so that the Fravashi may be
may
nothing more than the Iranian homologue of the Egyptian ka. The connecting link between the Iranian and Egyptian conceptions
may be
the Sumerian instances given to
Blackman
by Dr.
Langdon. The whole idea seems

the
to
have originated out
of the belief that
sum
of
the individual attributes or vital expressions of a man's
The contempersonality could exist apart from the physical body. of the phenomena of sleep and death plation provided the evidence in
corroboration of
this.
newcomer came into the world physically connected with the placenta, which was accredited with the attributes of the
birth the
life-giving
At
and
1
birth- promoting
Great Mother and intimately related
Early Religious Poetry of Persia, p. 145. 3 Ibid. p. 240. Op. cit. P 264.
.
242
to the

moon and
in
concerned
the earliest totem. It was obviously, also, closely the nutrition of the embryo, for was it not the stalk
fruit
upon which the latter was growing like some was a not unnatural inference to suppose that,
personality
on
its
stem
It
as the elements of the
were not indissolubly connected with the body, they were into existence at the time of birth and that the brought placenta was
their vehicle.
The
show
custom
Egyptians'
own
terms of reference to the sculptor of a statue
that the ideas of birth

of
were uppermost
first
in their
minds when the
statue-making was
cit.
devised.
Moret has brought
together (pp.
reaching
supra) a good deal of evidence to suggest the farsignificance of the conception of ritual rebirth in early
religious ceremonial.
Egyptian
With
these ideas
in
his
mind the
Egyptian would naturally
any
attach great importance to the placenta in attempt to reconstruct the act of rebirth, which would be rein
garded
literal
sense.
The
placenta which played an essential

role in the
part in the original act

ritual of rebirth.
would have an equally important
THE POWER OF THE

the eye
it
EYE.
In attempting to understand the peculiar functions attributed to

is
essential that the inquirer should
endeavour to look at
After mould-
the problem from the early Egyptian's point of view.

ing into shape the wrappings of the
mummy
so as to restore as far as
embalmer then painted eyes upon the face. So also when the sculptor had learned to make finished models in stone or wood, and by the addition of paint had enhanced the life-like appearance, the statue was still merely a dead
possible the form of the deceased the
thing.
What were needed above

words, to animate
it,
all
to enliven
it,
;
literally
and
actu-
ally, in other
artist set to
were the eyes

skill
and the Egyptian

justification for
work and with
truly marvellous
5),
reproduced the ap-
pearance of living eyes (Fig.

this belief will
How
ample was the
be appreciated by anyone
who
glances at the remarkable
1 The photographs recently published by Dr. Alan H. Gardiner. wonderful eyes will be seen to make the statue sparkle and live. To the concrete mind of the Egyptian this triumph of art was regarded
"
New
Masterpiece of
Egyptian
I,
Sculpture,"
The Journal
oj
Egyptian Archeology, Vol. IV, Part
Jan., 1917.
FIG.
5.
STATUE OF AN EGYPTIAN NOBLE OF THE PYRAMID AGE TO SHOW THE TECHNICAL SKILL IN THE REPRESENTATION OF LIFE-LIKE EYES
INCENSE
was considered
to
AND
LIBATIONS
The
243
artist
not as a mere technical success or aesthetic achievement.
and actually converted it into a selves were regarded as one of the
have made the statue "

living
really live
in fact, literally
image
".
The
eyes them-
chief sources of the vitality
which
had been conferred upon the This is the explanation of

upon the making of
responsible
for
artificial
statue.
all
the elaborate care and
skill
it
bestowed
largely
eyes.
No
doubt also
was
the
animating power of
development of the remarkable belief in the the eye. But so many other factors of most
diverse kinds played a part in building up the complex theory of the eye's fertilizing potency that all the stages in the process of rationalization cannot yet
I
be arranged
in orderly sequence.
refer to the question here
and suggest
merely
certain aspects of
it
that
seem worthy some student

1
of investigation
for the
of
early
Egyptian
literature to look into
purpose of stimulating the matter
further.
As
eyes
death was regarded as a kind of sleep and the closing of the

distinctive sign of the latter condition the
was the
open eyes were

life.
not unnaturally regarded as clear evidence of wakefulness and
In fact, to a matter-of-fact people the restoration of the eyes to the
mummy
At
or statue
was
equivalent to an awakening to
reflection in
life.
a time
when a
a mirror or in a sheet of water
was supposed
individual's
to afford quite positive evidence of the reality of
each
"
life,"
"double," and when the "soul," or more concretely, was imagined to be a minute image or homunculus, it is quite
eye
dwelling within "
it.
likely that the reflection in the
"
"
soul
may have been interpreted as The eye was certainly regarded

It
the
as
peculiarly rich in
soul substance ".
was not
until Osiris received
from Horus the eye which had been wrenched out " combat with Set that he became a soul ". 2
It
is
in
the latter's
a remarkable
fact that this belief in the
animating power of
as far west
the eye spread as far east as Polynesia as the British Islands.

1
and America, and
probability the main factor that was responsible for conferring such definite life-giving powers upon the eye was the identification of the moon with the Great Mother. The moon was the eye of Re, the sky-god. J Breasted, "Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt," p. 59. The " " a soul here would be more accurately meaning of the phrase rendered " reanimated ". given by the word 16
In all
244

Of
course the obvious physiological functions of the eyes as means
their possessor
of
communication between
and the world around him
the powerful influence of the eyes for expressing feeling and emotion
without speech
the analogy between the closing and opening of the

all
eyes and the changes of day and night, are

literature.
hinted at in Egyptian
But there were
certain specific factors that
seem
to
have helped to
give definiteness to these general ideas of the physiology of the eyes.
The
tears, like all
the body moisture,

in
came
to share the life-giving

it
attributes
of
water
general.
And when
is
recalled
that
at
funeral
ceremonies,
of
it
when
is
natural
emotion found expression

to
in the
came tears, shedding with all the other water-symbolism of the funerary ritual.
not unlikely that this
literature
be assimilated
The
by
Isis
early
of
in
Nephthys
Isis
Egypt, the reanimation of Osiris,

life
in fact,
refers to the
part played
and
when
the tears they shed as
mourners brought
were
life-giving in
But the fertilizing tears of back to the god. the wider sense. They were said to cause the
soil
inundation which fertilized the
of Egypt.
There
is
the further possibility that the beliefs associated with the
cowry may
have played some
part,
if
not in originating, at any rate

I
in emphasizing the conception of the fertilizing powers of the eye. have already mentioned the outstanding features of the symbolism In many places in Africa and elsewhere the similarity the cowry.
of
of
the cowry to the half-closed eyelids led to the use of the shells as " " Thus the use of same shell to symin mummies. artificial eyes
bolize the female reproductive organs
and the eyes may have played
some part in transferring to the latter the fertility of the former. Might not the confusion gods were born of the eyes of Ptah.
The
of the
eye with the genitalia have given a meaning to this statement ? There is evidence of this double symbolism of these shells. Cowry shells
have
also
been employed, both
in the Persian
Gulf and the
Pacific,
to decorate the
bows of boats, probably for the dual purpose of reThese facts presenting eyes and conferring vitality upon the vessel. to suggest that the belief in the fertilizing power of the eyes may admitted some extent be due to this cowry-association. Even if it be that all the known cases of the use of cowries as eyes of mummies are
relatively late
and
that
it
is
not
known
to
have been employed
for
such a purpose in Egypt, the mere fact that the likeness to the eyelids
INCENSE
AND
LIBATIONS
245
so readily suggests itself may have linked together the attributes of the cowry and the eye even in Predynastic times, when cowries were placed with the dead in the grave.
Hathor's identification with the
"Eye
of
Re" may
possibly
have been an expression of the same idea. But the role of the Eye " of Re was due primarily to her association with the moon (vide
infra, p. 246).
"
apparently hopeless tangle of contradictions involved in these " For no eye is to conceptions of Hathor will have to be unravelled. be feared more than thine (Re's) when it attacketh in the form of
The
Hathor" (Maspero,
in course of time,
it
op.
cit.
p.
165).
to
Thus
its
if
it
was
the beneficent
life-giving aspect of the
eye which led
identification
with Hathor,
lost sight of,
when
the reason for this connexion
was
became associated with the malevolent, death-dealing avatar of the goddess, and became the expression of the god's anger and hatred
toward
his enemies.
It is
not unlikely that such a confusion
may
have been responsible
for giving concrete expression to
the general
psychological fact that the eyes are obviously

for expressing hatred for
among
"
the chief
means
fellows.
[In
my
and intimidating and brow-beating" one's lecture on "The Birth of Aphrodite" I shall exin addition to the
plain the explicit circumstances that gave rise to these contradictions.]
widespread belief in the embodies the same confusion, the expreseye" in a multitude of legends it is the sion of admiration that works evil
It
is
significant that,
"
evil
which
in itself
eye that produces

the dead
petrifaction.
The
"
stony stare" causes death and
become transformed
S.
into statues, which,
lack their original attribute of animation.
These
stories
however, usually have been
collected
by Mr. E. There is another
Hartland
in his
"
Legend
of Perseus ".
possible link in the chain of associations

fertility.
I
between
the eye and
the idea of
development
of the belief that incense,
have already referred to the which plays so prominent a

is itself
part in the ritual for conferring vitality
Glaser has already shown the anti properties. incense of the Egyptian Punt Reliefs to be an Arabian word, a-a-nete,
with animating
1
"
upon the dead,
replete
'
tree-eyes
(Punt und
die Siidarabischen Reiche, p. 7), and to
lumps ... as distinguished from the small round which are supposed to be tree- tears or the tree-blood." drops, i Wilfred H. Schoff, "The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea," 1912,
refer to the large
P 164.
.
246

THE MOON AND THE
SKY- WORLD.
for believing that the chief episodes in
There are reasons

dite's past
Aphro-
point to the
Red Sea
for their inspiration,
though
many
traits
other factors, due partly to local circumstances and partly to contact
with other
of the
civilizations,
contributed to the determination of the

of love.
Mediterranean goddess
In Babylonia
and India there

It
is
are very definite signs of borrowing from the
same
source.
im-
portant, therefore, to look for further evidence to
Arabia
as the obvious
bond
of union
The
Assyrian
claim
both with Phoenicia and Babylonia. made in Roscher's Lexicon der Mythologie that the
the
Ishtar,
Phoenician Ashtoreth
(Astarte),
the
Syrian
Atargatis (Derketo), the Babylonian Belit (Mylitta) and the Arabian
Hat (Al-ilat) were
all
moon- goddesses has given
rise to
much
rather
aimless discussion, for there can be no question of their essential
hom-
ology with Hathor and Aphrodite.

all
Moreover, from the beginning,

1
goddesses
and especially
for
deities
were
most primitive stratum of fertility obvious reasons intimately associated with the moon.
this
But the
cyclical periodicity of the
moon which
suggested the analogy
wjth the similar physiological the association of the moon with women.
periodicity of
women merely explains The influence of the moon

its
upon dew and the
tides,
perhaps, suggested
controlling
power over
water and emphasized the life-giving function which its association For reasons which have been with women had already suggested.
explained already, water
zation
by
the male.
was Hence
associated
more especially with fertilithe symbolism of the moon came to
include the control of both the male and the female processes of re2
production.
The
1
literature relating to the
development
of these ideas with refer-
am
their
'
home became
2
not concerned here with the explanation of the means transferred to the planet Venus.
by which
In his discussion of the functions of the Fravashis in the Iranian Yasht, the late Professor Moulton suggested the derivation of the word from the " birth Avestan root var, "to impregnate," so that fravasi might mean " Less easy to ". But he was puzzled by a reference to water. promotion
is their intimate connexion with the Waters" (" Early Religious But the Waters were regarded as Poetry of Persia," pp. 142 and 143). " the This is seen in the Avestan Anahita, who was fertilizing agents. "
understand
presiding genie of Fertility and
more
Phythian-Adams,
"
especially of the
Waters
(W.
J-
Mithraism," 1915, p. 13).
INCENSE
He
shows that
there
is
AND
LIBATIONS
for believing that
247
1
ence to the moon has been summarized by Professor Hutton Webster. "
good reason
among many
primitive peoples the moon, rather than the sun, the planets or any of the constellations, first excited the imagination and aroused feelings
of superstitious
awe
or of religious veneration ".
was first devoted to the moon when agricultural men to measure time and determine the seasons. pursuits compelled The influence of the moon on water, both the tides and dew, brought
Special attention
it
within the scope of the then current biological theory of fertilization. This conception was powerfully corroborated by the parallelism of the
of
moon's cycles and those

garding the
functions.
of the
womankind, which was interpreted by
re-
moon as the controlling power of the female reproductive Thus all of the earliest goddesses who were personifications powers of fertility came to be associated, and in some cases
with the moon.
identified,
In this
way
i.e.
the animation and deification of the

first
moon was brought

the attributes of
about
and the
sky deity assumed not only
all
the cowry,
troller of
the female reproductive functions, but also, as the con-
water,
role of Osiris.
many of those which afterwards were regarded The confusion of the male fertilizing powers of
as the
Osiris
with the female reproductive functions of Hathor and Isis may explain how in some places the moon became a masculine deity, who, however,
still
retained his control over
womankind and caused

12
the phen-
omena
fied in
of menstruation
by the
exercise of his virile powers.
But the
personi-
moon-god was
Thoth.
also a measurer of time
and
in this aspect
was
The
ably
assimilation of the
moon with
the
these earth-deities
first
was prob-
responsible for the creation of
sky-deity.
For once the
conception developed Osirian beliefs associated with the deification of

the
of identifying a deity with the
moon, and the a dead king grew up,
moon became
the impersonation of the
spirit of
womankind, some
mortal
woman who by
Rest Days,"
death had acquired divinity.
After the idea had developed of regarding the

1 -
moon
as the spirit
"
New
York, 1916, pp. 124 et

fertility
seq.
are found, whether in Egypt, BabyIonia, the Mediterranean Area, Eastern Asia, and America, illustrations of this confusion of sex are found. The explanation which Dr. Rendel Harris
these deities of
offers of this confusion in the case of
Wherever
Aphrodite, seems
to
me
not to give
due
recognition to
its
great antiquity and world-wide distribution.
248
of a

dead person,
stars
it
was only
natural that, in course of time, the sun
and
thought, and be regarded
should be brought within the scope of the same train of as the deified dead. When this happened,
the sun not unnaturally soon 'leapt into a position of pre-eminence. As the moon represented the deified female principle the sun became
the dominant male deity Re.
The
of
stars also
became the
spirits of
the
dead.
Once
this
new
conception
a sky-world
was adumbrated a
luxuriant crop of beliefs
grew up
to assimilate the
new
beliefs with the
old and to buttress the confused mixture of incompatible ideas with a
complex scaffolding
of rationalization.
The
clouds.
trolled not only the river
Osiris consun-god Horus then became the son of Osiris. and the irrigation canals, but also the rain-
The
tions of the worshippers
fumes of incense conveyed to the sky-gods the supplica" on earth. Incense was not only the perfume
that deifies," but also the
means by which the
deities
and the dead
could pass to their doubles in the newly invented sky-heaven. The sun-god Re was represented in his temple not by an anthropoid statue,
but by an otelisk, the gilded apex of which pointed to heaven and " " drew down the dazzling rays of the sun, reflected from its polished surface, so that all the worshippers could see the manifestations of the
god
in his temple.
These events are important, not only

mere
pillar of stone,
for creating the sky-gods
and
the sky-heaven, but possibly also for suggesting the idea that even a
whether carved or uncarved, upon which no attempt had been made to model the human form, could represent the " " to be animated by the deity, or rather could become the body
2
god.
For once
it
was
admitted, even in the
ideas concerning the animation of statues, that
home of these ancient it was not essential for

for less
skill
the idol to be shaped into cultured peoples,
human
form, the
way was opened
who had
"
not acquired the technical
to carve
statues, simply to erect stone pillars or

1
unshaped masses
of stone or
Das Re-heiligtum des Konigs Ne-woser-re ". Borchardt, " For a good exposition of this matter see A. Moret, Sanctuaires de 1'ancien Empire t,gyptien,"t Annales du Musce Guimet, 1912,
L.
p.
265.
'
It is
possible that the ceremony of erecting the
played some part in the development of these beliefs. Moret, "Mysteres Egyptiens," 1913, pp. 13-17.)
dad columns may have (On this see A.
INCENSE
wood
for their
AND
when
LIBATIONS
249
gods to enter,
1
the appropriate ritual of animation
was performed.
in stones
This conception
place where
of the possibility of gods,
men, or animals dwelling
spread in course of time throughout the world, but in every the methods of it is found certain arbitrary details of
all
animating the stone reveal the fact that
these legends must
have
been derived from the same source.
The complementary men and animals has a

It
belief in the possibility of the petrifaction of
similarly extensive geographical distribution.

If
represents merely an abbreviated version of the original story.

after
man
death could be reanimated and " writers call his soul," could then take up
short-circuiting
2
"
his
its
life," or
what most
it
residence in a stone,
was merely
into a stone.
this process to
transform the
man
directly
THE WORSHIP OF THE Cow.

Intimately linked with the subjects
I
have been discussing
is
the
worship of the cow.

1
It
would lead me
too far afield to enter into
Many other factors played a part in the development of the stories of the birth of ancestors from stones. I have already referred to the origin
of the idea of the
The
place of the shell
cowry was
(or some other shell) as the parent of mankind. often taken by roughly carved stones, which of
course were accredited with the same power of being able to produce men,
or of being a sort of egg from which human beings could be hatched. It is unlikely that the finding of fossilized animals played any leading role in the development of these beliefs, beyond affording corroborative evidence
in
support
of
them
after other circumstances
had been responsible
for
The more circumstantial Oriental stories of the originating the stories. splitting of stones giving birth to heroes and gods may have been suggested
themselves regarded already finding in pebbles of fossilized shells as the parents of mankind. But such interpretations were only possible because all the predisposing circumstances had already prepared the way for
by the
the acceptance of these specific illustrations of a general theory. These beliefs may have developed before and quite independently of
the ideas concerning the animation of statues
;
but
if
so the latter event
would have strengthened and

story.
J
in
some places become merged with the other
For an extensive
collection of these remarkable petrifaction legends
in almost every part of the world, see E. of Perseus," especially Volumes I and HI.
Sidney Hartland's
"The Legend
be
These
all
distinctive stories will
found to be complexly interwoven with

address.
the matters discussed in this
250

by which
the earliest Mother- Goddesses
so closely associated or even identified with the
the details of the process
cow and why the cow's horns became associated with the moon among the emblems But it is essential that reference should be made to of Hathor.
became
certain aspects of the subject.
I
do not think there
is
any evidence
to justify the
common
theory
that the likeness of the crescent

for the association.
moon
to a
cow's horns was the reason

clear that both the
On
the other hand
it is
moon
and the cow became
identified
with the Mother-Goddess quite inde-
pendently the one of the other, and at a very remote period. It is probable that the fundamental factor in the development of
this association of
use of milk as
this
cow and the Mother-Goddess was the fact of the food for human beings. For if the cow could assume
the
of
maternal function she was in fact a sort of foster-mother of man;
kind
and
in course
time she
mother
of the
human
race and to
be regarded as the actual be identified with the Great Mother.

to
came
Many The use of
other considerations helped in this process of assimilation.
cattle not merely as meat for the sustenance of the living but as the usual and most characteristic life-giving food for the dead
naturally played a part in conferring divinity
upon the cow,
just as
an
re-
analogous relationship
made
incense a holy substance and
was
sponsible for the personification of the incense- tree as a goddess. This influence was still further emphasized in the case of cattle
because they also supplied the blood which was used

purpose time upon the gods
of
for the ritual
bestowing consciousness
also, so that
upon
the dead, and in course of
they might hear and attend to the
prayers of supplicants.
Other circumstances emphasize the significance attached to the cow, but it is difficult to decide whether they cpntributed in any way to the development of these beliefs or were merely some of the
practices
which were the
result of the divination of the
cow.
The
custom
of placing butter in the
mouths
of the
and
India, the various ritual uses of milk, the
dead, in Egypt, Uganda, employment of a cow's
hide as a wrapping for the dead in the grave, and also in certain 1 mysterious ceremonies, all indicate the intimate connexion between
the
cow and
I
the means of attaining a rebirth in the
life to
come.
think there are definite reasons for believing that once the
1
cow
See A. Moret,
op.
cit.
p. 81
inter alia.
INCENSE
became
the
first
AND
LIBATIONS
251
identified
with the Mother-Goddess as the parent of mankind

in the
step
was taken
as
development of the curious system

I
of
ideas
now known
"
is
totemism".
a complex problem which
This, however,
discuss here.
cannot stay to
When
moon was
the
cow became
identified
with the Great Mother and the
goddess, the Divine
regarded as the dwelling or the personification of the same Cow by a process of confused syncretism came to
be regarded as the sky or the heavens, to which the dead were raised When Re became the dominant deity, he Aip on the cow's back.
was
as
identified
with the sky, and the sun and
moon were
Mother
then regarded
his eyes.
Thus
the
the moon, as the Great
as well as the eye
of Re,
was
bond
of identification of the
Great Mother with an
This was probably ye. of the Giver of Life.
how
the eye acquired the animating powers
A whole
diffusion of
volume might be written upon the almost world- wide these beliefs regarding the cow, as far as Scotland and
Ireland in the west, and in their easterly migration probably as far as America, to the confusion alike of its ancient artists and its modern
1
ethnologists.
As
fessor
an
illustration of the identification of the

I
cow's attributes with
those of the life-giving Great Mother,
might
to
refer to the late
Pro-
Moulton's commentary
flesh
is
on the ancient Iranian Gathas, where
cow's
*'
given
to mortals
by Yima
make them immortal.
it with another legend whereby at the Regeneramake men immortal by giving them to eat the fat of the ... primeval Cow from whose slain body, according to the " Aryan legends adopted by Mithraism, mankind was first created ?
May we
connect
is
tion
Mithra
to
See the Copan sculptured monuments described by Maudslay in " Salvin's Biologia Centrali- Americana," Archaeology, " Stela D," with two serpents in the places ocPlate 46, representing cupied by the Indian elephants in Stela B concerning which see Nature, November 25, 1915. To one of these intertwined serpents is attached a cow-headed human daemon. Compare also the Chiriqui figure depicted by " by MacCurdy, Study of Chiriquian Antiquities,*' Yale University Press,
Godman and
1911,
Early Religious Poetry of Persia," pp. 42 and 43. a But I think these legends accredited to the Aryans Op. cit. p. 43. owe their parentage to the same source as the Egyptian beliefs concerning the cow, and especially the remarkable mysteries uppn which Morel has
"
fig.
361,
p.
209.
been endeavouring
to
throw some
"
light
Mysteres Egyptiens,"
p. 43.
252

THE
In these pages
I
DIFFUSION OF CULTURE.
ing
and
intricate
I
have made no attempt to deal with the far-reachproblems of the diffusion abroad of the practices and
discussing.
beliefs
which
tions of
But the thoughts and the aspiraevery cultured people are permeated through and through
have been
with their influence.

important to remember that in almost every stage of the de" velopment of these complex customs and ideas not merely the finished " but also the ingredients out of which it was built up were product
It is
being scattered abroad.

I
shall briefly refer to certain evidence
from the East and America
in illustration of this fact
and
in substantiation of the reality of the

beliefs
I
diffusion to the
East of some of the
have been discussing.
The
strikingly
unity of
Egyptian and Babylonian ideas is nowhere more demonstrated than in the essential identity of the attributes
It
of Osiris
and Ea.
affords the
most positive proof of the derivation

source,
of the beliefs
from some
common
and reveals the
fact that
Egyptian and Sumerian

lonia, as in
civilizations
must have been
in intimate cultural
contact at the beginning of their developmental history.
origin of life
"In Babywere differences of opinion regarding the Egypt, there and the particular natural element which represented the
"
vital principle."
One
section of the people,
who were
represented
by the worshippers of Ea, appear to have believed that the essence of The god of Eridu was the source of the life was contained in water.
*
water "
of life
Y*
Offerings of water
2
and food were made

they might be
to the dead," not, as
Mr. Mackenzie
the living,"
1
prevented from troubling with the means of sustenance and to but to supply them
states, so that
"
Donald A. Mackenzie,
"
Myths
of
Babylonia and Assyria," p. 44
et seq.
2
" some Dr. Alan Gardiner has protested against the assertions of influenced more by anthropological theorists than by the unEgyptologists, " ambiguous evidence of the Egyptian texts," to the effect that the funerary rites and practices of the Egyptians were in the main precautionary measures " "
senring to protect the living against the
dead (Article Life and Death (Egyptian)," Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics). I should like " to emphasize the fact that the anthropological theorists," who so frequently " some forward these claims have little more justification for them than put
INCENSE
these
AND
LIBATIONS
It
253
belief that
reanimate them to help the suppliants.
is
common
and other procedures were inspired by
fear of the dead.
But
such a statement does not accurately represent the attitude of mind of For it is not the the people who devised these funerary ceremonies.
enemies of the dead or those against whom he had a grudge that run and the more deeply he was a risk at funerals, but rather his friends
;
attached to a particular person the greater the danger for the latter. For among many people the belief obtains that when a man dies he " will endeavour to steal the soul -substance" of those who are dearest
But as him so that they may accompany him to the other world. " " means death, it is easy to misunderstand soul- substance stealing the such a display of affection. Hence most people who long for life and
to
]
hate death do their utmost to evade such embarrassing tokens of love
and most
appeasing ethnologists, misjudging such actions, write about the dead ". It was those whom the gods loved who died young. Ea was not only the god of the deep, but also " lord of life," king
Osiris
*'
and god of creation. Like and sunburnt wastes through rivers and
of the river
"he
fertilized
parched
the dead
irrigating canals,
.
and conferred
water
upon man the sustaining commanded her servant

In
food of
'
life
'.
The goddess of
to
sprinkle the
Lady
Ishtar with the
of life*" (op. cit. p. 44).
Chapter
III.
of
Mr. Mackenzie's book, from which
have
just
Careful study of the best evidence from Babylonia, India, Egyptologists '*. Indonesia, and Japan, reveals the fact that anthropologists who make such " claims have probably misinterpreted the facts. AncesIn an article on
by Professor Nobushige Hozumi in A. Stead's Japan by the Japanese" (1904) the true point of view is put very clearly "The origin of ancestor-worship is ascribed by many eminent writers to the dread of ghosts and the sacrifices made to the souls of ancestors for the purpose of propitiating them. It appears to me more correct to attribute the origin
tor
"
Worship
"
of ancestor-worship to a contrary cause. It the dread of them" [Here he quotes the
in corroboration] that impelled men to worship. celebrate the anniversary of our ancestors, pay visits to their graves, offer flowers, food and drink, burn incense and bow before their tombs, entirely
and Confucius
was the love of ancestors, not Chinese philosophers Shiu-ki "
We
from a feeling of love and respect for their memory, and no question of " dread' enters our minds in doing so (pp. 281 and 282). 1 For, as I have already explained, the idea so commonly and mistakenly " soul- substance" by writers on Indonesian and conveyed by the term Chinese beliefs would be much more accurately rendered simply by the
*
word
"
life," so that
the stealing of
it
necessarily
means
death.
254
quoted, there

is
an interesting collection of quotations clearly showing
that the conception of the vitalizing properties of the
body moisture
in
of
gods
lonia
is
not restricted to Egypt and Osiris, but

India, in
is
found also
also in
and
Western Asia and Greece, and
BabyWestern
Europe. It has been suggested that the name Ishtar has been derived from " " Semitic roots implying she who waters," she who makes fruitful 'V The beginnings of Semitic religion as they were conceived by the
'
Semites themselves go back to sexual relations ... the Semitic conembodies the truth grossly indeed, but never. ception of deity " theless embodies it that God is love (pp. cit. p. 1 07).
.
'
2 Throughout the countries where Semitic influence spread the primitive Mother-Goddesses or some of their specialized variants are
found.
tinctive
But
traits
in
every case the goddess
is
associated with
many
dis-
which reveal her
identity with
her homologues in
Cyprus, Babylonia, and Egypt. " Among the Sumerians life comes on earth through the introduction of water and irrigation". 3 "Man also results from a union
between the water-gods." The Akkadians held views which were almost the direct
of these.
antithesis
To them
"
the watery deep

is
the order of the world,
due
to
disorder, and the cosmos, the victory of a god of light and

is
;
spring over the monster of winter and water 4 by the gods ".
*
man
is
directly
made
account of Beginnings centres around the production by the gods of water, Enki and his consort Nin-ella (or Dangal), of a great number of canals bringing rain to the desolate fields of a dry
continent.
The Sumerian
Life both of vegetables
and animals follows the profusion

life's
of the vivifying waters.
...
In the process of
is
production besides
Enki, the personality of his consort
very conspicuous.
She
is
called
barton,
2
op. cit. p. 105.
The
evidence
set forth in these

:
are not restricted to the Semites
pages makes it clear that such ideas nor is there any reason to suppose that
in
they originated amongst them.

3
Albert
J.
Carnoy, "Iranian Views of Origins

.
Connexion with
Similar Babylonian Beliefs," Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 1916, PP 300-20. 4 This is Professor Carney's summary of Professor Jastrow's views as
XXXVI,
-expressed in his article
"
Sumerian and Akkadian Views
of Beginnings ".
INCENSE
Nin-Ella,
'
AND
Lady
LIBATIONS
'
255
great
).
the pure Lady,'

'
Damgal-Nunna,
'
the
the Waters/ Nin- Tu, Enki and Nin-ella was
"
Lady
of
the
of Birth
(p.
1
30
The
child of
the ancestor of mankind.
"
In later traditions, the personality of that

of Ishtar,
have been overshadowed by that

"
Great Lady seems who absorbed several
to of
her functions
Professor
so-called
(p.
30
).
Carnoy
fully
"Aryan"
beliefs
demonstrates the derivation of certain early from Chaldea. In the Iranian account of
the creation "the great spring
Ardvi Sura Anahita
is
the life-increasprosperity for
ing, the herd-increasing, the fold-increasing

all
who makes
is
countries (Yt. 5, 1)
. . .
...
that precious spring
worshipped as a
stately
goddess
and
is
personified as a
tall of
handsome and
woman.
is full
She
is
fair
maid, most strong,
form, high-girded.
still
Her arms
She
thinks that
birth.
are white
and
thick as a horse's shoulder or
thicker.
of gracefulness" (Yt. 5, 7, 64, 78).
"
Professor
Cumont
Anahita
is
Ishtar
she
is
a goddess of fecundation and
Moreover in Achaemenian inscriptions Anahita is associated with Ahura

Mithra, a triad corresponding to the Chaldean triad Sin-Shamash-Ishtar. 'Adeems in Strabo and other Greek writers is
:
Mazdah and
"
treated as 'A^poStrT;
(p.
302).
But
in
Mesopotamia
statues
also the
same views were entertained as
in
Egypt
'
of the functions of statues.
The
hidden in the recesses of the temples or erected on

*
'
sented."
op.
cit.
Ziggurats became imbued, consecration, with the actual body of the god "
the summits of the
by
virtue of their
whom
Thus Marduk
"
they repre-
is
said to
inhabit his image
(Maspero,
p. 64).
is
This
present
precisely the idea
which the Egyptians had.
Even
2
at the
day it survives among the Dravidian peoples of India. make images of their village deities, which may be permanent
They
or only
temporary, but in any case they are regarded not as actual deities but " " as the bodies so to speak into which these deities can enter. They
are sacred only
1
when they
are so animated
by
the goddess.
The
Langdon under
~ I
Jastrow's interpretation of a recently-discovered tablet published by the title The Sumerian Epic of Paradise, the Flood and
the Fall of Man.
have already
also.
(p.
233) mentioned the
fact that
it is still
preserved in
China
256
ritual of

animation
is
essentially identical with that found in

;
Ancient
Egypt.
Libations are poured out
incense
is
burnt
;
1
the bleeding
right fore-leg of
deity
is
a buffalo constitutes the blood -offering. When the reanimated by these procedures and its consciousness restored
by the blood-offering it can hear appeals and speak. The same attitude towards their idols was adopted by the PolyThe priest usually addressed the image, into which it was nesians.
'
imagined the god entered

are of peculiar interest.
referred
to the
when anyone came
to inquire his will."
But there are certain other aspects
of these
Indian customs that
In my Ridgeway essay (pp. cit. supra) \ means by which in Nubia the degradation of the oblong Egyptian mastaba gave rise to the simple stone circle. This type spread to the west along the North African littoral, and also to
the Eastern desert and Palestine.
At some
subsequent time mariners
from the
[It is
Red Sea
introduced
this practice into India.
circles
were invented.
itself,
important to bear in mind that two other classes of stone One of them was derived, not from the
but from the enclosing wall surrounding
it
mastaba
Ridgeway
p. 510,
(see
my
essay, Fig.
for illustrations
13, p. Figs. 3 and 4, of the transformed mastaba-\yô). This type

1
,
53
and compare with

in the
of circle (enclosing a
dolmen)
is
found both
Caucasus- Caspian
this encircling
area as well as in India.
A highly developed A
form of
type of structure
s tup as
is
seen in the famous rails surrounding the Buddhist
third and later form of circle, of which and dagabas. is an example, was developed out of the much later New Stonehenge
Empire Egyptian conception of a temple.] But at the same time, as in Nubia, and possibly in Libya, the mastaba was being degraded into the first of the three main varieties
forms of simplification of the " 1 The Village Deities of Henry Whitehead (Bishop of Madras), Southern India," Madras Government Museum, Bull., Vol. V, No. 3, " Dravidian Gods in Modern Hindu1907; Wilber Theodore Elmore, of the Local and Village Deities of Southern India," ism: Study University Studies: University of Nebraska, Vol. XV, No. 1, Jan., 1915.
of stone circle, other,
though
less drastic,
Compare
"
the sacrifice of the fore-leg of a living calf in Egypt
A. E.
P. B.
Weigall, Arch<zology,\Q\.\\, 1915, p. 10.

lonia suggest that a similar
2
An Ancient Egyptian Funeral Ceremony," Journal of Egyptian

method
"
Early literary references from Babyof offering blood was practised there.
I,
William
Ellis,
Polynesian Researches," 2nd edition, 1832, Vol.
p. 373,
INCENSE
mast aba were
upon
taking
place,
AND
LIBATIONS
Egypt
itself,
257
but certainly
possibly in
the neighbouring
Mediterranean
coasts.
In
some respects the
least altered copies of the
graves" of Sardinia But the real features

"
mast aba are found in the so-called " giant's and the "horned cairns" of the British Isles. of the Egyptian serdab, which was the essential
"
of the Levant,
of the part, the nucleus so to speak,
the so-called
India.
Britain.]
holed dolmens
mastaba, are best preserved in the Caucasus, and

West, as
in
[They
also occur sporadically in the
France and
1
Such dolmens and more
simplified forms are scattered in Palestine,
but are seen to best advantage upon the Eastern Littoral of the
Black Sea, the Caucasus, and the neighbourhood of the Caspian. They are found only in scattered localities between the Black and
Caspian Seas.
As
de Morgan has pointed
out,
their distribution
is
explained by their association with ancient gold and copper mines.
They were
the tombs of immigrant mining colonies
who had
settled
in these definite localities to exploit these minerals.
Now
these
the same types of dolmens,

in
also
associated
with ancient
mines/ are found
India.
There
is
some evidence
to suggest that
degraded Egyptian mastabas were introduced into India at some time after the adoption of the other, the Nubian modification of the mastaba which is represented by the first variety
types of
of stone circle.
I 4
have referred
to these Indian
dolmens
for the specific
purpose
of illustrating the complexities of the processes of diffusion of culture. For not only have several variously specialized degradation- products
of the
same
original type of
by
different routes
1
and
at different
Egyptian mastaba reached India, possibly times, but also many of the ideas
1'exploration recente," Paris, 1907,
See H. Vincent, " Canaan d'apres
p.
395.
2
"Les Premieres
Civilizations," Paris, 1909, p.
Delegation en Perse, Caucase, Tome I.
Tome
VIII, archeol.
404 Memoires de la and Mission Scientifique au

:
3 W. J. Perry, " The Relationship between the Geographical Distribution of Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines," Memoirs and Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, Vol. 60, Parti, 24th Nov., 1915.
The evidence for this is being prepared for publication by Captain Leonard Munn, R.E., who has personally collected the data in Hyderabad.
258
that
of which the developed out of the funerary ritual in Egypt mastaba was merely one of the manifestations made their way to
India at various times

expressions of
and became secondarily blended with other the same or associated ideas there. I have already
the
the
referred to the essential elements of the Egyptian funerary ritual

statues,
incense, libations,
and the
rest
as
still
persisting
among
Dravidian peoples.
But in the Madras Presidency dolmens are found converted into 1 Siva temples. Now in the inner chamber of the shrine which in place of the statue or represents the homologue of the serdab bas-relief of the deceased or of the deity, which is found in some of
them
(see Plate
I),
there
is
the stone linga-yoni
emblem
in
the posi-
tion corresponding to that in

locality
which,
is
(Kambaduru), there
earliest
the later temple in the same an image of Parvati, the consort of

in
Siva.
The
deities
in
Egypt,
both Osiris and Hathor, were

In the case of Hathor,
really expressions of the creative
principle.
the goddess was, in

reproduction.
creation
fact,
the personification of the female organs of
In these early Siva temples in India these principles of

their literal interpretation,
were given
and represented frankly
as the organs of reproduction of the
illustrations
were symbolized by models in of the same principle are witnessed in the Indonesian " dissoliths ".megalithic monuments which Perry calls
gods of creation Further stone of the creating organs.

sexes.
two
The
The
later
Indian
temples,
both
Buddhist and
Hindu,
were
developed from these early dolmens, as Mr. Longhurst's reports so But from time to time there was an influx of clearly demonstrate.
new
ideas from the

of
fications
the
architecture.
West which found Thus
expression in a series of modiIndia provides

contact.
an
admirable
illustration
of this principle of culture
series of
waves
of megalithic culture introduced purely
Western
ideas.
These were
into a dis-
developed by the local people
in
their
own way,
constantly inter-
mingling a variety of cultural influences to

1
weave them
Annual Report
for the year
of the Archaeological
Madras,
1915-1916.
See
for
Department, Southern Circle, example Mr. A. H. Longhurst's
photographs and plans (Plates I-IV) and especially that of the old Siva, temple at Kambadurn, Plate IV (b). 2 W. J. Perry, "The Megalithic Culture of Indonesia".
INCENSE
tinctive fabric,
AND
LIBATIONS
259
which was compounded partly
of imported, partly of
local threads,
cess of
woven
locally into a truly Indian pattern.

effects of
In this proaccretions
development one can detect the
Mycenean
;
(see for
its
example Longhurst's Plate XIII), probably modified during and also indirect transmission by Phoenician and later influences
Egyptian, and, later, art and architecture in directing the course of Persian
of Indian culture.
the more intimate part played by Babylonian,
Greek and
development
The
and
ideas which
grew up
in for
association
with the practice of
mummification were responsible

its ritual
the development of the temple
the conception of deities. For the But they were also responsible for originating a priesthood. of the dead king, Osiris, and for the maintenance of his resuscitation
and
for a definite formulation of
existence
it
was necessary
for his successor, the reigning king,
to per-
form the
ritual
of animation
The
king, therefore,
and the provision of food and drink. was the first priest, and his functions were not
to the
primarily acts of worship but merely the necessary preliminaries for

restoring
sult
life
and consciousness
his advice
dead
seer so that
he could con-
him and secure

It
and
help.
of
was only when
the
number
their ritual so
bility for the
complex and elaborate
as to
temples became so great and make it a physical impossi-
king to act in this capacity in all of
them and on every

of his priestly func-
occasion that he
tions to others,
of the royal family or high officials. In course of time certain individuals devoted themselves exclusively to these duties and became professional priests ; but it is important to
was compelled either members
to delegate
some
remember
that at
first
it
was
the exclusive privilege of Horus, the
reigning king, to intercede with Osiris, the
dead king, on behalf of men, and that the earliest priesthood consisted of those individuals to whom he had delegated some of these duties. " "
In the
Migrations of Early Culture
(p.
14)
called attention
was poured upon the head was inspired by the Egyptian mummy. procedure idea of libations, for, according to Brasseur de Bourbourg, the pour" ing out of the water was accompanied by the remark C'est cette eau
to the fact that

of the
among
This
the Aztecs water
ritual
que
tu as rec.ue en
venant au
monde ".
in
But incense-burning and blood-offering were also practised

17
260
America.

In
1
an interesting memoir on the practice of blood-letting by piercing the ears and tongue, Mrs. Zelia Nuttall reproduces a re" markable picture from a partly unpublished MS. of Sahagun's work
preserved in Florence ".
'
man whose body
is
of the sun is held up by a and two men, seated opposite to partly hidden,
The image
each other in the foreground, are in the act of piercing the helices or
external borders of their ears."
ings to the sun,
like censers,
But
in addition to these blood-offer-
two
priests are
burning incense in remarkably Egyptian-
and another
pair are blowing conch-shell trumpets.
But
it
was not merely

wholly
the use of incense
and
libations
and the
identities in the
arbitrary attributes of the
that reveal the sources of their derivation in
American pantheon the Old World. When

traces of a
the Spaniards
tismal rite
first
visited
Yucatan they found
which the natives called
"
zikil, signifying
Maya
bap".
to
be born again
At
"
the ceremony also incense
was
burnt."
fingers
The
forehead,
the face, the
and
toes
were moistened.
After they had been thus sprinkled with water, the priest arose and removed the cloths from the heads of the children, and then cut off
with a stone knife a certain bead that was attached to the head from
childhood."
3
The same custom
is
found
in
Egypt
at the present day.
In the case of the girls, their mothers
"
divested
them
of a cord
loins,
which was worn during
their
childhood, fastened round the

('
*
having a small shell that hung in front venia a dar encima de la parte honesta
this signified that
una conchuela asida que les The removal of Landa).

East Africa
at
This custom
present
they could marry." is found in the Soudan and

is
the
day/
It
the prototype of the girdle of

all
Hathor,
the
Ishtar,
Aphrodite, Kali and

It is
the goddesses of
fertility in
Old World.
an admirable illustration of the
fact that not
only were the finished
products, the goddesses
and
their fantastic repertory of attributes trans-
mitted to the
New
ingredients out of
World, but also the earliest and most primitive which the complexities of their traits were comAncient Mexicans/' Archaeological and Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Vol. I,
II,
pounded.
1
"
Penitential Rite of the

of the
Ethnological Papers No. 7, 1904.

2
Bancroft, op.
3
cit.
Vol.
4
pp.
682 and 683.

5
Op.
cit. p.
684.
Ibid.
See
J.
Wilfrid Jackson,
op. cit.
supra.
FIG.
6.
REPRESENTATION OF THE ANCIENT MEXICAN WORSHIP OF THE SUN

sun
is
The image
of the
held up by a
man
in front
of his face
two men blow conch-shell

blood-offerings by piercing
trumpets; another pair burn incense; and a third pair

their ears
after Zelia Nuttall.
make
INCENSE
AND
LIBATIONS
261
SUMMARY.
In these pages
groping in
have ranged over a very wide field of speculation, I have the dim shadows of the early history of civilization.
I
been attempting to pick up a few of the threads which ultimately became woven into the texture of human beliefs and aspirations, and to
suggest that the practice of mummification
was
the woof around which
the
web
I
of civilization
was
intimately intertwined.
have already explained how closely that practice was related to the origin and development of architecture, which Professor Lethaby " matrix of civilization," and how nearly the ideas that has called the
grew up in explanation and in justification of the ritual of embalming were affected by the practice of agriculture, the second great pillar of It has also been shown how support for the edifice of civilization.
far-reaching
was the
influence exerted
by the needs
of the
emb aimer,
plan and
which impelled men, probably

carry out great expeditions resins and the balsams, the
for the first time in history, to
by
sea
and land
to obtain the necessary
wood and
the spices.
Incidentally also
to exert a pro-
in course of time the practice of mummification
came
found
effect
upon the
all
means
for the acquisition of a

it.
knowledge
of
medicine and
the sciences ancillary to
But
have devoted
chief attention to the bearing of the ideas
which developed out of the practice and ritual of embalming upon the spirit of man. It gave shape and substance to the belief in a
future
life
;
it
was perhaps
the most important factor in the develop:
ment
of a definite conception of the gods
it
laid the foundation of

:
the ideas
in fact,
it
which subsequently were
was
built up into a theory of the soul connected with the birth of all those ideals intimately
and
aspirations
which are now included
in the
belief
and
ritual.
A multitude of other trains of thought were started

theory.
conception of religious
amidst the intellectual ferment of the formulation of the earliest concrete system of biological
The
idea of the properties and

in
functions of water
which had previously sprung up
connexion with
the development of agriculture became crystallized into a more definite form as the result of the development of mummification, and this has
played an obtrusive part

ever since.
in
in
religion,
in
philosophy and
in
medicine
Moreover
its
influence has
become embalmed
for all time
many
languages and in the ritual of every religion.
262
But
liefs,
it

was a
factor in the
ritual,
development not merely

it
of religious be-
temples and
but
was
also very closely related to the
origin of
beliefs.
swastika and the thunderbolt, dragons and demons, totemism and the sky-world are all of them conceptions that were
less closely
much The
of the paraphernalia of the gods
and
of current
popular
more or
connected with the matters
In conclusion I should like to express in too apparent to every reader of this statement.
have been discussing. words what must be only

I
It
claims to be noth-
ing
more than a contribution

in the history of
to the study of
some
of the
most
ill
difficult
problems
human
I
thought.
For one so
it
for a task of such a nature as
am
to attempt
calls for
-equipped a word of
explanation.
The
clear light that recent research has shed
upon the
earliest literature in the
world has done much
to destroy the founda-
tions
up.
upon which the theories propounded by scholars have been built It seemed to be worth while to attempt to read afresh the voluof old
minous mass
formation.
documents with the illumination of
this
new
in-
The
other reason for making such an attempt
is
that almost every
modern scholar who has discussed the matters

beliefs
at issue
has assumed
that the fashionable doctrine of the independent development of
human
and
practices
was a
safe basis
upon which
to construct his
am I an unproven and reckless speculation. convinced it is utterly false. Holding such views I have attempted to read the evidence afresh.
theories.
At
best
it is
THE POETRY OF
BY
C. H.
LUCRETIUS.
M.A., Lirr.D.,
HERFORD,
PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER.

Dedicated
to the
IN
THE
RT. HON. VISCOUNT MORLEY, O.M.

Chancellor of the University of Manchester,
" Lucretius stands alone
inspires him,
in
the controversial force
and energy with which the genius
of negation
is
into sublime reasons for firm act, so long as living breath the thought that the life of a man is no more than the dream of a shadow."
and transforms
ours,
Lord Motley's " Recollections
".
I.
was a time when
the
title
if
of
THERE
Lucretius
been received as a paradox

terms.
paper would have not as a contradiction in

this
Lessing,
as
is
well known, declared roundly that
was
"
versifier,
critics.
not a poet,"
It
is
and Lessing was one
of the
greatest of
European
easy, indeed, to see the reason of

It
Lessing's trenchant condemnation.
reflects his implicit
acceptance
valid
of Aristotle's Poetics,
which he
said
was
for
him as absolutely
is
as Euclid,
tion
and therefore
action.
of Aristotle's doctrine that poetry
imita-
of
human
Lessing's
insistence
on
this
doctrine
was
status
extraordinarily salutary in his day,

of the dubious kinds
and
definitely
lowered the
known
the
as descriptive,
allegorical, satirical,
and
didactic poetry, in a
century too
phrase of his about

correct, well-defined,
sue,
imitation of
safe
much given to them all. That human action marked out a
and
channel for the stream of poetry to pur-
rills of his generation improved chance of survival by falling into it and flowing between its their But Lessing did not reckon with the power of poetic genius banks.
and some
of the slender poetic
to force
1
its
own way
to the sea through
no matter
how
tangled and
An
elaboration of the Lecture delivered in the John Rylands Library

263
on 14 February, 1917.
264

nay, to capture from the very obstructions
it
tortuous a river-bed,
over-
comes new splendours of foam and rainbow unknown perhaps to the In plain language, he did not reckon with the well-regulated stream.
fact that
a prima facie inferior form, such as

its inferiority
satire or didactic,
may
not only have
may
thus
actually elicit
outweighed by compensating beauties, but and provoke beauties not otherwise to be had, and
obstacle, but
an instrument of poetry. Nor did he foresee that such a recovery of poetic genius, such an effacement of the old boundaries, such a withdrawal of the old taboos, was to come
wrote.
become not an
with the following century, nay, was actually impending when he Goethe, who read the Laokoon entranced, as a young student
at Leipzig,
honoured
its
teaching very
much on
this
side of idolatry
when he came to
maturity.
As a devoted
investigator of Nature,
who
divined the inner continuity of the flower and the leaf with the same penetrating intuition which read the continuity of a man, or of a historic city, in all the
phases of their growth, Goethe was not likely to
confine poetry within the bounds either of humanity or of the
drums
which
him-
and tramplings, the
violence,
passion,
and sudden death,
for
human
self
action in poetic criticism has too

of
commonly
"
that
stood.
He
wrote a poem
a
noble beauty on the

suffices to
(1797)
poem which
show
Metamorphosis of Plants'* it is possible to be poeti-
cally right
while merely unfolding the inner truth of things in perfectly 1 cannot wonder, then, that Lucretius and the adequate speech. " poem On the Nature of Things*' excited in the greatest of German
We
poets the liveliest interest and admiration.
On
the score of subject
But he alone he eagerly welcomed the great example of Lucretius. saw that Lucretius had supreme gifts as a poet, which would have
and which, far from being balked by the subject of his choice, found in it peculiarly large scope " and play. What sets our Lucretius so high,*' he wrote (1821) to " what his friend v. Knebel, author of the first German translation,
given distinction to whatever he wrote,
him so high and assures him eternal renown, is a lofty faculty of in sensuous intuition, which enables him to describe with power
sets
;
Goethe probably never heard of a less fortunate adventure in that kind by his English contemporary Dr. Erasmus Darwin, the Loves of the Plants, which had then been famous in England for ten years a poem which suffices to show that it is possible to exploit in the description of
;
natural processes
all
the figures and personifications of poetry, and yet to
go egregiously wrong.
THE POETRY OF LUCRETIUS

addition, he disposes of a powerful imagination,
to pursue
265
which enables him
depths of
what he has seen beyond the reach of sense into the invisible But while Nature and her most mysterious recesses/*
Goethe thus led the way in endorsing without reserve the Lucretian conception of what the field of poetry might legitimately include,
he contributed
to the discussion
nothing, so far as
know, so
*'
:
illu-
minating or so profound as the great saying of

is
Wordsworth
poetry
all
the impassioned expression which

".
is
in the
countenance of
sci-
For Wordsworth here sweeps peremptorily away the boundmarks set up, for better or worse, by ancient criticism - he knows ary he finds the nothing of a poetry purely of man or purely of action
ence
:
differentia of poetry not in

field of
any particular choice of subject out of the
real things, but in the
impassioned handling
of
them whence-
soever drawn, and therefore including the impassioned handling of reality as such, or, in the Lucretian phrase, of the nature of things.
What
did he
mean by impassioned ?
to effect
Something more,
certainly,
than the enthusiasm of a writer possessed with his theme, or even of
one eager, as Lucretius was,
in the clotted soul of a friend.
by its means a glorious purgation We come nearer when we recall the
" earth's tears and mirth, profound emotion stirred in Wordsworth by *' her humblest mirth and tears," or the thought, too deep for tears,"
given him
is
by the
lowliest flower of the field.
Such passion
as this
it implies something that we may call paron the one side and response on the other. The poet finds ticipation himself in Nature, finds there something that answers to spiritual needs
not easily analysed, but
of his
own.
The measure
of the poet's
mind
will
be the measure of
poet will people
the value of the response he receives.
small
Nature with
fantastic shapes
which
fancy or his self-centred desires. Nature, but putting one into her mouth
bustling conversationalist
cuts
it
nothing but his capricious That is not finding a response in

reflect
;
a procedure like that of the "
who, instead
of listening to
short with a
"
You mean
to say
your explanation, whatever it suits him to
suppose.
But the poet
of finer genius will neither seek nor
be
satisfied
with such hollow response as this. If he finds himself in Nature, it his shallow fancies or passing regrets that he finds, but his will not be
furthest reach,
and
loftiest
be said
to
"
appetency of soul.
to
He
will not properly

it
subdue things
the mind," as
Bacon declared
to
be
'ToKnebel,
14 February, 1821.
266

of,
the characteristic aim of poetry to do, instead
like
philosophy,
subduing the mind to things.
But he
will
feel
after analogies to
mind
in
the
universe
of
things
which mind
contemplates
and
interprets.
Such an analogy,
the changing
tinuity of our
for instance, is the sense of
continuity underlying
show
of the material world, corresponding to the con-
own
self-consciousness through the perpetual variations
of our soul states.
The
doctrine of a permanent substance persisting

its
through the multiplicity of Nature, and giving birth to all
passing
modes, belongs as much to poetry as

the
to philosophy,
and owes
the
as
to impassioned intuition as to a priori thought.
Under
much name of
the problem of Change and Permanence and fascinated every department of Greek thought it properplexed voked the opposite extravagances of Heracleitos, who declared change the
"
One and
"
Many
to be the only form of existence,
and
of the
Eleatics,
who
denied
that
it
existed at all
of the
but
it
also inspired the ordered

'
and symmetrical
feel
beauty
Parthenon and the Pindaric ode.

"it
;
When we
the
the
poetic thrill," says Santayana,

concise,
is
when we
find fulness in
and depth
in
the clear
and
that seems to
express with
felicitous precision the genius of
Hellenic art."
the discovery of infinity.
A second
ease
in
such analogy
is
Common
its
sense observes measure and rule, complies with custom, and takes
but we recognize a higher quality day's work is done the love that knows no measure, in the spiritual hunger and thirst
when
its
which are never
stilled.
Therefore, at the height of our humanity,

it
we
find ourselves in the universe in proportion as

for
sustains
and gives
an endlessly ranging and endlessly penetrating thought. scope The Stoics looked on the universe as a globe pervaded by what Munro unkindly calls a rotund and rotatory god ; at the circumference
of
;
which
all
existence,
including
that
of
space,
simply
common sense revolts, but imagination is even more rudely stopped balked, and we glory in the defiant description of Epicurus passing beyond the flaming walls of the world. Yet we are stirred with a far more potent intellectual sympathy when the idea is suggested, say
by Spinoza,
or
that space
and time themselves are but

an
infinite
particular
of other
modes
of a universe
which
exists also in
number
ways
when,
in the final
cantos of Dante's Paradise, after passing
up
from Earth, the centre, through the successive ever-widening spheres

that circle
267
round
it,
till
we
as
reach the Empyrean, the whole per-
spective
and
real
structure of the universe are

centre,
suddenly inverted, and

".
we
see
the
God,
single
point of dazzling
intensity,
irradiating existence "through
and through
Then we
is
realize that
illusive
the space
we have been
laboriously traversing
only the
for the
medium
and
of our sense-existence,
and without meaning
Eternity
Infinity of divine reality.
This example has led us to the verge of another class of poetic ideas, those in which poetry discovers in the world not merely
analogies of mind, but
mind
itself.
This
is
the commonest, and in
some
ideas.
of
its
It
phases the cheapest and poorest, intellectually, of all poetic touches at one pole the naive personation which peoples
earth and air for primitive
man with spirits whom he seeks by ritual and magic to propitiate or to circumvent. The brilliant and beautiful woof of myth is, if we will, poetry as well as religion the primi;
tive
and rudimentary poetry of a primitive and rudimentary religion. Yet it points, however crudely, to the subtler kinds of response which
a riper poetic insight

of
may
discover.
If
the glorious anthropomorphism
has faded for ever, the mystery of life, " in man everywhere pulsing through Nature, and perpetually reborn and beast and earth and air and sea," cries to the poet in every
Olympus and Asgard
moment
if
of his experience with a voice
which will not be put by, and

to
the symbols from soul- life

it,
by which he seeks
convey
his sense of
they often read
human
personality too definitely into the play of

it
that elusive mystery, yet capture something in
which escapes the

with
reasoned formulas of science, and

to
justify the claim of poetic experience
be the source
no
less
of
an outlook upon the world,
of a vision of
life,
than with those reached through philosophy and religion, civilization has to reckon. The poetic consciousness of soul has thus left a deep impress upon the medium of ideas through which we currently regard both Nature
which,
and Man.
It
has imbued with a richer significance and a

I
;
livelier
spoke but bare conceptions of continuity and substance into Wordsworth's
appeal those analogies in Nature of which
turning the sublime
something more deeply interfused, or Shelley's Love through the web of Being blindly wove ; turning the abstraction of infinity " " which Browninfinite passion into limitless aspiration, or into that
. . .
ing
felt
across
"the pain
of finite hearts that yearn ".
268

On
the other hand, in
its
interpretation of
Man,
the poetic soul-
consciousness, so extraordinarily intense

tive side,
on the emotional and imagina;
prominence illuminating and sustaining everywhere the impassioned insight which carries men outside and beyond themselves, in heroism, in prophecy, in creation,
has
lifted these aspects of soul into
which makes the past alive for them, and the future urgent them to a vision of good and evil beyond that of moral to the perception that danger is the true safety, and death, as codes " " Brooke said, safest of all which in a word gives wing and Rupert scope and power to that in man which endures, as the stream endures
in love
;
which
lifts
though
its
water
is
ever gliding on, and makes us

".
"
feel
that
we
are
greater than
I
we know
have
is
tried
to sketch out
some
of the
ways
in
which a
scientific
poetry
possible without disparagement to either element in the de-
scription-
Let
great poet of
me now proceed to apply some of science who is our immediate subject.

ii.
these ideas to the
In this assembly
it
is
unnecessary
to
recall
the
little
that
is
told, on dubious authority, of the life which began a little less than a hundred years before the Christian era, and ended when he was not
much
over forty,
life is
when
Virgil
told of his
philtre,
the story
was a very young man. All that is that he went mad after receiving a loveof his great
"
composed the books

in
"
poem
On
the Nature of
Things
It is
his
lucid intervals,
and
finally
this
into his
which Tennyson with noble poem. We need not here

tradition
in the
died by his own hand. great art has worked up

discuss the truth either of
the tradition of madness or of that of suicide.

that
What
own
is
certain
is
no poem
world bears a more powerful impress
of coherent
and continuous thought.
While
the poets of his
time and of the
next generation, though deeply interested in his poetry and in his ideas, know nothing of the tragic story which first emerges in a testi-
mony
four centuries later.
Lucretius called his
poem by
the bald
"
title
Of
the Nature of
Things".
term or phrase can describe the aims which, distinct^but continually playing into and through one another, compose
single
But no
the intense animating purpose of the book. may say that it is at once a scientific treatise, a gospel of salvation, and an epic o
We

nature and
269
man
yet
we
are rarely conscious of any one of these

rest.
aims to the exclusion of the

Lucretius wholly original.
In
none
of these three aims
was
In each of
among
the speculative thinkers
and poets
of
;
them he had a great precursor of Greece. His science

Democritus
;
roughly speaking
salvation
was
the
was the creation work of Epicurus
his
gospel of
poem on
the nature of things,
and the greatest example of a before his, had been given by Empe-
docles, the poet- philosopher of
made
the
mouthpiece of
In his
his
Agrigentum whom Matthew Arnold grave and lofty hymn of nineteenth-
century pessimism.
country his only predecessor in any sense was Ennius, the old national poet who had first cast the hexa-
own
meter
in
the stubborn
mould
of Latin speech, to
whom
he pays char-
generous homage. atomic system of Democritus, which explained all things in the universe as combinations of different kinds of material particles,
acteristically
The
was a
its
magnificent contribution to physical science, and the
fertility of
essential
idea
is still
unexhausted.
art,
It
touched the problems of

in so far as
it
mind and mind and

Epicurus,
life,
of ethics
its
and
only indirectly,
functions of
resolved
all
activities
into
matter
and motion.
on the other hand, a
showing the
way
to a life
saintly recluse, bent only upon of serene and cheerful virtue, took over
the doctrine of the great physicist of Abdera, without any touch of

dispassionate speculative interest, as that
relief
from disturbing
interests
and
cares,
which promised most effectual and especially from the dislife after
turbance generated by fear of the gods and of a
death.
He
who
might have gone

think
to the great
Athenian
whether
idealists of the fourth century,
the immortal masters not only of those
who know,
in
but of those
and labour and

But
his
create,
science or in poetry or in
citizenship.
aim was precisely
to liberate from these distract-
weary generation from the forum and the workshop, even the studio of letters or of art, and the temples
ing energies,
and
allure a
of his garden the garden of with innocent and beautiful things. What Epicurus added of his own to Democritus' theory was an accomand the measure of his modation not to truth but to convenience of the gods, into the choice seclusion
a soul at peace, fragrant
scientific
ardour
tions of the
vention of
given by explanasame phenomenon, provided they dispense with the interthe gods. While the measure of his attachment to poetry
is
his easy toleration of conflicting
270
is

it
given by his counsel to his disciples to go past ears, as by the siren's deadly song.
It
with stopped
adopted by Epicurus in the interest but of his gospel of deliverance from the cares of superstition, that Lucretius took over with the fervour of discipleship. He was not, like Pope in the " Essay on Man," providing an
this scientific doctrine,
was
not of
science
elegant dress for philosophic ideas which he only half understood and
abandoned
in
alarm when they threatened to be dangerous.

it is
He
was
the prophet of Epicureanism, and
among
the prophets of the

to the
faiths
by which men
live
and die that
we
must seek a parallel
passionate earnestness with which
he proclaims to
Memmius
the
saving gospel of
later
It
Epicurus,
to that
same Memmius who a few years
Epicurus' memory by destroying his house. was the hope of pouring the light and joy of saving truth upon the mind of this rather obtuse Roman, his beloved friend, that Lucretius
showed
his piety to
laboured, he
tells us,
through the
silent
watches of the night, seeking

things clear.
1
phrase and measure which might make deep and hidden
also as a poet and in the temper of his pen to a good cause, nor turning He was not lending poetry. Greek science into Latin hexameters in order that they might be more
But Lucretius
felt
and thought
vividly grasped or
more readily remembered.

;
He
was conquering a
foot before
new way
his
in
poetry
striking out a
virgin path
which no
had
trod.
calls
on the Muses
For Empedocles had had far for aid with as devout a
narrower aims.
And
he
faith in his poetic mission
in the great
adventure as Milton had

to
when he summoned Urania

"
or
things unguide while he attempted What we admire unreservedly attempted yet in prose or rhyme ". in him, declares a great French poet who died only the other day,
some greater Muse
be
his
Sully- Prudhomme,
is
the breath of independence which sweeps through
the entire
work
of this
most robust and precise
of poets.
the poet at the outset, in the wonderful transfiguration which the gentle recluse Epicurus undergoes in the For it was of this enemy of disardent brain of his Roman disciple.
see the temper of
We
turbing emotion, this quietist of paganism, this timid and debonnaire
humanitarian,
portrait
that
Lucretius
drew the magnificent and

of the
is
astonishing
which immediately follows the prologue
De Rerum
the heroic
Natura.
The
Lucretian Epicurus
Prometheus,
M. 140
f.

Greek who
tyrant
first
27!
of mortals
Religion to her face.
dared to defy and withstand the monstrous No fabled terror could appal him, no
;
crashing thunder, nor the anger of heaven
these only kindled the

first
more the eager courage of So the of Nature's gates.

and
tell
his soul,
living
to
be the
to break the bars

;
might of
his soul prevailed
and he
passed beyond the flaming walls of the world and traversed in

spirit
mind
the immeasurable universe
returning thence in triumph to

into being
;
us
what
can, and what cannot, come
under
in turn
foot Religion
who
up
having trampled once crushed mankind, and lifted mankind
by
his victory
to the height of heaven.
One
thus ardently proclaim

springs of poetry
;
might well surmise that a philosophy which a poet could was itself, after all, not without the seeds and
and that Lucretius
in
choosing to expound
of
it
in
verse
was
not staking everything on his
power
making good
radical
defects of substance
sions.
by
telling
surface decoration or brilliant digres-
recognized, no doubt, a difference in popular appeal between his substance and his form, and in a famous and delightful
He
passage compares himself to the physician who touches the edge of the bitter cup with honey, ensnaring credulous childhood to its own
So, he tells Memmius, he is spreading the honey of the Muses good. his difficult matter, that he may hold him by the charm of verse over
until the nature of things
is
have grown clear to
his sight.
But Lucretius
here putting himself at the point of view of the indifferent layman, and especially of the rather obtuse layman whose interest he was
with almost pathetic eagerness seeking to capture.
One
guesses that
Memmius,
wood
like
was by no means reconciled to the wormwas prefaced with honey and modern critics who^ Mommsen, condemn his choice of subject as a blunder, come
like the boy,
it
because
near to adopting the resentful boy's point of view.
But
in
the
splendid lines which immediately precede, though they form part of the same apology to Memmius, the poet involuntarily betrays his own
The hope of glory, he says, very different .conception of the matter. " has kindled in his breast the love of the Muses, whereby inspired
I
am
exploring a virgin
soil of
poetry hitherto untrodden by any foot.
the joy of approaching the unsullied bprings, and quaffing them, the joy of culling flowers unknown, whence may be woven a splendid
for
wreath
my
;
withal before
head, such as the Muses have arrayed no man's brows first because I am reporting on a great theme, and
272
undoing the then because

tight
I
knot of superstition from the minds of men and convey dark matters in such transparent verse, touching
;
everything with the Muses' charm." Here, in spite of the last words,
Lucretius clearly feels that his
matter
is
honey
something more than the wormwood which he overlays with it is a vast region of implicit poetry which he, first of poets, is
going to discover
subject matter
and annex
and he
rests his
claim to the poetic
wreath he expects to win,

itself,
theory would suggest,

it,
in the first place upon this greatness of the and secondly, not as the wormwood and honey on the ingenious fancy which decorates or disguises
it
but on the lucid style which allows window, upon the ignorant mind.
in.
to shine in, as through a
Let us then consider from

Lucretius.
this
point of
it,
view the subject of
This
it is
subject, as
he conceives
has two aspects.
On
crude
of
the one side

religion
negative
an annihilating
criticism of all the
founded upon something after death
fear,
fear of the gods, fear of death
and
criticism delivered
with remorseless power and
culminating in the sinewy intensity of the terrible line

'
Tantum
once
religio potuit suadere
malorum,'
which
transfixes
for all the consecrated principle of
tabu every-
where dominant
ice,
in the primitive faiths, the
product of
man's coward-
as magic
is
the product of his pride.

is
The
tual
other aspect
constructive
of a
the building up of the intelleclife, by setting forth the and the development of
and moral framework
worthy human
life,
true nature of the universe, the history of
man
in other words, the story of his struggle through the ages, with
the obstacles opposed to
him by the power
of
untamed nature, by
of
wild beasts, storms, inundations, by the rivalry and antagonism

other men, and
as clearly as
in the
by the wild unreason in his own breast. Lucretius saw any modern thinker that man's conduct of his life, whether
circle of
narrow
larger sphere of civic polity,
domestic happiness and personal duty, or in the must be based upon a comprehension of
of the past
the external world
and
through which
for his
we have grown
to
what we
are
and making allowance

1
more
limited resources
and
1.
922

his \nore confined point of view,
273
he carried
in
it
out with magnificent
power.
So
that
if
his
poem remains
nominal intention a didactic

it
treatise, in its inner substance
and purport
might better be described

for its protagonist
;
as a colossal epic of the universe, with

of the
for
its
man
and the
spectres vanquished gods the heroic exultations nor the tragic dooms, neither the melancholy over what passes nor the triumph in what endures, which go to the
foes
and wanting neither
making of the greatest poetry. These two aspects criticism and construction
intimately bound together
apart.
in
are thus most
the poem, but can yet be considered

its
And
to each belongs
own
peculiar and distinct vein of

first
poetry.
On
the
whole
it
is
the former, at
sight
so
much
less
favourable to poetic purposes, which has most enthralled posterity. For the voice of Lucretius is here a distinctive, almost a solitary voice.
The
poets for the most part have been the weavers of the veil
visions
in
of
dreams and
walked
veil
whose glamour the races of mankind have but here came a poet, and one of the greatest, who rent the
asunder and bade
men gaze upon

has in
it
the nature of things naked and

illusion
thril-
unadorned.
And
.
his austere
chaunt of triumph as he pierces
and
ling
scatters superstition,
something more poignant and
than
after
For
a new
a song of voluptuous ecstacy or enchanted reverie. the passing of an old order of things and the coming of all, has always at least the interest of colossal drama, and cannot
many
leave us unmoved, however baneful
we may
hold the old order to
have been, however we may exult in the deliverance effected by the So Milton's celebration of the birth of Christ only reaches the new.
heights of poetry
divinities
:
when he
is
telling of the
passing of the old pagan
The
oracles are
dumb,
No
Runs
voice or hideous
hum
words deceiving.
thro' the
arched roof
in
Apollo from his shrine Can no more divine,
With hollow
shriek the sleep of
Delphos leaving.
No
nightly trance, or breathed spell,
Inspires the pale-eyed priest from the prophetic cell.
274

The
lonely mountains o'er
And
the resounding shore,
A voice of weeping heard and

From haunted
Edged with poplar
loud lament
dale,
spring and
pale,
The parting genius is with sighing sent With flower-inwoven tresses torn The nymphs in twilight shade of tangled
thicket mourn.
Through the Christian's exultation there sounds, less haps, but more clear, the Humanist scholar's sense
In
consciously perof tragedy
and
pathos. Hyperion, even more, we are made to feel the pathos of the passing of the fallen divinity of Saturn and his host and Hyperion
;
himself, the sun-god of the old order of physical
light, is
more
magnifi-
cently presented than Apollo, the sun-god of the

intelligence
new
order of radiant
and song.
sublime
Lucretius, as
we
;
shall see, brings
back the old
divinity in a
way
of his
own
and
but he feels the beneficence of
the
new
order of
of
scientific vision
inviolable
have any sense

caprice.
pathos at the passing of the reign of superstition
law too profoundly to and

the wrath
He
is
rather possessed with flaming wrath as he recalls the
towering
evils of
which that old regime had been

truly divine in
spirit
guilty
of a prophet,
more
is
than the divinities he assailed,
as Prometheus
more divine than Zeus.
Again and again we are
reminded, as
read his great invectives, not of the sceptics mocking all gods indiscriminately in the name of enlightened good sense, but of a Hebrew prophet, chastising those who sacrifice to the gods of the
we
Gentiles, in the
name
of the
God
of righteousness
who
refuses to
be
worshipped with offerings of blood. There is surely a spirit not far remote from this in the indignant pity with which he tells, in a famous
and splendid passage, the
sacrifice of Iphigenia at the divine bidding,

its
as the price of the liberation of the Grecian fleet on
way
to
Troy.
How
What
often has fear of the gods begotten impious and criminal acts! else was it that led the chieftains of Greece, foremost of men,
foully to stain the altar of Artemis with the blood of the maiden Soon as the victim's band was bound about her virgin Iphigenia?
locks,
and she saw her
father grief- stricken before the altar,
and
at
his side the priests concealing the knife, and the onlookers shedding tears at the sight, dumb with fear she sank on her knees to the
ground.
die
first
And
it
up by
to call the king by the the hands of men, and
availed her nothing at that hour that she had been name of father for she was caught
;
borne trembling to the
altar
not to
275
have a glad wedding hymn sung before her when these sacred rites were over, but to be piteously struck down, a victim, stained with her own stainless blood, by the hand of a father in the very flower and all in order to procure a happy deliverof her bridal years So huge a mass of evils ance might be granted to the captive fleet.
;
has fear of the gods brought forth!
[l.
84-101].
is
Thus
the crucial proof of the badness of the old religions

in their
de-
rived from the hideous violence done

beautiful pieties of the family.
name
to the natural
and
Yet, with
feels
all
his fierce
aversion for this baneful
fear,
Lucretius
His intense imagination enters into profoundly how natural it is. inmost recesses of the human heart, and runs counter, as it were, to the
the argument of his powerful reason riveting upon our senses with almost intolerable force the beliefs which he is himself seeking to dis;
pel
so that
his
though there
is
no
trace of
doubt or obscurity
refute.
in his
own
mind,
a plea for
rision
words need only to be set in a that which he is using them to

the Stoic doctrine of an
different context to
become
very dein
Thus
his
of
all- pervading
God
is
conveyed
anguage
'
of
what one
is
again prompted to call Hebraic magnificence.
What power
can rule the immeasurable All, or hold the reins of

?
the great deep
with ethereal
sky and
of the
fires ?
thrilling
who can revolve the heavens and warm the earth who can be everywhere present, making dark the " it with ? [v. 234 f.] Do we clashing sound
.
. .
not seem to
listen to
an echo of the ironical questions of the Jahveh
Book
of
Job
only scorn for the believer, in spite of his involunBut in another passage we see tary imaginative hold upon the belief. the poet himself shudder with the fear that his logic is in the act of
feels
There he
plucking up by the roots
When we
gaze upward
at the great vault of
inlaid with shining stars, then the dread will start
and consider the paths

into
life
heaven, and the empyrean of sun and moon, within us lest haply it be the
immeasurable might of gods which moves the blazing stars along their diverse ways. For the poverty of our reason tempts us to wonder whether the world was not once begotten, and whether it be destined to perish when its ceaseless movements have worn it
out, or
all
immortal life glide on perpetually, defying the might of time. then what man is there whose heart does not shrink with terror of the gods, whose limbs do not creep
endowed with
And
18
276

with fear,
when
of
and the roar
the parched earth trembles at the lightning stroke, thunder rolls through the sky Do not the
!
peoples shudder, and haughty kings quake with fear, lest for some foul deed or arrogant speech a dire penalty has been incurred
and the hour be come when it must be paid ? For when the might of the hurricane sweeps the commander of a fleet before it along the seas, with all his force of legions and elephants, does he not approach the gods with prayers for their favour and helping winds and all in vain, for often enough none the less he is So caught in the whirlpool and flung into the jaws of death ? utterly does some hidden power seem to consume the works of
;
man, and his wrath
to
trample and deride
all
the symbols of his glory
and
[V.
1194
f.].
But beyond the fear of what the gods may do to us on earth, the dread of what lay another more insidious and ineluctable fear, befall us after death. It was a main part of Lucretius's purpose may
to meet this
by showing
;
that death
meant
dissolution,
and
dissolution
unconsciousness
but
men
and
continued to dread, and

brilliant,
this is
the reason:
ing, equally inconclusive
with which he confronts them
Therefore since death annihilates, and bars out from being altogether him whom evils might befall, it is plain that in death there is nothing for us to fear, and that a man cannot be unhappy who does not exist at all, and that it matters not a jot whether a man has been born, when death the deathless has swallowed up life that dies. Therefore, when you see a man bewail himself that after death his body
jaws of beasts, his profession does not ring true, and there lurks a secret sting in his clearly heart, for all his denial that he believes there is any feeling in the dead. For, I take it, he does not fulfil his promise, nor follow out his principle, and sever himself out and out from life, but unconFor when as a living sciously makes something of himself survive. man he imagines his future fate, and sees himself devoured by birds and beasts, he pities himself for he does not distinguish between himself and the others, nor sever himself from the imagined body, but imagines himself to be it, and impregnates it with his own feelHence he is indignant that he has been created mortal, nor ing. sees that there will not in reality be after death another self, to grieve as a living being that he is dead, and feel pangs as he stands by, that he himself is lying there being mangled or consumed.
;
will rot, or perish in flames or in the
Then he
supposes the dying man's friends to condole with him

shall
Now
no more thy glad home
welcome
nor sweet children run to snatch

secret delight.
thee, nor a beloved wife, kisses, touching thy heart with
No more
wilt thou
be prosperous
in thy doings,
no
277 THE POETRY OF LUCRETIUS cruel day has taken more be a shelter to thy dear ones. A
single,
from thee, hapless man,

they forget to
all
the need of
life.
So they
tell
you, but
add
that neither for

[ill.
any one of these things wilt thou
any longer
feel desire
863].
IV.
So much then
criticism
for
the
first
aspect of
Lucret Jus's poem,
the
of
"
poetry
"
the old religions.
Most
But
of the recognized
I
and famous
of the
book
is
connected, like the passages

I
have quoted, with

to
this negative side of his creed.
am more concerned
and
show
that
a different and not
less
noble vein of poetry was rooted in the rich

;
positive appetencies of his nature

in the vast
in his acute
exquisite senses
and sublime ideas which underlay

his intense
his
doctrine
;
of the
world
in
apprehension of the zest of
life
and, on the
the texture of
other hand, penetrating, like an invisible but potent

his
spirit
reasoned unconcern, his profound, unconfessed sense of the pathos of death, his melancholy in the presence of the doom of universal dissolution
which he foresaw
first
for the
world and
for
mankind.
;
Let us look
at the
main constructive idea
the atomic theory
of Democritus, taken over
for
by Epicurus and expounded by Lucretius. For this theory was in effect, and probably in intention, a device overcoming that antithesis of the One and the Many, of PermanI
ence and Change, of which
have spoken. The Eleatics had declared that pure Being was alone real, and denied Change and Motion
;
Heracleitus declared that nothing

perpetuity "flux".
*'
His
rival
Change, and the only Democritus showed that it was posreal but
was
sible to hold, in the phrase of
Browning's philosophic
Don
Juan, that
there
is
in
that shifting
things change, and permanence as well," by supposing and unstable world of the senses, where all things die and
all
are born, to be composed of uncreated and indestructible elements.
Underlying the ceaseless fluctuations of Nature, and life as we see them, lay a continuity of eternal substance, of which they were the one of the greatest of philosophical conceptions, Mr. passing modes
;
Santayana has called

fically poetic intuition
it,
which
but one also appealing profoundly to the speciI have described. Whether the permanent
flux of sense
apprehended through the

Plato's ideas, or Shelley's
it
be a
spiritual
substance like
"
white radiance of eternity," or whether

of the flowing river, as in
it
be the constant form and function
Words-
worth's
Duddon
sonnet
or whether, as here,
be a background
278

combining and resolved,
;
of material particles perpetually
we have
"
the
we discover sweep kind of intuition which gives the thrill of poetry in the concise, and depth in the clear," infinite perspectives open out in
the
moment and
in
the point, and however remote
the temper of
Spinozan mysticism
light of eternity ".
may
be,
we
yet in some sort see things
"
in the
In
Lucretius this conception
found
a mind
capable of
it
being
ravished
by
its
imaginative grandeur, as well as of pursuing
indefatig-
The contagious ably through the thorniest mazes of mechanical proof. fervour which breathes through his poem is no mere ardour of the
disciple bent
as his hexameters leap forth glowing
on winning converts, or the joy of the on the anvil
literary
;
craftsman
it
is
the sacred
nature,
passion of one
who
It
is
has had a sublime vision of

it
life
and
to
and
who
bears about the radiance of
into all the
work
at
which he has
set his
hand.
in
not because of anything that Lucretius adds to
Epicurus
theory
he
really
adds nothing
all
that the im-
by his poem differs so greatly from that of all we know in fragments and at second hand, it is true of Epicurus *s own writings. The ultimate principles are the same, but the accent is laid at a different point. The parochial timidities of Epicurus have left their traces on the Roman's page, but they appear as hardly more than rudimentary survivals among the native inspirations of a man of
pression produced
heroic mettle
and
valour,
Roman
tenacity,
and native sweep
of mind.
cannot quite break free from some speculative foibles which show the Master's shallow opportunism at its worst, such as the
He
lamp hung a little but he becomes earth, and daily lighted and put out himself when he lets his imagination soar into the infinities of time and
is
it
dictum that the sun
about as large as
looks, a
above the
It is a triumph space which his faith opens out or leaves room for. of poetry as well as of common sense when he scoffs at the Stoic
dogma
Space which abruptly comes to an end when he stations an archer at the barrier and ironically bids him shoot his arrow
of a
;
into the nothingness
Or in more sombre mood, how grave beyond. an intensity he puts into a common thought, like that of the end of
life,
by the sublimely
:
terrible epithet
immortal which he
applies to
death
Mortalem vitam Mors cum immortalis ademit

or into a
[ill.
869].
us,
mere reminder
that birth
and death are always with
by

making us
feel
279
the endless concomitant succession through the ages of He acfuneral waitings, and the cry of the new-born child [ll. 578].
cepts without question the swerving of the atoms, devised

child
by Epicurus
and man
;
of genius at
once
to refute the
Stoic
dogma
of
necessity
intrusions
existence,
of
life.
mind and imagination is not these but what of caprice but the great continuities and uniformities of which follow from the perpetual dissolution and remaking
possesses his
"
of
Rains
die,
;
when
father ether has tumbled
them
into the
lap
mother earth
fruit
;
laden with
cities
but then goodly crops spring up and trees and by them we and the beasts are fed, and joyous
of
teem with children and the woods ring with the song
[I.
young
birds"
250
f.].
Only, as such passages show, Lucretius grasps these uniformities
and
continuities not as theoretic abstractions, but as underlying con-
ditions of the teeming multiplicity
and joyous profusion

intellect,
;
of living Nature.
His
senses,
imagination,
and philosophic
acute and alert, wrought intimately together
all phenomenally and he enters into and
exposes the life of the individual thing with an intensity of insight and a realistic precision and power which quicken us with its warm pulse,
and burn
its
sciousness that
image upon our brain, without ever relaxing our conit is part of an endless process, and the incidental
an
intrinsic
expression of an unalterable law.

individuality
is
Every being has its (terminus alte haerens). The very stone, for Dante, cleaves to the And the Roman as well as the philosopher in spot where it lies. Lucretius scornfully contrasts with this Nature of minute and ubiquitous law the fluid and chaotic world of myth, where anything might
For him, indeed, as for Dante, law, and law of individuality. part " place and function, its deep fixed boundaries"
of
become anything
[cf.
V.
126
f.].
V.
conception of the nature of the process itself does In the mind of an exponent so richly insensibly undergo a change.
less, his
None
the
endowed and
so transparently sincere,
the hidden flaw in his system
could not but at some point disturb its imposing coherence. Atomism could not at bottom explain life, and life poured with too abounding a
tide through
the heart
and brain
of Lucretius not to sap in
some de-
gree the authority of his mechanical calculus, and to lend a surreptitious
280
persuasiveness to inconsistent analogies derived from the animated soul. Without ostensibly disturbing the integrity of his Epicurean creed, such
analogies have, in
two ways, infused an

will,
and
alien implications into his thought.
such abounding natures
that life
alien colour into his poetry In the first place, he feels, as " "
the mere living

its
is
some-
how
very good,
in spite of all
the evils
it
brings in
it
train,
and death
When he world cannot have been made by gods, he is demonstrating that the set forth its grave inherent flaws of structure and arrangement with
pathetic in spite of all the evils
from which
sets us free.
merciless trenchancy
tantd stat praedita culpd [v. 99] and like Lear, he makes the new-born child wail because he is come into a And no one ever urged with world where so many griefs await him.
1
;
more passionate eloquence that

the
less,
it is
unreasonable to fear to
die.
None
escape him.
To And
phrases charged with a different feeling about life continually He speaks of the praeclara mundi natura [v. 157]. " " rise up into the divine borders of light begin to live is to [l. 20].
secondly, despite his philosophical assurance, incessantly repeated,
that birth
" Alid ex alio death of something else, " gigni patitur, nisi morte adiuta aliena
and death are merely different aspects of the same continuous mechanical process, and that nothing receives life except by the
reficit
[l.
natura, nee ullam

etc.],
Rem
264,
he cannot supis
press suggestions that the creative energy of the
world
akin to that
which with conscious

tions of
desire
and
will bring forth the successive genera-
Man.
And
so, in the
astonishing
and magnificent opening
who was about to demonstrate that the gods lived remote from the life of men, calls upon Venus, the legendeternally ary mother of his own race, as the divine power ever at work in this
address, the poet
teeming universe, the giver of increase, bringing all things to birth, from the simplest corn blade to the might and glory of the Roman Empire r
Mother
who under
Roman race, delight of gods and men, benign Venus, the gliding constellations of heaven fillest with thy presence the sea with its ships and the earth with its fruits, seeing that
of the
all the races of living things are conceived and come being in the light of day, before thee goddess the winds take flight, and the clouds of heaven at thy coming, at thy feet the brown earth sheds her flowers of a thousand hues, before thee the sea breaks into rippling laughter, and the untroubled sky glows with
by thy power
to
radiant light
[l.
f.].
So grave and impassioned an appeal cannot be
treated as
mere

rhetorical
281
of the kind
which
for
is
not a
ornament. "
If
we
"
call
it
figure,
it
is
figure
poetical
substitute for prose, but conveys something
of
which no other terms are adequate. Lucretius, the exponent doubtless intended no heresy against the Epicurean Epicurus,
;
theology
but
to
Lucretius, the
poet,
was
carried
by
his
vehement
an apprehension of the creative energies of the world imagination so intense and acute that the great symbol of Venus rendered it with
more
veracity than
all
that calculus of atomic
movements which he
with perfect
was about
to expound,
it
and by which
his
logical intellect
sincerity believed
be adequately explained. Far less astonishing than his bold rehabilitation of the goddess of Love is his fetishistic feeling for the Earth, the legendary mother
to
of
men.
For him
"
too,
as
for
primeval myth, she
is
the
"
uni-
versal
tree,
mother,
who
in
;
her fresh youth brought forth flower and
and bird and beast

;
from whose body sprang

us
finally the race
man itself wombs rooted

of
nay, he
tells
how
the infants crept forth,
"
from
and how, wherever this happened, earth " her pores a liquor most like to milk, even yielded naturally through as nowadays every woman when she has given birth is filled with sweet milk, because all that current of nutriment streams towards the
in the soil,"
"
breast
It
[v.
is
788
f.].
true that elsewhere Lucretius speaks with rationalistic con-
descension of the usage which calls the Earth a mother and divine, as a phrase
like
Bacchus
for
wine or Ceres
is
for corn,
it
[ll.
permissible so
f.].
long as no superstitious fear

plain that the Earth's
annexed
to
652
But
it
is
motherhood had a grip upon his poet's imagination quite other than could be exerted by any such tag of poetic Doubtless the fervour with which he insists on it diction. There'
fore again
brought forth the race of

season,"
is
and again Earth is rightly called Mother seeing that she men. and every beast and bird in its due
not wholly due to poetic motives.
He
is
the Stoic doctrine that

in
men were sprung from

it
heaven.
eager to refute But the poet
him
is
is,
all
the same, entranced by the sublimity of the conception
he
urging,
and he describes
with an
afflatus
which dwarfs that
Stoic doctrine,
and makes the splendid legend of Cybele the Earth elaborated by the Greek poets, seem puerile with all its Mother,
"
In the beginning Earth hath in herself the elements
beauty.
whence
watersprings pouring forth their coolness perpetually
renew the bound-
282
less

Sea, and
whence
fires arise,
making the ground
in
hot,
and belching
forth the
surpassing flames of /Etna.
many places Then she
bears shining corn and glad woodlands for the support of men, and rivers and leaves and shining pastures for the beasts that haunt the
hills.
Wherefore she
is
called the mother of the gods and mother of

f.].
beasts
and men."
[ll.
589
This all-creating Earth is far enough no doubt from the benign Nature of Wordsworth, who moulds her children by silent sympathy.
not so remote from the Earth of Meredith, the Mother who " " her great venture forth, bears him on her breast and brings Man " more than that embrace, that nourishment, nourishes him there, but
But
it is
she cannot give ".
He may He may
entreat, aspire,
despair,
his
and she has never heed.
She drinking Not his
warm
sweat will soothe his need,
desire.
Meredith too sees man,
in
dread of
her, clutching at invisible powers,
as Lucretius's sea-captain in the storm
makes vows
" " her laws is no less Meredith's thought that man rises by spelling at But Meredith's story of Earth is full of hope, like his Lucretian. It is perpetual advance. of man. With Lucretius it is otherwise. story
to the gods.
And
For the Earth
is
not only our Mother

is
she
is
our tomb
[ll.
11
48
f.].
And
the eternal energy of creation
not only matched
by
the eternal
energy of dissolution, but here and now is actually yielding ground to The Earth, so prolific in her joyous youth, is now like a woman it. " who has ceased to bear, " worn out by length of days [v. 820 f.] In the whole universe birth and death absolutely balance, the equation
of mechanical values
is
never infringed
the universe has no history,
only a continuous substitution of terms.

history,
it
But each
living thing has a
knows the
exultation of onset
is
and the melancholy

fact,
of decline
and
very
its
fear of death
in
not cancelled by the knowledge that in that
moment and
be bora.
consequence of that very
some other
living
thing will
And
us,
thus Lucretius, feeling for our Earth as a

issues of our existence are
being very near to
and with which the
involved, applies the doctrine to her without shrinking indeed, but not
without a
shudder. The Earth had a beginning, and ineluctable reason forces us to conclude that she will have an end, and that
human
not by a gradual evanescence or dispersion, but by a sudden, terrific catastrophe, as in a great earthquake, or world conflagration [v. 95 f.].

And
doctrine,
283
its
he
feels
this
abrupt
extinction
of
the Earth and

is,
in-
habitants to be
tragic,
notwithstanding that extinction

of
by
his
only
the
condition
creation,
and
that
at
the
very
moment
birth.
of her ruin,
some other earth him a
will
Earth has
is
for
life-history,
be celebrating its glorious a biography, and he forgets
strictly but a point at which the eternal drift of atoms for a time to a cluster, to be dispersed again. Thus we thickened
that she
see
mechanical system, ardently embraced by a poet, working freely upon him, and itself coloured and transformed by his mind, stirred in him two seemingly opposed kinds of poetic emotion at once
this
how
the sublime sense of eternal existence, and the tragic pathos of sudden
Lucretius goes along with an " " Nevermore of enormous sense of life. To say that he puts the " " romantic sentimentality in the place of that dispassionate give and take
of mechanics
doom and inexorable passing away. Hence the melancholy that in
would do wrong knows
to the
immense
virility
which animates
every
line of this athlete
among
poets.
Of
cheap
the cheap melancholy of

satisfaction of
discontent he
as little as of the
ency, or of that literary melancholy,
where the
sigh of
complacHorace, or
Ronsard, or Herrick, over the passing of roses and all other beautiful things covers a sly diplomatic appeal to the human rosebud to be
gathered while
is
still
there
is
time.
like that of Diirer's
"
No, the melancholy
of
Lucretius
Melancholia," the sadness of strong intellect and

it
far-reaching vision as
contemplates the setting of the sun of time

of
and the ebbing

mournful music of
of
the tides
mortality
or
like
Wordsworth's
the
dissolution,
only to be heard by an ear emancipated

or like the melancholy of Keats,
from vulgar joys and

veiled goddess
fears
who
hath her shrine in the very temple of delight,

Lucretius's
the
amari
aliquid, in
own
yet
more pregnant words,
which
lurks in the very sweetness of the flower.
Thus our
unique
way
appears in an extraordinary if not to have united the functions and temper and achievement
scientific
"
"
poet
of 'science
set
and poetry.
He "knew
lofty joy as of
the causes of things,"
and could
them
forth with marvellous precision
and resource
and the know-
ledge
filled
him with
welter of doubt and fear in
one standing secure above the which the mass of men pass their lives.
pinnacle of intellectual security seemed
To
have reached
this serene
to his greatest follower Virgil a happiness
beyond the reach
of his
284

tender and devout genius, and he
own more
Goethe
:
commemorated
it
in
splendid verses which
Matthew Arnold
in
our
own day
applied to
And
His
he was happy, if to know Causes of things, and far below

feet to see the lurid flow
Of
There
inhuman,
is, it
terror
And
may
in this
headlong
and insane distress fate, be happiness.
be, something that repels us, something slightly

little
kind of lonely happiness, and Lucretius does
to
counteract that impression
when he
himself compares
it,
in
another
of
famous passage,
to the satisfaction of
one
who
watches the struggle
Yet a storm-tost ship from the safe vantage-ground of the shore. Lucretius is far from being the lonely egoist that such a passage might
suggest
to his
;
his
poem
itself
:
own
1
security
was meant as a helping hand to lift mankind he knew what devoted friendship was, and we
of
have pleasant glimpses
him wandering with companions among the mountains, or sharing a rustic meal stretched at ease on the grass by 2 a running brook. Lucretius like his master had no social philosophy,
and
it is
his greatest deficiency as
a thinker
to
but he was not poor in
social feeling.
His heart went out
men,
as a physician, not coldly
diagnosing their disease, but eager to cure them.
And
so his feeling for Nature, for the universe of things, though

scientific
rooted in his
apprehension,
is
not
bounded by
it.
He
seizes
upon the sublime conceptions which his science brought to his view,
the permanent substance amid perennial change, the infinity of space
and
time,
and
his vivid
mind
turns these abstractions into the radiant

of heavens, as the old poets
vision of a universe to
which the heaven

veil ".
had conceived
"
it,
was but a
But he went
further,
and
shadowed
forth,
if
half-consciously and in spite of himself, the yet
greater poetic thought, of a living
power pervading the whole, draw-
ing the elements of being together by the might of an all -permeating Love. And thus Lucretius, the culminating expression of the scientific
thinking of Democritus
and
of the gospel of Epicurus,
foreshadows
faintly
Virgil,
whom
he so deeply influenced, and prophesies
but
perceptibly of
Dante and
love.
of Shelley
as his annihilating exposure of
the religions founded

religions of
upon
fear insensibly prepared the
way
for the
hope and
1
IV. 575.
*
II.
29.
THE QUINTESSENCE OF
BY
PAULINISM.
D.D.,
ARTHUR
S.
PEAKE, M.A,
RYLANDS PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL EXEGESIS IN THE VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER.
WHEN
we
speak of Paulinism
we
imply,
first
that
Paul had
that
a theology, and secondly that this theology was so distinctive we are justified in using a specific name for it. Both
contentions are exposed to criticism.

injustice to describe
Some would deem
it
a grave
He was [rather a prophet, Paul as a theologian. or even a poet, who felt deeply and had a keen insight into religious experience but was careless of logical consistency and indifferent to the
creation of a system.
mystic's vision,
Now
in
it
is
true that
Paul was
gifted
with the
and that
moments
of ecstasy his utterance
glows with
a lyrical rapture. But it is part of his greatness that his thought is set on fire by noble emotion, and that emotion is redeemed from vagueness and incoherence
by thought.
Indeed the belief that Paul was
a seer but no thinker, could hardly survive a careful study even of
one
of his
in
more
characteristic writings.
But,
it
may be
retorted,
Paul
was
a sense a thinker, the sense in which a debater must be a

In other
skill
thinker.
words he
in
is
master of the argumentative

objections to
style,
and
his
shows great
opponents.
marshalling
the
position
of
He
I
is
a pleader
is
rather than
a philosopher.
For
my
own
mere
part
believe that this
a profound mistake,
Paul was not a
who took the arguments that might be convenient one antagonist without reference to their consistency with those he had used against another. Behind his occasional uttercontroversialist
for disposing of
ances there
thought.
lies
He
is
a closely knit and carefully constructed system of moves in his attack with such speed and confidence a standard to which he relates each
because he
1
in possession of
new
An
elaboration of the lecture delivered in the John Rylands Library,

285
11
October, 1916.
286
issue as
it

confronts him.
No
series of
hastily extemporized defences
could have produced the same impression of unity and consistency But in saying this I desire to unless they had belonged to a system. " " from any unfortunate association. It system disengage the word be a serious misapprehension were we to think of Paulinism as would
representing for
its
realm of religious
of his
author a complete and exact reflection of the whole He was indeed so convinced of the truth reality.
Gospel that he did not shrink from hurling an anathema at any, though it might be an angel from heaven, who should dare to contradict
it.
But
his certainty as to the truth of his central doctrine did
not blind him to the imperfection of his knowledge, or quench the

sense of mystery with
which he confronted the ultimate

all
realities.
He
the regions which he had explored and beyond charted there stretched an illimitable realm, the knowledge of which
conscious that
was
was not
only in
disclosed in time but
was reserved
free
for eternity.
could prophesy only in part, because he

part
;
was aware
and
that
in
Here he he knew
the rare
and though he
"
soared,
daring,
atmosphere of speculative thought, he veiled

of the ultimate mysteries.
his face in
the presence
wisdom
the depth of the riches both of the of God ! how unsearchable are His judgand the knowledge
ments, and His
ways
past finding out."
Paul, then, believed himself to be in possession of a system of
interdependent facts and ideas, arranged in due proportion and conHis epistles do not present us with a number trolled from a centre.
of
detached and independent ideas,
still
less
with
fluid
opinions,
fluctuating in response to changing conditions.
He who
"
builds on
the Pauline theology, be that foundation false or true, ample or inadequate, is building on firm granite, not on sinking and shifting sand.
But some
is,
will
challenge our right to use the term
Paulinism".
It
of course, true,
they would
say, that Paul
consistent,
and
true system of thought.
had a coherent, selfBut this was just the same
body
in
of revealed truth as is present
everywhere, explicitly or implicitly,

in
the
New
Testament, or even
is
the whole of Scripture.

it
The
traditional attitude to the Bible
everywhere says substantially the same thing on matters of doctrine, and that differences of expression involve
that
no material disagreement.
Now
it
may be
argued, and
with some measure of success, that beneath the various types of theology we find in the New Testament there is a fundamental
THE QUINTESSENCE OF PAULINISM

harmony.
287
But the science
of
Biblical
It
is
Theology has demonstrated
that these various types exist.
accordingly our duty to study
and estimate each
of
them
for itself before
we
try
to
work behind
distinctive,
them
there
to a
is
more fundamental
fully
unity.
There is no type more
none so
term
of
worked out as Paulinism.

"
The
"
Paulinism
might, of course, be used to cover the

;
whole range
Paul's teaching
it
but
am
concerned specially with
those elements in
interpretation of
which were Paul's peculiar contribution to the That contribution had its source, I the Gospel.
which Paul passed.
affected,
believe, in the experience through
But he owed
much
to other influences.
These
less
however, the distinctive

dwell
elements of his teaching

his fellow-Christians.
much
than those which he shared with

the subject
I
On
this part of
will
briefly,
since
it is
rather
my
is
purpose to disengage
from Paul's teaching as a
whole that which

influences
most characteristically his own.
Of
the external
which originated or fashioned his doctrines I think we should attribute more to Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian theology than to It was inevitable that he Gentile philosophy or religious mysteries.
should be profoundly impressed by the Old Testament. Apart from It is the indeed, his theology could not have come into existence. it,
basis
cast,
itself.
on which
it
rests, it
largely supplied the
moulds
in in
which
it
was
and the substance
as well as the form of
much
the teaching
Old Testament, and regards his own it. When he became a Christian, he did not abandon the religion of Israel, but he saw in the Gospel the Yet it is a mistake to over- emphasize fulfilment and expansion of it. Testament factor in the origin or formulation of Paulinism. the Old
presupposes the
doctrine as in continuity with
He
Indeed that theology in one of its leading features is, from the Testament standpoint, a startling paradox. The estimate of the
in the
Old
Law
The
tion,
from that given by Paul. Law inspires the Old Testament saints with a passionate devoas we may see from the glowing panegyric in the latter part of
is
Old Testament
strangely different
the nineteenth psalm, or the prolix enthusiasm of the hundred and nineteenth psalm. The ideal of the righteous man is the student
whose
delight
night.
is
in the
It is
law
of
of the
Lord and who meditates upon

It
it
day and
the safeguard and guide of youth, the stay of

age.
;
manhood, the comfort
commanded more than
sober
approval or quiet acceptance
it
drew
to itself a passionate loyalty,
288
1
-:
1

love,
.11.
an enthusiastic
which nerved martyrs

But
to face the
torture for its]sake.

self in his earlier
how
different
it
is
with Paul,
who had
most exquisite himcountrymen,
days experienced the same fervour as

in his zeal for
it.
his
and indeed surpassed them

the excellence of
its
It
is
true that even as
a Christian he]admits the sanctity and righteousness of the
Law
and
purpose.
He
joy,
recognizes
it.
in
his for
philosophy of
history a Divinely appointed function for

is
But
him the
Law
no fount
of refreshment
and
it
is
which the Christian

blessing but a curse.
that
fatal
rejoices to
It
is
be
set
a yoke and a burden, from free. It brings with it not a

sin,
the instrument of
strength.
It
from which indeed

life
tyrant
draws
its
breaks up the old

;
of
innocence by creating the consciousness of
sin
it
stimulates antagonism
by
its
prohibitions,
which 'suggest the
lines of
hostility.
opposition along which

It
the rebellious
flesh
^may express
its
was
interpolated
between God's gracious promise and its glorious fulfilment, that by its harsh and servile discipline men might be educated for freedom.
So
foreign, indeed,
is
the attitude of Paul to that of the
Old
Testa-
ment and Judaism,

scholars -feel
it
that
hard to
one can easily understand how some Jewish admit that anyone who had known Judaism
criticism
from the inside could ever have written the
of the
Law,
I
which
we
find in the Epistles to the

is
Romans and
is
the Galatians.
believe that this
not so
;
difficult
it
if
the problem
approached from
the right starting-point

of the
but
Pauline doctrine.
emphasizes the revolutionary character Similarly I regard it as a serious error to
interpret Paul's conception of the flesh
by
that
which
we
find
in the
Old Testament. In the latter case it stands for human whole, the weak and perishable creature in contrast to
immortals.
this is
nature as a
the mighty
The
contrast gains occasionally a moral significance, but

In
wholly subordinate. physical we have an ethical

for
Paul, however, instead of a meta-
contrast.
The
flesh
is
not the synonym
man
in his creaturelyj infirmity,
whose moral
lapses are indulgently

so
excused by
frail
God
as simply
It
what must be expected from a being
and evanescent.
is
stands for one side only of

evil
human
is
nature,
that
the lower.
It is
through and through.

sin, it
is
It
so irretriev-
ably the slave and instrument of
entrenched
in
such deep
will, that no redemption or even must be put to death on the cross of improvement possible, Christ. To reduce Paul's doctrine to the Old Testament level is
and abiding
hostility to
God and His

it
of
it is

to miss its tragic intensity
289
signific-
and
eviscerate
it
of
its
bitter
moral
ance.
If
from the Old Testament
we
turn to the contemporary Judaism,
there also
we
are constrained to admit a measure of influence on the
had been a Pharisee, trained by Gamaliel. Naturally he did not break completely with the past when he became a Christian. He brought over current Jewish ideas and modes
apostle's thought.
He
of argument.
His Rabbinical
interpretation of Scripture has
been
long familiar, but it is only within recent years that a fuller acquaintance with Jewish literature has revealed more fully the affinities he
Few things in the Epistles has with contemporary Jewish thought. have been more richly illustrated from this source than his doctrine of
angels and demons, which
now
stands before us in quite a
new
light.
disposed than some scholars to rate the influence of contemporary Judaism high, at least so far as Paul's central doctrines are have all too slender a knowledge of Judaism in concerned.
But
am
less
We
Paul's day.
The
literary sources for the study of
Rabbinic theology
far
are considerably later,
and the question
arises
how
we may
use
them
for the reconstruction of
a considerably earlier stage of thought.
It may be plausibly argued that we can confidently explain coincidences with Paulinism much more readily on the assumption that Paul
was
the debtor.
It
is
unlikely that the Rabbis consciously adopted

this
Christian ideas.
But
which
by no means
settles the question.
The
amazingly rapid spread

atmosphere,
in
it
of Christianity quickly created
a Christian
would not be unreasonable
to
suppose that
Judaism
We know that there itself experienced some modification. was considerable controversy between Jews and Christians. And we may well believe that its inevitable result would be that where Christians fastened on the weak points of Judaism and demonstrated
Jew would be
naturally
the superiority of the Christian view, the
tempted change views were his own.
to
his
ground and persuade himself that really these It is also possible that we have commonly overto
estimated the hostility between the adherents of the two religions, and
unduly underrated the extent

early period.
In this
which friendly
relations existed in the
way
Christian influence
may have
filtered into
have, however, a number of Jewish contemporary Judaism. earlier than Paul or roughly contemporary with him. Apocalypses, These, it must be remembered, represent a peculiar tendency ; how
We
290
far

its
But where we hardly know. find coincidences, Paul's indebtedness can hardly be denied. In dePaul stood under
influence
we
termining the extent to which we can rely on later Rabbinical documents in reconstructing the Judaism of the first century, it must not
be forgotten that the appalling catastrophes, which overwhelmed the Jewish race in the first and second centuries of our era, must have
changed the conditions profoundly
in
the theological as well as the
The Judaism of the later centuries political world. identical with the Judaism in which Paul was trained.
was hardly
influence on
At
Paul.
present
it
is
fashionable to
make much
of
Greek
Not
so long ago one of the most eminent exponents of Paulinit
ism explained
in
as a mixture of Rabbinical
and Alexandrian Judaism,
which the incongruous elements were so badly blended that the Radical contheology contradicted itself on fundamental principles.
tradictions in the system of such a thinker as
Paul are antecedently and to be admitted only on cogent evidence. This verdict improbable rests on no assumption as to Paul's inspiration, it is simply a tribute
due
to a thinker
of
the highest eminence.
Alexandrian Judaism
contained
a large element of Greek philosophy.
Nowadays
it
is
specially in Stoicism
and the Greek mysteries

is
that the source of
much
in the Pauline theology
discovered.
The
presence of Greek ele-
ments would not be

in a
in
famous University
and unconverted, in astonishing that one who became a Greek

incorporated in his theology ideas derived
any way surprising. he mixed freely with Greeks, converted It would not have 'been his evangelistic work.
city
;
Paul was born and bred
to the
Greeks should have
I from Greek philosophy. am by no means concerned to deny points of contact, but I believe that it is here as with Jewish theology that these are to be found not
so
much
is
in
the centre as in the outlying regions of his theology.

this
may
ment
"
quote on
point the pronouncement of
Harnack whose judg:
exceptionally weighty.
He
says,
with reference to Paul
Criticism,
which
is
a Hellenist (so e.g. set a more accurate knowledge of the Jew and the Christian Paul before it estimates the secondary elements which he took over from the
to-day more than ever inclined to make him into Reitzenstein), would do well to gain at the out-
Greek Mysteries.
It
would then
is
see at once that these elements could

guests,
have obtruded themselves on him only as uninvited

deliberate acceptance
and
that a
out of the question."
will illustrate this
THE QUINTESSENCE OF PAULiNISM
29!
I choose this because the last century. point from a notable instance in element in Paulinism. it concerns the right interpretation of a crucial
have already explained

is
why
cannot accept the view that Paul's
doctrine of the flesh
be interpreted through the Old TestamentSeveral scholars derived it from Greek philosophy, and among them
to
the
He discovered in Holsten deserves special mention. The Paul's doctrine the Greek contrast between matter and spirit.
name
of
flesh
he identified with the body, explaining that when the body was " " the emphasis was on the material of which it flesh spoken of as
the flesh
it
was composed, and when

stress lay
if
on the form
into
which
was spoken of as body the was organized. It is very dubious
"
"
this interpretation
can be successfully sustained in detailed exegesis.
to
But, apart from that, there are more general difficulties which appear me to be insuperable. In the first place Paul's language varies
very significantly
speaking
of
the body.
when he is The
flesh
is
speaking of the flesh and

flesh
is
when he
and
is
so
thoroughly vicious
so
utterly hostile to
it.
God
that Christianity does not

crucified, the
redeem but
crucifies
is
But while the

of
body
of the Christian
the
temple
the
mortality.
Holy Ghost and destined to share in the spirit's imFurther, when Paul enumerates the works of the flesh
sins
he includes
which are not
physical,
especially sins
of temper.
would surely have taken a very different turn if Again, he had regarded the body as the seat of sin. The way of salvation would have lain through asceticism, a starving and a crushing of the
his doctrine
body under the rule logic would not go

death
is
of the spirit.
still
And
If
further.
the
not sure that a rigorous body is the seat of sin then

this
am
the means of redemption.
And
would have had a twobody they could not be
fold consequence, that while

free
men were
in the
from
at
sin,
be
once secured by suicide.

;
and on the other hand, that complete redemption might Now Paul drew neither of these
it
conclusions
on the contrary
in the
I
was a commonplace
in his
theology that
while a
man was
On
flesh
these grounds
am
body he might have ceased to be in the flesh. compelled to reject the view that for Paul the
that his doctrine of the flesh
spirit
and the body were identical, and embodies the antithesis of matter and
philosophy.
borrowed from Greek

improbable
it
And
finally, as indicating
how
is
that
Paul should have derived

this in
his
fundamental doctrines
in general,
and
particular,
from Greek philosophy, 19
we
have
his
whole
treat-
292
ment

of the question of the resurrection.
In discussing
it
he
treats the
resurrection of the
body and the extinction of being as if they were the only two alternatives, and does not take into account the third
disembodied
spirit.
possibility of the immortality of the
The
import-
be more clearly seen, when we remember that the Greek doctrine of immortality was closely connected with that
ance of
this
fact will
view
Paul
of matter as evil,
is
and the
antithesis of
body and
spirit
which
have derived from Greek philosophy. If he supposed borrowed the one why should he be so unconscious of the other ?
to
I
pass on to the question of the relation of Paulinism to the teach-
ing of Jesus.
The view
at
that
Paul owed
little
ij
to the teaching of Jesus
was more fashionable

finds advocates.
in
one time than
is
to-day, though
it
still
We are
Session
told that the apostle
had but
little interest
the earthly
life of
Jesus.
His
God's
attention
was concentrated on
the
Resurrection,
the
Pre-existence, the
Incarnation, the
at
Passion,
right
the
Ascension,
the
hand.
His thought and

facts
;
emotion were concentrated on these great theological

details of
to the
His earthly career and

life
to
His teaching
He
was almost
entirely indifferent.
Epistles
ible,
I
on the
Although and teaching

it
the remarkable silence of the Pauline

of Jesus renders such
a view plaus-
cannot believe that
will
bear
searching
scrutiny.
The
to
extent of the silence
may be
exaggerated.
Paul appeals
the
sayings of Jesus as finally settling certain questions of conduct.
His
His
;
knowledge
of
the facts of Christ's
career and
the details of
teaching was probably more and his attachment to His
extensive than has often been admitted

person,
the depth
of
His gratitude
at all natural.
to
I
Him, were too profound for such indifference to be do not institute any detailed comparison between
the utterances of
Jesus and the epistles of His apostle, but I remind you of the There is unquestionably a situation in which Paul was placed.
change
Paul's emphasis is thrown much more fully on the great facts of redemption, the Death and the This indeed is not unnatural. Resurrection. Jesus was naturally
in
the centre of gravity.
reticent
as to the theological
disciples
significance of facts,
to contemplate.
the possibility of
which His
itself
were unwilling
than
And
the Cross
inevitably put the teaching into a secondary place.
The deed
for
of
Jesus
was
mightier
His word.
At
first
it
an insuperable
objection to the acceptance of
Him
as Messiah,
had become
293
Paul the Divine solution of his problem, his deliverance from conIt contained a deeper revelademnation and from moral impotence. tion of God's nature and His love than the loftiest teaching of Jesus
could convey. Here was the climax of God's slow self-disclosure, manifested not in words however sweet, tender, and uplifting, but in
a mighty act, which
intensity of meaning.
filled that
teaching with wholly

it is
new depth and

of Jesus
And
if
true that the greatest contribution
which Jesus made to religion was just the personality self and His supreme act of sacrifice, then Paul was
Him-
right in placing
the emphasis where he did, even though one might wish he had drawn more fully on the words of Jesus when writing his epistles. Those epistles, however, were written to Christian communities, the
majority of them founded by Paul himself, and in any case in posBut the situation session of a background of information as to Jesus.
Paul had a peculiarity which must never be overlooked in conHowever content he may have been with his sidering this question.
of
own
experience,
however deeply convinced

it
of
its
evidential value, he
that his
could not forget that
was incommunicable, and
own
bare
word was insufficient to substantiate the truth of his message. Through much of his career he was on his defence against those who stigmatized
him
as no genuine exponent of the Gospel. The other apostles He had to fight looked coldly on his presentation of Christianity. the battle of Christian freedom not only against them but even against
his
own
trusted comrade, Barnabas.
His enemies followed him from
church to church, to poison the minds of his converts against him. Is it conceivable that, placed in this situation, Paul could have been
indifferent to the life
and teaching
of the
Founder
?
it
not needed the knowledge for his

necessity to him.
to
own
satisfaction,
Even if he had was a strategic

on
his right
if
How
could he have afforded to
insist
his opponents in the Judaizing controversy with the opening given to them by such ignorance and indifference ? Often contrasted unfavourably with the other apostles, he could not
be a genuine apostle of the time he was presenting
Jesus, a true herald of His Gospel,
all
have
failed to diminish
by
diligent inquiry their
as companions and pupils of Jesus.
We
advantage over him must infer therefore that he
had an adequate knowledge of the teaching, whatever view we take as

afforded by the epistles.
historical facts
and the Founder's

knowledge
to the evidence of such
294

Something he must have owed
to the apostles, notably to
life,
Peter.
knowledge His Resurrection would be derived from them the

belief
in
Much
of his
of the facts of Christ's
His Passion and
this source.
facts,
He
shared with
certain
fundamental
but their agreement

of theological inter-
went beyond
this point.
There was an element
Paul explicitly mentions, not only the pretation Christ died, but the vital interpretation, which turned the fact that
to them.
fact
common
into a Gospel,
that
Christ died for our
sins.
From them he
derived the institutions of Baptism and the Lord's Supper and the
Yet Paul emphatically asserts expectation of Christ's speedy return. he did not receive his Gospel from man but that it came to that
him by
revelation.
His
distinctive presentation of Christianity
was
accordingly original, not borrowed ; and the fullest recognition of that fact is not incompatible with the admission that there was not
little
in
his
thought which he
owed
to others.
That which he
It is
received from others by no means accounted for Paulinism.

so difficult to accumulate parallels to this detail
not
is
and
that
what
not possible
is
to discover
a parallel to the system as a whole.

original
Views
which Paul did not originate he treated in an them with his own genius, and fused them
way, stamped harmony with his He was a speculative thinker of no mean general point of view. order, not the second-rate eclectic whom some would make him out
into
to be.
out of his
Paul's original contribution to Christian theology grew directly own experience. This will be most clearly seen if, so far
as we can, we trace the development of that experience. He had been trained as a Pharisee in the most rigorous type of Judaism. He
had sought
a right standing before God, with a and unflagging energy. The standard of righteousburning passion ness had been laid down in the Law, and he sought to fashion his
for righteousness, for
life
in
strict
success that
and punctilious conformity with it. he could claim to have outstripped all
He
achieved such
his contemporaries
in the pursuit of righteousness,

less
and could describe himself
as blame-
with reference to the Law.

so
successful, left
Yet
his efforts,
so strenuous
and
outwardly and a goal always unreached. graphy that he has given us in

inimitable insight
him with a sense
of desires unsatisfied
In the classic fragment of autobio-
Romans
VII.,
he has sketched with

language, his spiritual
and
in
graphic and
telling

career while he
295
was under
it
the
Law.
it
It
was the
flesh that
made him
had
weak,
sin
had seized
and used
as a base of operations,
so with him.
alive in
this
It had not always been conquered and brought him into captivity. He looked wistfully back to the time when he was
happy childish innocence, wholly unconscious of sin. From he was roused by the coming of the Law into his life. Conscious now of the holy Law of God, he realized his own disharmony with
Moreover he
had
lost
felt
it.
that the
Law's
his
prohibitions
were turned by
sin
into suggestions of transgression.
his bitter experience. unconsciousness of a moral happy he felt himself order had given place to a sense of disunion with it sold in helpless and hopeless captivity to sin, and the fact that the
Such then was
He
his innocence,
Law
his
forbade a certain course of action became, in this perversion of
But all moral nature, the very reason why he should follow it. otherwise this implied that a higher element was present within him
;
he could never have
felt
the wretchedness of his condition or been
sensible of the tragic schism in his soul. himself, he realized that within
his
Looking more deeply into

personality competing
own
struggled for supremacy.

to
On
the one side there
was
his
powers lower nature

lain in a
it it
which he gives the name

till
"
the flesh," wherein sin
had
sleep like that of death

revolt.
the
Law
had come and provoked
into
While the mind consented
to the
Law
of
God
that
was
good, it was overmatched by the flesh which constantly insisted on his disobedience to it. The utmost strain of effort never altered the
inward conditions
the sense of defeat remained.
Now,
as a pious
to him.
Jew,
this
state
of things
must have seemed inexplicable
With
ethical
a conscientiousness so acute,
a nature so strenuous, and an
The
standard pitched so high, a moral tragedy was inevitable. fault could not rest with the Law of God which could set forth
ideal,
no unattainable
and therefore
fault, since in
?
it
must
lie in
himself.
And
him
yet
how
could he be at
left
his zeal
for righteousness nothing
had been
undone
This experience became
clear to
later
and supplied him with a

it
large section of his theology, but at this time
could only have been an insoluble puzzle. Then he came into contact with the Christians, and was stirred to
by their proclamation of a crucified Messiah. Their preachwould fill him with abhorrence, for the curse of the Law rested ing on him who was hanged on a tree. It was not simply that the
the depths
296

;
bad decided against Jesus the decisive It was conceivable, however improbverdict had been given by God. unit was able, that God's Messiah should have been executed
religious leaders of the nation
.
;
thinkable that he should have been executed

doctrine of a crucified Messiah
he pressed the Christians involve, they must have escaped
by such a death. The was a blasphemous paradox. But if with the dilemma their position seemed to
it
by
their confident assertion that
God
Himself had intervened
in
the resurrection of the Crucified to
vindicate
His character and
establish the truth of
His
claim.
But
they would not leave the death itself without attempt at explanation. It was not for them simply an ugly and unwelcome incident, an inexplicable mystery,
its
burden
lifted,
but
its
obscurity unremoved,
by the
Resurrection.
It
was
not an irrational accident violating the moral

that testified to the sin
order
it
was a deed
but also a part of God's plan for not realize, as Paul did, how fundamental were the problems which their position involved, and to what radical solution they must be
carried
if
and ignorance of man, human redemption. But they did
they maintained their belief in Jesus.
insight into the instability of their position,
Hate sharpened Paul's and it was his interest as

it
a controversialist to push the logical conclusions from
to
an extreme.
With the swift intuition of genius he realized that to accept the Cross was to bid farewell to the Law. His ruthlessness as a persecutor is
not to be palliated by the plea that he had failed to understand the
Gospel.
well.
We may
To
Christian.
excuse
it
a certain extent
we may
if
on the ground that he understood it so even say that one side of Paulinism
was a
theoretical construction
became a
it
For
?
formed by Paul in the period before he Jesus was indeed the Messiah, how did
stand with the

itself.
demned
condemning the Messiah, the Law conBut not on this ground alone would the acceptance
Law
In
of Christianity carry
with
it
a renunciation of the
Law.
So tremendous
a fact as the Messiah's death, and a death in
this
form, must have an
Such an explanation was actually given in the adequate explanation. theory that the death of Jesus was to atone for sin and establish a new
righteousness.
It
was obvious
that a
new
righteousness through Christ
would supplant the righteousness of the Law, and thus the privilege of the Jew disappeared and he sank to the level of the Gentiles. Now, however strongly Paul pressed the Christians with the logic of their position, he could hardly help feeling as the controversy went

on that
his
297
own
position
was not impregnable.
He
could not help
being impressed by the constancy of ihe- Christians under persecution, and the serenity with which they met their fate. Nor could he deny
the possibility that their case might be true, however he despised and As a Pharisee he could not reject the possibility of disbelieved it.
the Resurrection, nor evade the inference that
it
would
neutralize the
to atone
curse of the
for sin
Law.
The
assertion that the
Messiah had died

it
was not
intrinsically incredible,
and
met very well the need

fact of the
of
which he was himself conscious.
To
deny the
Resur-
rection in face of the
unwavering testimony
of the Christian
must have
become always more difficult. Even while rejecting their belief as blasphemous, there was probably an undercurrent of uneasy quesAnd this was tioning whether they might not be right after all.
strengthened
life
by
his
consciousness
of
dissatisfaction
with
his
own
had not brought him happiness, or assured him of his standing with God. Subconsciously at least it would seem probable that the issue had narrowed
under the Law,
his realization that the
itself
Law
to this,
Had
Jesus risen from the dead or not ?
We may
way
:
then
sum up
his position just before his conversion in this
he pas-
sionately held fast the
Law
as
but was conscious of inability

the other
God's appointed way of righteousness, For on his own part to attain his ideal.
himself personally righteousness
had not come through the Law.
On
hand he held Jesus to be a blasphemous pretender to Messiahship, cursed by the Law and therefore by God, but with misgivings whether after all He might not be the true Messiah in which case
;
His death was intended

the
as
an atonement
for sin
and
to create that
righteousness before God, which in
Paul's
own
experience at least
Law had
been unable
to do.
In
which case again the
Law was
abolished, and Jew and Gentile were placed on the same God.
level before
There came
had
to
Paul
in this state of
mind the overwhelming experi-
ence on the road to Damascus.

sent to the Cross
death, appeared to
The Nazarene, whom his countrymen and whose followers he had persecuted to the him in a blinding blaze of heavenly glory. In that
experience the Pauline theology came to birth.

conviction
risen
The
full
and radiant
now and
for
ever possessed him, that the crucified Jesus had
from the dead and
now
reigned in glory, and

to be.
was
therefore the
Messiah
whom He
had proclaimed Himself
The
inference*
298

in
he had previously drawn
order to fortify himself in his rejection of
When Christianity and persecution of the Christians still held good. he accepted Christianity, he accepted the conclusions which he had
previously regarded as inevitable.
belief that righteousness could
in the abolition of the
Once
for all
he abandoned the
come through
the
Law.
its
He acquiesced
curse upon his
Law, which had pronounced
Master, and he freely admitted the universality of salvation and the abolition of all distinction between Gentile and Jew. But theoretical
inferences,
drawn from
the standpoint of Judaism, were wholly inade-
quate to express the fulness of blessing

conversion.
which had come
to
him
in his
The
was miraculous
to him,
splendour of illumination which had flooded his soul matching the marvel of the light which burst
on the primaeval chaos, darkness and disorder.

pregnant and suggestive
'
when God began

It
to deliver the earth of
from
had brought
is
to
him the knowledge
God
:
in the face of Jesus Christ.
A description of his experience even more

given in the Epistle to the Galatians
When
it
pleased
service
and called
me
God, who before my birth set me apart for His through His grace, to reveal His Son in me ". It
psychological analysis of the inmost fact
would be vain
to attempt a
in Paul's experience,
parted.
and inquire in what way this revelation was imThe passage carries But the words are full of significance.
us a long
way
into the heart of the Pauline theology.

this great act of
It
It
was God
who had
Thus the make an absolute thing. it was the God breach with the past but stood in continuity with it of the Old Covenant who was also the God of the New. Thus Paul secured the inclusion of the Old Testament revelation in Christianity.
taken the initiative in
revelation.
Gospel was not a wholly new
did not
His
disciple
Marcion
at a later period rejected
the
God
of the as a
Jews
and the Hebrew

irruption of the
history.
this
Scriptures,
and regarded Christianity
sudden
order into the old without any preparation in For Paul the new religion proclaims the ancient God. And
Jesus
is
new
God reveals His Son. The Messianic category,

claims for
thus not merely a national Messiah.

it
true so far as
goes,
is
inadequate.
Paul
it
Thus, while his monotheism remained, was not a bare monotheism, but a monotheism which, while maina
loftier title.
Him
taining the unity of the
And
this revelation
is
Godhead, found room for distinctions within it. was made within him. It is an inward revelation
;
that the phrase
intended to express
and we can hardly be wrong
.~r.
299
deepest experience in conversion, the vital and But out of this mystical union of his spirit with Christ Himself. flow. If he was one with Christ then certain consequences inevitably
in
finding here his
Christ's experiences
in a sense
had become
his
own, and Christ's resources were
placed
at his disposal.
he stood righteous died in Christ to the flesh and therefore to sin which, apart from had the flesh, had no foothold in man. may then summarize the
and
in Christ
Thus he was free from the Law, before God. And with the Law he
We
positions held
by Paul
qualified
at his conversion or given in
it
as follows
Monotheism,
by
the
recognition
of distinctions within the

it,
Godhead
individual-
the choice of Israel and revelation to
qualified
by
the
inability of the
Law
to
produce righteousness
the reign of sin in the

struggles of the
by means
of the flesh, against

;
which the
mind were
gift of
quite ineffectual
the recognition of righteousness as a free

;
the union apart from the merit or effort of the recipient of the human spirit with Christ, the crucified and risen Lord and
;
God
through
for a
this
union the forgiveness of
sins,
victory over
sin,
and power
to a
this sketch of Paul's spiritual history we must now pass on more systematic and detailed exposition of his fundamental docWe must of course remember that his recognition of a Divine trines.
new From
life.
revelation already given to Israel compelled
him
to adjust to the
Old
His
Testament
as best
he could the theology derived from experience.
experience before conversion, interpreted in the light of the Gospel, Of the flesh I have shaped his doctrines of sin, the flesh, and the Law.
spoken already when considering the alleged derivation of Paul's conOn it ception from the Old Testament and Greek philosophy.
therefore
I
need add only a few words.
In his experience the flesh

sin.
had been the seat and the instrument of

there could be no sin in
Apart from the
flesh
man.
Flesh without sin was also unknown.

is
Now
It is
the flesh, unlike the body,
which may become the slave
of sin or the
not a morally indifferent thing, temple of the Holy Ghost.
In it there completely antagonistic to God and righteousness. dwells no good thing it has a will and intent which leads to death
;
it lusts
against the
spirit
cannot be subject to God's law.

practise
Its
works
are altogether
evil,
and exclude those who
them from the

it
kingdom
of
God.
Those whose
life
;
is
lived in accordance with

to
it
are inevitably on the
way
to
death
and those who sow
will of
300
it

Those who
are in the flesh cannot please
reap corruption.
God.
a
This dark and lurid picture shows us clearly thing Paul considered the flesh to be.
how
irretrievably evil
But
reflection
on
his
own
experience had taught him to find in the

this hateful
Law
the stimulus which
wakened
one
impulse to
its
malign
activity.
In this he detected
of the darkest shades in the char-
Nothing brought out its true heinousness more clearly than this that it perverted into an instrument of its baneful energy God's holy law itself. Thus the Law could not secure obedience beacter of sin.
cause
was weak through the flesh, while it proved in experience to be the strength of sin. So there emerges one of the most paradoxical It would have seemed as features in the Pauline theology. though
it
there could be but one answer to the question,
Why
had the Law been

to
For what purpose could it have been given, save teach man the way of righteousness, and guide and stimulate him
given to Israel ?
as
he sought to tread
felt that in his
it
own
of his
But though such was its obvious design, Paul It would not career it had failed to achieve it.
?
have been so strange had he simply said that the

convince
of
man
it
which he
fell
Law was given to before him a moral ideal own by setting short. But he goes further than this and lamentably
sinful ness
teaches that
was given
for the sake of transgression,
and came
true,
in
besides that the trespass might abound.

tain the distinction
We
must,
it is
main-
between
sin
and
trespass,
and not understand him
to
It
mean that the Law was given in was in order that the sin already
Such he had found
it
order that sin might be increased.

latent in
man
says,
should reveal
itself
in its true colours

gression.
through abundant manifestation in acts of trans"

to be.
He
was
alive apart
from the
to life
Law
I
once
'*.
but
when
the
and
died
In his innocent childhood,
commandment came, sin sprang when he was just a

no moral law, he lived
creature of impulse
his
and knew the
restraint of
happy untroubled life, conscious of no schism within his own breast. But when he came to years of moral discernment, and realized that
at
life
its
he was placed in a moral order, the flesh chafed the sin which had been slumbering in it woke to
native antagonism to
pressure,
and
its
and disclosed
God.
it
Thus
the
Law,
holy, just, and good, so
framed that obedience to
had
issued in condemnation
it
would have brought life and righteousness, and death. It had brought the conits
sciousness of sin,
had become
strength
and stronghold.
Thus

Paul
is
301
led to the paradoxical doctrine that the
Law had
its
not been init
tended to produce righteousness, but to produce the effects, which
had
in fact achieved.
God had meant it

It
to give sin
is
opportunity, to
prove an
writers, for
incentive to transgression.
not
strange that Jewish
not an intolerable yoke and brings not a curse but a blessing, should criticize Paul's doctrine as utterly conIndeed we can hardly wonder that some should trary to the facts. doubt whether anyone capable of formulating it could ever have known
the
is
whom
Law
Judaism from the
inside.
Yet
it is
not
difficult to
see
how Paul was
It is one of those cases where the driven to take up this position. of adjustment to the Old Testament has shaped the doctrine necessity
which yet
it
did not create.
There
is
contemplated the solution adopted by Law and Old Testament Canon should be frankly abandoned. cannot doubt that he would have utterly repudiated it. But, realizing
that Christianity stood in continuity with Judaism,
nothing to show that he ever Marcion that Judaism with its
We
too
and that
that the
for
it
the
Old Testament was

difficult
sacred Scripture, and
Law
had
actually been given
by God, though through

had proved
angelic intermediaries, he
its
had the
task of combining his conviction of

it
Divine origin
with the fact that

his difficulty
to be the strength of sin.
He
solved
in-
by the bold contention that the

for
Law
it
had never been
tended to bring righteousness,
God
could
not have adopted a
urged that this is just a piece of desperate apologetic, to which Paul would never have been driven but for a certain morbid strain in his own piety.
ill
means
so
designed to serve
His end.
Now
may be
With a
conscience
more
robust, less scrupulous
and
sensitive,
he might
have had a happier life under the Law, more free from incessant strain and sense of failure. And no doubt it is true that Paul's case
was
borne
quite
in
exceptional.
mind.
Paul as
Yet the following considerations must be we know him in his epistles is remarkably
sane and balanced in his handling of ethical questions. It is not easy to believe that the man who holds the scales so evenly between the
strong and the weak,
who shows
himself so conscious of the merits
and
perils of both,
should
himself have been the victim of a too
scrupulous, not to say diseased, conscience.
Further
it
may be
freely
granted that in multitudes of instances legalism
worked
well.
Judaism
could point, and can point, to a noble roll of saints and martyrs.
Yet
legalism
is
not,
believe, the highest type of religious experience
302

in
and the defects which Paul believed it had shown are such as might have been theoretically deduced.
his
own
case
legal religion
with shallower natures produce self-satisfaction on too low a level of attainment, while in the more strenuous and sensitive it may create
may
a depressing sense of failure.

despair.
With Paul
this depression
Are we unjust to others if we say that this a wholly exceptional realization of the lofty standard which the Law challenged him to reach, and a keener sense of his own shortcomings ?
Surely remembering that Paul is one of the greatest personalities in history, a religious genius who ranks among the foremost of his order,
passed into was rooted in
we may
hesitate before
we
dismiss his judgment on the
Law
with the
cheap explanation that Paul was the victim of ethical nightmare. His doctrine of salvation and the new life is similarly an interpretation of his
own
experience.
it that when Paul uses the words pleased God to reveal His Son in " me he was speaking- of that mystical union with Christ, which was
"
have already expressed the opinion
fundamental
is
in his doctrine as
it
was
central in his experience.

is
This
not merely a moral union, that

of course
is
a union of will and thought.
Such a union
wills
is
involved
a blending of personalities in which, while in a sense the personalities remain distinct, in another sense they To express a merely moral union he must have chosen other are one.
;
and judges as He judges. it deeper and more intimate
he wills the things which Christ But the union of which Paul speaks
;
is
language.
Christ
the
is
The
is
language he actually uses would be too extravagant.
in the believer, the believer in Christ.
He
that
is
joined to
Lord
one
is
spirit.
Paul even
"
says,
I
have been
crucified with
He no longer I that live, but Christ liveth in me". Christ, i^ has transcended the narrow limits of his personality, and become one
and
He has been lifted with a personality vaster and more universal. into a larger life, and in that life he has found an answer to the problems which had been insoluble.
As
one with Christ he makes
his
own
he
the experience through which Christ has passed.

is
He
suffers
with Christ, he
sits
nailed to
in the
His Cross, he
dies
and
rises
with Him,
with
Him
heavenly places.
He
shares Christ's status
In Christ he is a new before God, His character, and His destiny. creature the old life with its claims and its sin, its guilt and its con;
The secret of this demnation, has passed away and all is new. union is hidden from us in the thick darkness where God mystical

dwells.
It
is
303
an ultimate
fact of
experience which admits of no
further analysis.
he had a passion for righteousness, that But he was conscious that he fell is for a right standing before God. short of what God required, and was not justified as he stood at God's
In his life under the
bar.
Law
But having passed from the old life to the new he realized that He because he was one with Christ, Christ's righteousness was his.
was
justified or acquitted or
its
the thought in
The
fied
it is
verdict
God
or to put pronounced righteous in Christ there was no condemnation for him. negative form, utters on Christ, He utters on those who are identi;
with Him.
This doctrine of
justification is of course important,

;
but
it is part of his larger doctrine of secondary rather than primary And when we understand this we have the answer union. mystical
to the criticism
that
the doctrine involves a fiction

is
and
is
therefore
fiction.
immoral.
To
pronounce the sinner righteous
apparently a
But
this
does no justice to Paul's meaning.
the mystical union
and
it
is
the
The act of trust creates new man, who is one with Christ, on
is
whom
the verdict of justification
pronounced.
Union with Christ

status.
creates the
new
character which requires the

life
new
Paul was
conscious that the
in
sought to gain
by
the works of the
harmony with God's will, which he had Law, had become his possession
without
effort
of his
own.
And
I
he shares also
must return
in
in
Christ's blessed
immortality.
To
these points
connexion with the
larger aspects of the theology.
These
history.
starts
larger aspects
is
This also
consider as Paul's philosophy of intimately associated with his experience.
we may
He
from the individual, from himself, and regards his own history as typical. As he had sinned and found salvation, so had others.
But he was not content
till,
with the philosopher's
instinct,
he had
pressed behind the multifariousness of phenomena to a principle of The individual he generalizes into a racial experience. He unity.
explains sin and redemption through the acts of
Adam
and
Christ.
The moulds
experience.
I
into
which
his
is
thought
is
poured were given him by
history, yet his doctrine
essentially a philosopher's generalization of
do not accept the view

of
that
Paul attached
it
little
importance to
his doctrine
Adam,
since
he introduces
It
incidentally
and as
an
illustration of
the act of
Christ.
was
rather of fundamental
304
importance.

To do it justice we must
interpretations.
modern
We must not
detach ourselves completely from read Romans in the light of
the story of Eden, nor yet the story of The ideas are quite different in the
Eden
two
in the light of
Romans.
passages.
Nor must we
suppose that the validity of the Pauline doctrine depends on the historicity of the story in Genesis. Unquestionably Paul took that
story to
be
literal history,
nothing else could be reasonably expected
from him.
What
find remarkable,
however,
is
that substantially
to the
his doctrine is so constructed as to
be unaffected by our answer
So far question whether the narrative of the Fall is history or myth. as Adam has any significance for Paul it is not Adam as a mere
individual, but as
one
who
is
in
a sense the race.
It
is
surely im-
probable that Paul could have been content to regard the whole of humanity as committed by the accidental act of one unit in its many
millions.
To
the capricious,
of reason. of
assign such momentous significance to the arbitrary and would be to take the control of history out of the hands For him Adam is typical of the race. He does not think
man's moral nature as damaged by the act of Adam, nor does he suppose that the moral status of humanity is fixed by what was
nothing more than the act of an alone could rightly make the act of
ing humanity
as
irresponsible
individual.
What
with the
manifest.
Adam
the act of the race, stampidentity of
good
is
or evil,
would be an
because
is
Adam
is
;
race, so that in
his acts
the whole quality of humanity

it is
The
act of
is
Adam
crucial just
;
typical
the nature of
Adam
our
the dust.
common nature The sin latent in
he
us
the natural man,
moulded from
and
at the
was
latent also in him,
touch of the
Law
it
was roused
to life
and
activity.
Only because
truly representative, could the individual act be charged His act involved God's judgment of the with universal significance.
Adam
was
race as sinful, and brought on all
the tragic history of the natural
men the penalty of man left to himself.

first
if
death.
Such
is
But
it
was not
from the Old Testament

doctrine, as will
in
the
instance that Paul learnt this
be clear to anyone, Genesis through Pauline spectacles. be found in Jewish theology. But
he does not read the third of

Closer parallels may,
it is
true,
it
was
his
own
experience that
was
his starting-point.
We
should read the discussion of
Adam
and
Christ in the light of the autobiographical fragment in the seventh of Romans. As he pondered on the conflict within his own nature, the

struggle
305
between the
flesh
and the mind, the victory

its
of sin, the im-
potence of the
own evil capture by In of history. ends, he sought the explanation at the fountain head his own heart he found the key to the long tragedy of man's sin and
Law
for righteousness,
sin for its
guilt.
As
he was so was mankind.
His own breast was a
tiny
and evil was restage on which the vast elemental conflict of good So had it been with the first man, so from the very outset enacted.
of the race's history at the touch of the
Law
the sin that slumbered in
the flesh
had sprung
to consciousness
and
revolt.
And
all
the genera-
tions, as they
came and went, had but

racial
vindicated by their universal
transgression
God's treatment
of that first disobedience as a racial act.
But before the second

act reverse the verdict on
personality could come,
and by
his
to cleanse
and redeem
it
and
humanity and release new streams of energy lift it from the natural to the spiritual
to elapse.
plane, a long interval

figures,
had
Another
pair of contrasted
Abraham and Moses,

is
With
the
it
the former
play a subordinate part in the drama. associated the promise of the Seed and the election
of Israel,
with the latter the Law.
Against those
who
claimed that
Law was permanent and not abolished by the Gospel, that both and circumcision were essential to justification, Paul urges the case
Abraham.
of
Long
to
before the
had been made
Abraham,
Law was given, the promise of God a promise of the Seed in whom all
But the
nations should be blest, a promise fulfilled in the Gospel.
very principles of the
was
justified
by
faith
Gospel were already in operation, for Abraham and not by works, and while he was still un-
circumcised.
to the
And
For
its
the promise
by
its
very nature offered a contrast
Law.
Law
has within
formance of
reward.
it
demand
it an element of bargain, the pera corresponding right to receive a implies

;
But the promise stands on the higher plane of free grace guarantees a gift bestowed by God's bounty apart from any desert
in the recipient.
The
promise then
is
not only more ancient than the
Law
order.
and cannot be superseded by
it, it
belongs also to a
loftier
moral
And
still
Abraham's descendants.
election
with the promise there comes the election, the choice of But not of all of them for the principle of
;
and Esau.
works on, choosing Isaac and Jacob, passing by Ishmael And in the chosen people itself it still works not all of
;
Israel after the flesh constitutes the spiritual
Israel.
The Old
Testa-
ment more than once speaks
of a remnant,
and now the
Israel of
God
306
is

Church.
identical with the Christian
Yet
the natural Israel
is
not
ultimately rejected, for Paul looks forward to the time when it shall accept its Messiah, and form part of the elect people once more.
of the
may be asked, if already in Abraham the principles found expression, could not the Messiah have come at Gospel It was because a once, and why was there any need for the Law ?
But why,
it
prolonged period of discipline was necessary to educate the chosen The weakness of people and prepare for the coming of the Messiah.
human
sin.
It
nature had to be revealed by
its
inability to
fulfil
the
Law,
so
too, the ineradicable vice of the flesh
and the exceeding
sinfulness of
of the
it.
was only the Law that could disclose the mutinous character flesh, or wake to evil activity the sin that was dormant within
But while on the one hand the

its
Law
disclosed to
it
man
his
true
nature and exhibited sin in

It
true colours,
also served
as
moral
revealed man's duty, though it gave no power to fulfil discipline. " " to bring us to Christ. It was a The paidagogos it. paidagogos was charged with the moral supervision of children. By the use of
this
Law.
term Paul suggests the menial and temporary character of the Israel was like a child in its tutelage under harsh and ungenial
tutors.
But with the coming
of Christ the period of
bondage
is
over,
the heir achieves his freedom, Christ has set
and passes
set before
into that
liberty for
which
him
free.
;
The Law
it
itself
by
its
very imperfections
pointed forward to Christ

it
gave no power to
it
fulfil
its
willing tool of sin,

ideal should
pointed
man a moral ideal, and since own commands and was the weak, unto a new revelation, in which the moral
of fulfilment.
be united with the power
In the fulness of time the promise, so long obstructed
came
to realization.
God
sent
of
His Son
the
into the
by the Law, world in the likethe

;
ness of sinful flesh, a
member
people.
life
He did
not begin to be with His

life of
human race and of human origin
Hebrew
Image
a heavenly-
lay behind His
humiliation and suffering on earth.
of the invisible
God,
firstborn of creation, sharing the
Divine essence,
did not clutch
God's agent
in
the formation of
the
universe,
He
greedily at that equality
with God, which was nevertheless His right, but emptied Himself and for our sake exchanged His heavenly riches for our earthly poverty. Stooping to our human estate He obediently
God appointed Him, and has in recompense been highly exalted and received the name above every name.
accepted the Cross which

While
since
it
307
the act of
Adam
common
had been
critical
and
representative,
expressed our
nature, the act of Christ
was a
critical
and
in
racial act in virtue of
his self-identification
with
us.
As Adam
is
this
crucial act
is
the race, so also in

is is
His
crucial act
Christ
and
as the act of
one
valid for the race, so also the act of the
the fountain-head of humanity, the one of Their significance is not the natural, the other of the redeemed.
other.
Each
of
them
merely individual,
case personal
;
it is
universal.
The
point of expression
is in
each
it is
Adam who
eats the forbidden fruit,
it is
Jesus of
Nazareth
who
hangs upon
the Cross.
But when viewed not from
the standpoint of historical incident but of eternal significance,
Adam
and Christ are co-extensive with humanity. Yet the question emerges whether we can
between the
ously they
racial function of the first
rightly
draw a
parallel
and the second Adam.
Obvi-
do not seem
to stand in the
same
relation to the
body
for
which they act. There is clearly no such hereditary connexion in the one case as obtains in the other. But it is not on the hereditary connexion that Paul's thought rests, but on the possession of a common nature. Yet is there not a difference here also ? The act of Adam
was not in violation and it was a racial
of his nature,
sprang spontaneously from it ; act because his nature and that of all other
it
men were
flesh
identical.
it
There
within us, but
a higher element than the makes no successful stand against the lower.
is, it is
true,
He is powerful the spiritual man of heavenly origin. Here then, it might seem, that the parallel between the two Adams breaks down, since while a
In Christ,
on the contrary, the higher element
is all
natural
man might
so.
fitly
represent the sinful race, a spiritual
man
could
In the
not do
first
On
this
the following suggestions
may be
offered.
place Paul does 'hint at an essential relation subsisting between the pre-existent Christ and the human race. In the next place the
spirit is
element of
is
needed
is
not so
not absent even from sinful humanity, so that what much the introduction of a new element as such a
readjustment of the old as shall emancipate the higher nature from the dominion of the lower. And thirdly, if such a readjustment is not only realized in Christ but through Him becomes possible to the race
and
to individuals, right as
in
He may
be regarded as acting
"
for the race
much
Adam.
In fact the
much more
"
with as
rings so
which
is
loudly
Paul's great passage on
Adam
and Christ
perhaps the
20
308
key to
shares

this difficulty.
its
Christ acts for the race not simply because

its
He
nature and
fortunes,
but because there dwells within

it
Him
a spring of redemptive energy, which makes
possible for the

in the
fast as
achievements
He
accomplishes in His
own
case, to
be repeated
to hold
experience of the race
and
of individuals.
We
need
all
our guiding clue not simply that Christ reverses but that He much more than reverses it.
that
Adam
did,
But what was the

scribes
it
significance of Christ's racial act ?
Paul deact of
as an act of obedience.
As
such
it
reversed
Adam's
disobedience and the consequences that followed from it. These conPaul took to be the penalty of physical death and Divine sequences
condemnation
physical death
of the race as guilty.

is
Through the obedience
of Christ,
cancelled
now
passes a
new
by the resurrection of the body, and sees it in Christ. judgment on the race as
He
God The
act of Christ stood
also in a relation to the old order
under which
men had
spiritual
lived.
That order had been under the

There was a kingdom
power
is
control of inferior
powers.
of evil
of this world, the prince of the
of the air
with Satan the god Still the at its head.
Christian finds that his
"
wrestling
not against flesh and blood, but

against the world-rulers
against the principalities,
against the powers,
of this darkness, against the spiritual hosts of wickedness in the
heavenly
places
".
Clad
in the
armour
of
God
he
may be
able to withstand
the wiles of the devil, and equipped with the shield of faith to quench
all
the fiery darts of the evil one.
Behind the whole system

;
of idol-
to them the heathen atry Paul sees the baneful activity of the demons sacrifices are offered, and the Christian who feasts in the idol's temple enters into ruinous fellowship with demons. But there were also the
angels.
It is
not easy for us to enter into Paul's thought here.
Paul's
conception of angels has been borrowed from Jewish theology, and it has little in common with our popular notions of angels. They are
the elemental spirits
who
rule the present world.
They
are not sin-
less, they have shared in the effects of Christ's redemption and therefore need to be redeemed. They are to stand before the judgment bar of the saints. Women are in danger from them if they pray or prophesy in the Christian assemblies with uncovered head, and there-
which a magical power is often In particular the angels had been concerned with the giving assigned. of the Law. This was a tenet of Jewish theology and references are
fore
of the veil, to
need the protection

made
to
it
309
;
in the
speech of Stephen and in the Epistle to the

said in the
Hebrews
while Paul accepts the belief in the Epistle to the Galatians, and
underlies
it
much
that
is
Epistle to the Colossians.
The
angels, as the world-rulers, brought Christ to
His Cross,
for
it.
absorbed
in their function
and have no
significance
beyond
they are If then
there rests on Jesus the condemnation
and
the curse of the
Law, when
we
pass from the abstract to the concrete, the responsibility rests with
those
who
are the givers and administrators of the
Law.
And
these
are not primarily the Jewish or
Roman
authorities.
Just as behind
the Empires of Persia and Greece the

angelic princes, so angelic principalities
Book
of Daniel
shows us
their
human
tools, the priest
and powers stand behind their and the procurator. They act not in malevo-
lence but in ignorance.
Had
they
known
of
the
wisdom
of
God, they
would not have

angels
the
is
crucified the
Lord
glory.
The
ignorance of the
Through Church the variegated wisdom of God is to be divulged to the But their action in principalities and powers in the heavenly places.
bringing Christ to His Cross recoiled upon themselves.
mentioned also
in the
Epistle to the Ephesians.
The Law
was
ex-
launched
its
curse against Christ, but in doing so

its
its
curse
hausted and
principalities
feriority,
tyranny was broken.
In
His death Christ spoiled the

in their true position of intrain.
Foolishly then did the false teachers at Colossae worship these deposed potentates and look to them for help. For the fulness of Godhead is not distributed
and
and powers, exhibited them led them in triumph in His
among a multitude
Christ,
it
of angels.
It
exists in
its
undivided totality in
dwells in
But while the

Christ's cross, sin
Him as a body, that is as an organic whole. Law has thus been abolished by being nailed
and the
flesh
to
have
flesh
also
For the
crucifixion of the physical
been brought to nought. carries with it the destruction
of the carnal
nature.
sin.
And
it
similarly the death of Christ broke the

sinful
dominion of
For while the
flesh
which dwelt within
was done away.
was crucified, the sin Thus the death of Christ

so also the
was a death
to sin.
And
was
past,
just as
the physical death,
physical resurrection
the efficient symbol of a spiritual fact.
one broke with the
the other inaugurated
the future.
The The
resurrection involved the resurrection to a
new
Him.
life.
The
negative
death to
sin is
completed by the positive
life
unto God.
It
And what
its
Christ thus achieved, the race achieved in
atoned for
310
sin,

broke loose from
its
power, and was pronounced righteous as
it
stood before the bar of
God.
I
have spoken of the two great racial acts. far, then, pointed out already that Paul traces certain consequences
So
have
to these
acts, which automatically affect the whole race apart from any indiviBut other consequences, and these more momentous, dual choice. As a matter of historical fact, all men have on such choice. depend
by personal choice endorsed
the act of
of
it
Adam
and made
act.
it
their
own,
and thus vindicated the treatment
as a racial
But
all
do
not by a similar act of choice so endorse the racial act of Christ and make it their own. It lies within the option of the individual whether
he will remain a natural man, and live in the flesh on the level of Adam, or whether he will take his stand with Christ and become
a spiritual man.
If
he does
is
so,
then by an act of faith he becomes

it
one with Christ.

of personal trust
Faith
a very rich idea with Paul,

the
is
that act
and
self -surrender,
movement
is
of
man's whole
spirit
soul in confidence
towards Christ, which makes him one
with
Him.
sin
And
thus the great racial act of Calvary
repeated in the
is
believer's experience.
;
Because he
it
is
one with Christ he

it
dead
to
for the flesh in
which
lived
and through which
worked has
been
crucified
on Christ's
sin,
cross.
He
has also in death paid the

its
penalty of his
since
ness,
life.
and
is
thus free from
guilt
and
its
claim.
life of
And
holi-
he
is
one
spirit
with Christ he has risen to the
new
and there works within him the power of Christ's No condemnation rests upon him before God's
resurrection
bar,
he
is
justified in Christ.
Thus
not only sin and the flesh but the

Spirit of the
Law
also
is
has passed away.

liberty
;
For where the
Lord
is,
there
and Christians have died

at
to
holden.
For they have escaped into

the right
the Law in which they were the freedom of the Spirit and
dwell with Christ

they have been
hand
of
God.
Christ has taken the

;
place of self as the deepest and inmost element in their personality

crucified
with Christ and
but Christ that liveth in them.
no longer they that live Conduct thus ceases to be the studied

it is
and even
joyful,
painful adjustment to an external
code of laws.
It
is
the
instinctive,
spontaneous
With
the abolition of the
Law
Gentile has been broken

universal religion.
down
expression of the new personality. the great barrier between Jew and and Christianity stands revealed as a

At
vision
311
is
present,
it is
true, the Christian realizes that

is
his
redemption
incomplete.
What
ideally concentrated in the ecstatic

in
moment
of
and emancipation, may
actual experience
be achieved only
And complete redemption is not possible through a tedious process. At present we groan beneath our burden till the consummation.
;
and
that
all
Nature moans
also, looking eagerly for final

Spirit,
redemption.
this is
At
present
all
we
His
have but the earnest of the

fulness will
but
the pledge
be granted
to us.
For God,
who
did not
spare His beloved Son but
freely surrendered
Him
for our sakes,
If the status of Christ and His cannot withhold any good from us. character become ours, we must share also His blessed immortality
and His heavenly
reign.
The
such
secret of the spell

is
which the theology

in
of
Paul has
cast
it
on
has
multitudes
to
be found
the illumination which
own spiritual history. They have understood their bondage and their deliverance, their misery and their rapture, as they have entered into his despair or watched him as he passed from that
brought to their
strain of
inward
conflict
and sense
of failure to
harmony
of spirit
and
untroubled peace with God. theology created by experience with directness and power to those whose pilgrimage has taken speaks
A
It
them along the same way.
The
influence of
shrinks
Paul ebbs and flows

if
across long stretches of history.
and seems as
it
would
vanish, and then all suddenly it gathers volume and velocity and the arid waste becomes a garden of God.
BIBLICAL REFERENCES IN A SAHIDIC MANUSCRIPT IN THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY.

1
BY THE REV. D.
P.
BUCKLE, M.A.
was
the last issue of this Bulletin (Vol. IV, p. 123), attention
IN
lar
called to the question of Scriptural citations in Coptic homilies

as aids to the textual criticism of the Bible.
Citations must,
of course,
be used with
caution, especially
discourses, such
as the particular source
when they occur in popunow before us. They
were made from memory, and in the case of those taken from the Synoptic Gospels, would probably amalgamate parallel passages and
correctly represent
of the
none
of
them
(v.
Kenyon,
to give a
'Textual Criticism
New
Testament," 2nd
ed., p.
245).
is
The
cited.
object of the present article
list
of quotations
and
allusions in
one fragment, and to note certain features of the passages

in
Mr. Crum,
his
"
Catalogue
lists
of
the Coptic
MSS.
in the
John
other
Rylands Library," gives

tains
of citations in
his description of
it
homilies, but in the case of this manuscript
he merely says that
con-
many quotations from, and references to the Gospels. The list now given may be regarded as a supplement to this general statement
will also enlarge
its
It
area
by
including references to Genesis, Psalms,
Isaiah,
and the
Epistles.
In the third
volume
of the
Oxford
edition of
list
"
The
Sahidic Ver-
sion of the Gospels,"
Mr. Homer
prints a
of references supplied
by Leipoldt and de Zwaan.

tions there printed,
But the simple enumeration

in its
of quotain-
though quite excellent
way, supplies no
formation about parallel passages or peculiarities in the texts cited. As the use of particular gospels in quotation is a matter of some interest,
an
effort will
be made
in
this list
not only to indicate parallel
passages but also to some extent to note the appearance of preference

1
Coptic, No. 70 (24a).

312
MAJCerrrrcnei lL
ei
T"n
B CM
JUUM
.
CiuOC
eoVc-MO Y
o V"r-6
ilrreiAOr-OCAiiu
POi
G^pAre^JULrrnrpe
-^^<*,
^<^^/
:.
RYLANDS COPTIC MS. 70
[240], FOL,
SAHIDIC MANUSCRIPT BIBLICAL REFERENCES

for
313
one
of the gospels in certain cases.
Where no
[24a],
question of language
or variant arises reference to the chapter and verse will be given.
The Rylands
cates a
Coptic
MS. No. 70
is
described in the
Catalogue as a homily, probably by Shenoute, and a footnote indimarked resemblance between one section of it and Shenoute's " " Didascalia" in Crum's Coptic Ostraca," No. 13.
Schenute" (" Texte und Untersuchungen N.F.," Vol. X), contributed by Mr. Crum to the "Journal of
In a review of
"
Leipoldt's
"
Theological Studies
the
New
29-33), it is stated that students of Testament will find in Shenoute's endless quotations a highly
(V, pp.
valuable witness, as yet wholly unexplored, to the text of the most Those who have the privilege important of the Egyptian versions.
John Rylands Library may now follow up this hint, and pursue the investigation in one MS., which contains over sixty In this study they may be encouraged by references in sixteen pages.
of access to the
the words of the late C. "
R. Gregory,
:
who
in
his
"
Textkritik des
Neues Testament
"
(2, p. 769) writes
Dass
christliche
viel
Wissenschaft in Agypten gebliiht hat, weiss
man.
noch aus koptischen Handschriften zu erlangen sein Horner, Schmidt, von Lemm, Maswird, bleibt noch festzustellen.
pero,
Wie
Ceugney, Bouriant, Amelineau, Rossi sind dabei, was gewonnern werden kann, zu gewinnen."
When
these words
Gospels were available
were published in the year 1902, the Bohairic in Mr. Homer's Oxford edition (1898), which
1
was completed by the issue in 905 of the rest of the New Testament in that dialect, and duly noted in Gregory's 3rd vol. ( 909), p.
1
1305.
The
publication of
the Sahidic Gospels followed in
1911,
but the other books of the

this dialect are
New
only accessible in the fragments of
Testament regarded as a whole in Woide and Balestri.
The Old Testament

the
British
several important parts of
has not yet received complete treatment, but it have been recently edited from texts in
Sir
Museum, by
"
Herbert Thompson and Dr. Wallis

Library has recently acquired a copy of
Budge.
The John Rylands

to the
Schwartze's
Memphitic Gospels"
Rev.
J. M. MSS.
{Leipzig,
1846-47),
which
formerly belonged arranged and the Crawford Coptic Schwartze's edition includes catalogued a collation of the Greek New Testament of Tischendorf of 1841, and
Rodwell,
who
that of
Lachmann
of
842, as well as of Tischendorf 's edition of the
314

published in
"Codex Ephraemi,"
1843.
This edition marks the
beginning of comparative textual criticism which has reached so high a standard of careful description of the peculiarities of manuscripts and complete apparatus criticus in the Oxford edition, through the untiring
energy of Mr. Horner.
In the notes
added
70,
to the following
list
the
MS.
under notice
will
be quoted
as
whilst the other abbreviations employed will
be:= sahidic. = bohairic. " Budge = " The earliest Coptic Psalter ". = Fragmenta Bibliorum Sacrorum copto-sahidica," Vols. Ciasca Balestri = ib. Vol. III. om = omits. H = Oxford edition of Coptic New Testament, a, b = first and second columns of the MS. respectively.
sa
bo
and
II.
LIST
1.
OF REFERENCES.
1
P. la.
Ib.
2a.
Is. xl.
22cd.
2. 3. 4.
5.
22a, 23b,22b, 15, 22. P. 5a. 23.

24. 25.
26.
5b.
Cor.
Cor.
liii.
ii.
8.
Luke
1
ii.
i.
34.
18. 14,
v.
Ps. cxxxv. 15, 17, 18. Ps. cxxxiv. 10.

Ps. cxxxv. 13, 14. Ps. cv. 39.
Is.
2,
verse 2
repeated,
No.
17.
iv.
6b.
7a.
Cor.
ii.
8 and Eph.
6.
7.
,,2b.
Ps. Ixxvii. 24, 25, 16. Ps. cv. 17.
18, last clause.
27.
Matt,
xv.
xxvii.
33; Mark
8. 9.
,,
John
3a.
i.
3.
22
13.
Luke
xix.
xxiii.
Luke
Matt.
ii.
ii.
12.
33; John
28.
(also
x.
17.
10. 11.
*3b.
13.
Joel
ii.
John
John John
viii.
59
29.
7b.
Matt.
xxvi.
xiv.
65,
31).
12. 13. 14.
vii.
1
Mark
(cf. v.
63
64; Luke 42;
18).
x.
20.
30.
8a.
xxii. 71.
Matt,
xxvii.
xxiii.
Matt, xxvii. 48; xix. 28, 29.

4a.
John
31.
Luke
xv.
41, 35.
Matt, xxvii. 35;
Mark
xxiii.
15.
Matt, xxvii. 39; xv. 29.
Mark
24
Luke
34.
16.
4a.
John
v.
Is.
xix.
34, repeated 32.
Matt,
xiv.
xxvii.
28; Mark
John
xix. 2.
No. 42.
2,
65 65
17.
liii.
repeated
v.
33.
Matt, xxvii.
xiv.
;
No. 25.
18.
68; Mark Luke xxii.
4b.
Mark
John
ix.
21.
64.
34.
19.
xi.
34.
45.
20. 21.
Luke
Matt.
viii.
35.
;
viii.
;
25
Mark iv.
24.
136.
8b.
Matt, xxvii. 29. Matt. xxvi. 67. Matt, xxvii. 48;

xix. 2.
John
38
Luke
viii.

37. P. 8b. 38.
,.
315
Matt, xxvii. 28, 29.
9a.
Matt,
(cf.
xxvii.
43,
44 52.
51. P. 12a. John xix. 37. John xix. 28.
Ps. xxi.
ii.
1
Wis-
53.
12b. Matt.
vii.
;
2; Mark
vi.
iv.
dom
39.
40.
41.
8).
24
54.
1
Luke
i.
38.
Matt, xxvii. 47, 46.

9b.
Pet.
9, 8.
John
xix. 32, 33.
55.
13b. Matt, xxvii.

xv.
Matt. xxvi. 47.
43
;
57; Mark Luke xxiii.

xix.
42. 43.
I0a.
John
xviii. 8.
50
56.
John
38.
Luke
John
v.
xxiii. 2.
14b. Lukexxiv. 10.
44.
xix.
No.
16.
34, repeated 57. 58.

14.
Mark
Luke
15a.
xvi. 2-4.
xxiv. 5, 6.
13.
45.
46.
Matt,
11 a.
xxviii. 13,
59.
Lukexxiv.
lOb. John xix. 5.
60.
61.
47.
48.
John
xviii. 5, 6.
15b. Johnxiv. 18, 16. 16a. 1 Thess. v. 17.
Luke
Matt,
xxii.
53.
62. 63.
16b. Gen.
viii.
20, 21.
49.
50.
lib. Matt, xxiii. 34.

xxvii.
v. 28).
Eph.
v. 2.
25
(cf.
Acts
NOTES.
1
.
Is. xl.
Is. xl.
22c,
w?
ft>9
/cajjuavdv] not
o-KT)vr)v]
22d,
".
70
2.
70
"
Ps. cxxxv. 15, etcrivagavTi]
70. represented in like a garment or a covering. " "

so Vulg.
excussit
and Budge
".
sa.
drowned
3.
Ps. cxxxiv. 10,
7rdra^v] so Budge
sa.
R
"
70
"
destroyed
Ps. Ixxvii. 24, " instead of water ".

6.
8.
pdwa
$>ayelv\ so
Vulg.
all
ad manducandum
".
R 70
v.
John
i.
3, Trdi'Ta eyevero]
70 the
KOI
(singular) v.l. in sa.
H.
critical notes.
9.
Luke
ii.
12, ea-Trapyavcu/jievov
rceifjuevov]
70 omits "and**
with bo.
10.
Matt.
I
ii.
13, after
there until
12.
bring thee
vii.
"Flee word **.
into
Egypt"
70 om. "and be thou
John
1,
the same
14.
18.
word
as in
e&rovv] John x. 24
sa.
"
sought after,"
I
70
"
surrounded/'
Matt. om.
for e/cvK\a)(rav.
thirst]
it
Matt, xxvii. 48, John xix. 28,

"
R
"
70 with John.
Mark
with
ix.
sa.
"
pr.
21, Lo,
how
7.
long
is
since this
lo
and
bo.,
ii.
Gr. om.
"
came unto him]

is
70
Lo
with a question
unusual,
but
it is
found in Acts
24, St8d<rica\e, Si8d<T/ca\e] so Si&d(rica\6 once only.

viii.
21.
Luke
70 Matt,
/cvpie,
Mark
18-21. These four questions with their context should be compared with Rylands 68 [33] where Nos. 8 and 19 occur (v. Crum's " Catalogue "). They are used to illustrate the statement of the preacher that when the Lord
1
316
of all

in
condescended does not know.
humility
He
inquired about things like a
man who
This passage though 26. 1 Cor. ii. 8 and Eph. iv. 18 (last clause). introduced by the usual formula of quotation, which may be seen with the " context in Crum's Catalogue/' does not correspond exactly with any Biblical Cor. ii. 8 already cited (v. No. 22) and to It seems to paraphrase text. add "through the blindness of their heart" Eph. iv. 18 confirming the "
1
this interpretation of the word A.V. against the R.V. hardening". torn see my note on Wisdom ii. 21 in the "Journal of Theological Studies,"
On
"
XVII,92
Dean Armitage Robinson's Ephesians" (additional notes on " Gesammelte Abhandlungen," 101. Trwp&xrt?), and Lagarde's 29. Matt. xxvi. 65, 64, Mark xiv. 63, Luke xxii. 71, Ye have heard " " all with G.N. and the Armenian Version. his blasphemy] R 70 inserts
;
32.
Matt, xxvii. 28,
Mark
xv. 24, purple robe]

sa.
70 follows
sa.
Matt,
in transliterating the phrase in Coptic.
Greek while
Mark
has puristically expressed the
" then takes a clause from Matthew, they struck " smote thee," which is omitted him," and ends with the question, from the R.V. of Mark because though supported by some Greek mss.
33. This passage illustrates the remark about citations quoted from " " 70 begins by reproducing Mark covered his face while Kenyon.
" Luke has covered him,"
Who
with the Ethiopic and Armenian Versions

parallel passages.
it
is
obviously inserted from the
of thorns
36 and 37. Both enlarged, a highly and the crucifixion.
descriptive passage about the
crown
45. Matt, xxviii. 13, 14,
H.
sa.
the soldiers.
70
"
brass," om.
"
They gave H. great".
great (pieces) of brass to " suitable money ". bo.
70 with one bo. ms. 46. John xix. 5, Pilate said, behold your king] " Behold the man "), a confusion with verse 14. P. (Greek 49. Matt, xxiii. 24, reference to the gnat and the camel, in this order.
n'T69
is
translated in
i.
sa.
thlo
:
avolare facere, disperdere.
54.
8 in this order unfortunately not in Woide or Balestru verse 8. X a P? uveic\a\tJT(o KOI SeSofacr/z-c'z-T;] R 70 joy hidden " and glorified ". Bo. unspeakable and glorified ". verse 9. TO reXov rrj^Tricrreai^ i>fj,wv] R 70 om. VJJL&V which Hort
1
Pet.
9,
rejects as a very early interpolation.
55. Joseph of Arimathaea.
70
SL/CCLIOS as in
Luke
only.
not in any fragment or ms. noted by Horner. xvi. 2-4 Verse 3 is peculiar to Mark, and seems to show that in this case a reference to that Gospel was in the preacher's mind. As the lack of evidence for
57.
is
Mark
the Sahidic text of this passage is a matter of remark by critics, the possession of this text by the Rylands Library is specially noteworthy.
in the homily.
20, 21. Textually this is the most interesting quotation facsimile of this page shows the end of the homily and enables the Coptic student to compare the text of the homilist with the
viii.
62. Gen.
The
readings of Ciasca and of Wilkins.
In the 2
st
verse
70 agrees with

oiavorjOeiv
317
Wilkins against Ciasca in the omission of tcvpios, and in representing and Karapdo-aaOai rather than peravortfcfa and nrardâi, the last word having been apparently brought from the second clause of the
Terse into the
first.
This seems
Bohairic,
to illustrate the
and
different
view of a second Sahidic related from the best known Sahidic text.
to the
In conclusion, the ms. is interesting as showing the large use made of scriptural quotations in Coptic homilies, and especially of the gospels with a leaning in this case to the narrative of Luke.
the question of two Sahidic versions, one independent and one related to the Bohairic, reference should be made to Stern's review of " " " Literaturblatt fur Orientalische Lagarde's (Kuhn's Aegyptiaca
On
203) and to Crum's remarks on Erman's "Fragment of Hunt 5) in his notice of Sir Herbert Thompson's " edition printed in the Journal of Theological Studies," XI, 301.
Philogie," "
i.
Wisdom
(Bodleian
CLASSIFIED LIST OF
RECENT ACCESSIONS TO
LIBRARY.
'list is
THE JOHN RYLANDS

The
classification of
the items in this
in
accordance with
the main divisions of the

interest of those readers,
Dewey Decimal System/' and Jin the who may not be familiar with the system, it
"
may be
method
advisable briefly to point out the advantages claimed for this

of arrangement.
The
and by
principal advantage of a classified catalogue, as distinguished

is
from an alphabetical one,
that
it
preserves the unity of the subject,

its
so doing enables a student to follow
various ramifications
Related matter is thus brought together, and with ease and certainty. the reader turns to one sub-division and round it he finds grouped
others
which are intimately connected with

of the great merits of the system
it.
In this
way new
that
it is
lines
of research are often suggested.
One
Its
employed
is
easily
it.
capable of
comprehension by persons previously unacquainted with

feature
is
distinctive
the employment of the ten
digits,
in their
ordinary significance, to the exclusion of all other symbols
hence the
name, decimal system.
The sum
Dr.
of
human knowledge and

main
classes
activity has
been divided by
Dewey
into ten
0,
1 ,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
These
100 and
which
ten classes are each separated in a similar manner, thus making

divisions.
An
extension of the process provides
000
sections,
can be
still
further sub-divided in accordance with the nature
requirements of the subject. at any point of the scheme
Places for
new
subjects
by
the introduction of
may be provided new decimal points.

necessary to carry
For the purpose

of
of this
list
we
have not thought

"
it
the classification beyond the hundred main divisions, the arrangement
which
:
will
be found
"
in
the
Order
of Classification
which
follows
318
CLASSIFIED LIST OF RECENT ACCESSIONS

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319
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510 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590
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NEWSPAPERS.
SPECIAL LIBRARIES.
POLYGRAPHY.
090
BOOK
RARITIES.
600 100 Philosophy. 610 no METAPHYSICS. 620 120 SPECIAL METAPHYSICAL TOPICS. MIND AND BODY. 630 130 PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS. 640 140 MENTAL FACULTIES. PSYCHOLOGY. 650 1 50
1
CHEMISTRY. GEOLOGY. PALEONTOLOGY. BIOLOGY. BOTANY. ZOOLOGY. Useful Arts. MEDICINE. ENGINEERING. AGRICULTURE.
60
170 1 80
LOGIC. ETHICS.
660 670 680
ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS.
DOMESTIC ECONOMY. COMMUNICATION AND COMMERCE. CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. MANUFACTURES. MECHANIC TRADES.
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190
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8 10
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(Jean Clement Leonce) L'ecole anglaise, 1672Etudes biographiques et critiques: Thornhill Hogarth ReyTurner Lawrence Wilkie Wilson nolds Gainsborough 40983 1858. 256. Constable. 8vo, pp. Paris,
GOOL
(Johan van) De nieuwe schouburg der Nederlantsche kunstschilders en schilderessen waer in de levens-en kunstbedryven der tans levende en reets overleedene schilders, die van Houbraken, noch eenig ander
:
schryver,
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Sgravenhage Yiy^\
aengeteekend, verhaelt 2 vols. 8vo.

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worden.
[With
portraits.]
39812
%*
There
also
an engraved
title.
HOET
(Gerard) Catalogus of naamlyst van schilderyen, met derzelver pryzen zedert een langen reeks van jaaren zoo in Holland als op andere Benevens een verzameling van plaatzen in het openbaar verkogt. s Gravenhage, lysten van verscheyden nog in wezen zynde cabinetten. 2 vols. 8vo. 1752. R 3981 3
%
HOUBRAKEN
(Arnold)
De
schilders en schilderessen.
groote schouburgh der Nederlantsche konstWaar van 'er vele met hunne beeltenissen
ten tooneel verschynen, en hun levensgedrag en konstwerken beschreven worden zynde een vervolg op het Schilderboek van K. v. Mander. R 39814 Amsterdam, 1718-21. 3 vols. 8vo.
:
%*
eenige
There
is
also an engraved title page.
MANDER
(Carel van)
Het
leven
der
.
Hoogduitsche aanmerkingen ... en vollediger gemaakt, door Jacobus de Versierd met de afbeeldingen der voornaamste schilders. Jongh. R 3981 Amsterdam, 1764. 2 vols. 8vo.
. .
. . . . . .
schilders
doorluchtige Nederlandsche en met verscheiden bygevoegde
**
There
is
also
an engraved title-page.
322

750 FINE
ARTS: PAINTING.
.
. .
WHITLEY
trations.
(William Thomas) Thomas Gainsborough. London, 1915. 8vo, pp. xviii, 417.
With
illus-
41
760 FINE ARTS:
ENGRAVING.
print-collector's quarterly.
. .
BOSTON
8vo.
Museum
III,
of Fine Arts.
The
Volume
[etc.].
'[With
illustrations.]
Boston, Mass.,
1913,
etc.
In progress.
also the pages therein
40046
ENGLAND.
ing
:
Title-pages of four early books in English relating to engravwhich contain the sections on engraving and
:
also the earliest illustration in an English printing from engraved plates book of an engraving instrument. Lon[Compiled by H. C. Levis.] don : privately printed, 1916. 8vo. R 40376
%*
30 copies printed.
This copy
is
No.
8.
780 FINE
ARTS: MUSIC.
TAGORE
tion
(Sir Sourindro Mohun) Victoria Samrajyan, or Sanskrit stanzas, with a translation, on the various dependencies of the British Crown, each composed and set to the respective national music, in commemorathe assumption Victoria, of the diadem
of
.
by her Most Gracious Majesty, the Queen " '*.

Indiae Imperatrix
Calcutta, 1876.
8vo,
PP
xii, vi,
155.
R
AMUSEMENTS.
games.
39258
790 FINE ARTS:
DOUGLAS
162.
(Norman) London
street
London, [1916].
8vo, pp.
40753
800
BERG
LITERATURE:
GENERAL.
.
(Leopold) The superman in modern literature. from the German. London, [1916]. [With portrait.]
Translated
8vo, pp. 257.
40222
GUERBER
epics told in story.
(Helene Adeline) [With
The book
plates.]
of the epic
the world's great
London, 1916.
8vo, pp. 631.
R 41 345
with an
JENNINGS (James George)

appendix on the use
1915.
8vo, pp. 94.
of
An
essay on metaphor in poetry

in
metaphor
Tennyson's
In
memoriam.
London,
40302
810
LITERATURE: AMERICAN.
London, 1883.
8vo, pp.
vi,
JAMES (Henry)
Portraits of places.
376.
R 22668
MORE
(Paul Elmer) Shelburne essays.
London, 1915.
8vo.
In progress. R 33685
9. Aristocracy and justice.

810
323
LITERATURE
290.
AMERICAN.
of
SANTAYANA
1900.
(George) Interpretations
xi,
poetry and religion.
8vo, pp.
London, 26703
820
LITERATURE: ENGLISH: GENERAL.

:
GALLETTI
D. G. Rossetti e
Victoria].
(Alfredo) Saggi e studi Manzoni, Shakespeare e Bossuet. A. C. Swinburne. il romanticismo preraffaellita.
Rudyard Kipling.
La
letteratura
di
un
vi,
grande regno
385.
.
[i.e.
that
of
Bologna, [1915].
8vo, pp.
40056
HOGG
(James) The poems of J. Hogg. an introduction by William Wallace. 1903. 8vo, pp. vi, 273.
Selected and edited with
[With
portrait.]
London, 4061 9
York,
KRAPP
1915.
(George Philip) The

8vo, pp.
xiii,
rise of
English literary prose.
New
551.
:
R 40602
and Anglo248.
MACDONAGH
Irish.
(Thomas) Literature in Ireland London, [1916]. [With portrait.]
studies Irish
8vo, pp.
xiii,
R 40647
London,
NOBLE
1893.
(James Ashcroft)
8vo, pp.
x,
The
sonnet in England
& other essays.
211.
40273
:
WVLIE
thesis presented to the philosophical faculty of dacy for the degree of doctor of philosophy.
(Laura Johnson) Studies in the evolution of English criticism a Yale University in candiBoston, U.S.A., 1894.
viii,
8vo, pp.
212.
R 40327
821
LITERATURE: ENGLISH: POETRY.

[Publications.]
BALLAD SOCIETY.
I ,
[With
8vo.
. .
illustrations.]
Hertford, 1868-72 [-99].

2.
.
18 vols.
London, and R 17394

.
England.
. .
Edited
he
last
by
W.
Ballads from manuscripts.
Edited by F.
Furnivall
fVol 2
R.
Morfill.
.)
1868-72-73.
4-6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 18, 19, 21-38. British Museum. The Roxburghe ballads : (illustrating years of the Stuarts) [preserved in the British Museum]. With short notes by Edited Ebsworth Chappell (Vols. 4-9. 9 vols. byj. 1871
. . .
W.
7.
Laneham (R.) Captain Cox,

.
[1
869-]
[-99.]
his ballads
and books,
ones.
or,
R. Laneham's
at the
letter.
Re-
edited
by F.
J.
Furnivall.
1871.
II.
England.
books,
Love-poems and humourous
Written
small printed
A.D. 1614-1619,
Put
forth
in
the
British
Museum,
labelled
end of a volume of "Various poems,''
and markt
-yip.
by F.
J.
Furnivall.
1874.
:
14-17. British
Museum.
British
The Bagford
Museum].
ballads
.
illustrating the last years of the Stuarts

.
[now preserved
[1876-] 1878. 20. British
.
. .
in the
Edited
by
J.
W.
Ebsworth.
... 2
vols.
Supplementary volume. Edited by F. J. Furnivall. [1873]. Copland (R.) Jyl of Breyntford's testament ... and other short pieces. Furnivall. [Presented by the editor to the members of the Ballad Sotiety .]
. . .
Museum. The Amanda group of Bagford poems. Circa 1668. From the Collected originals in British Museum, etc. .1880 by J. W. Ebsworth. British Museum. The Roxburghe ballads [now preserved in the British Museum].
.
Edited by
1
87
1 .
21
324

821

Campion's works.
illustrations.]
CAMPION (Thomas)
[With
plates
and
Oxford,
Edited by Percival Vivian. 1909. 8vo, pp. Ixv, 400.
R
CHESTRE (Thomas)
41 128
Launfal, an ancient metrical romance. ... To which is appended the still older romance of Lybeaus Disconus. Edited by 40431 Edinburgh, 1891. 8vo, pp. 98. Joseph Ritson.
COMPLAINT.
mortality.
The
...
complaint or, night-thoughts on life, death, and imLondon, 1788. 8vo, pp. 251. [By E. Young.]
:
R 39965
DAVIES (William Henry) Child

8vo, pp. 28.
lovers
and other poems.

London, 1855.
London, 1916.
R
8vo, pp.
40939
319.
DE VERE
FLECKER
(Aubrey Thomas) Poems.
xii,
R R
40239
Edited, (James Elroy) The collected poems of J. E. Flecker. with an introduction, by J. C. Squire. [With portrait.] London, [1916]. 40999 8vo, pp. xxxi, 248.
(Charles)
GARDNER
modern thought.
Vision & vesture a study of William Blake in R 41082 London, 1916. 8vo, pp. xi, 226.
: . .
GAY
(John) Fable pp. viii, 232.
[sic]
[With
.illustrations.]
London,
788.
8vo,
R
R
39946
GOOD
HOPE
FRIDAY.
%*
200
Good
Friday.
[A
Letchworth: Garden City Press, 1916.

copies printed.
[i.e.
play in verse. By John Masefield.] 40571 8vo, pp. 77.
(Laurence) pseud,
lyrics
Violet Nicolson].
India.
The garden
in verse
vii,
. .
of
Kama
40936
40935
8vo,
and other love
from
Arranged
8vo, pp.
portrait.
.
.
by L. Hope.
[New
impression.]
love.
.
.
London, [1914].
. .
173.
Indian
With
[New
impression.]
London,
[1
91 4]
8vo, pp. 92.
Stars of the desert.
[New
impression.]
London, [1915].
pp.
vii,
151.
40934
IPOTIS.
Hitherto unprinted manuscripts of the Middle English Ipotis. By Josephine D. Button. Reprinted from the Publications of the Modern 8vo, [Baltimore], 1916. Language Association of America, xxxi, 1. 40286 PP 114-160. \* The title is taken from the wrapper.
.
Jay (Harriett) Robert Buchanan
some account
plates.]
of his
life,
his life's
work
and
xii,
his literary friendships.
[With
London, 1903.
8vo, pp.
324.
(John)
40997
:
MASEFIELD
plays in prose.
The locked chest, The sweeps of ninety-eight two Letchworth: Garden City Press, 1916. 8vo, pp. 100.
40568
%* 200
copies printed.

821
325
LITERATURE
ENGLISH
POETRY.
:
MASEFIELD
1916.
GM
Sonnets and poems.
Letchworth
8vo,pp. 51.
200 copies
printed.
Garden City Press, R 40569
%*
MONRO
**
(Harold)
400 copies
Trees.
[With
illustrations.]
[London],
Sheen Press], 1916.

printed.
4to, pp. 14.
[Temple
41060
MOORMAN
study.
(Frederick William) Robert Herrick

.
With
illustrations.
London,
xiii/343.
critical a biographical 1910. 8vo, pp. 41 046
&
POMFRET (JoM Poems

Viz.
I.
upon several occasions.

II.
By ...
reason.
J.
III.
Pomfret.
The
choice.
and VI.
lust.
IV.
On
the
Love triumphant over V. divine attributes.
Cruelty prospect of death.
On
rected.
added
vol.
The sixth edition, corthe conflagration and last judgment. With some account of his life and writings. To which are his Remains. London, 1724. 2 pts. in 1 [With frontispiece.]
12mo.
39970
Lon-
SHELLEY
don: printed for private
(Harriet) Harriet Shelley's letters to Catherine Nugent. 8vo, pp. x, 64. circulation, 1889.
R 40938
SHELLEY
(Percy Bysshe) Letters from P. B. Shelley to J. H. Leigh Hunt. Edited by Thomas J. Wise. [The Ashley Library.] London : privately 40406 8vo. 2 vols. printed, 1894.
%*
This copy
is
one o{
six printed
on vellum.
SWINBURNE
new
-
edition.
note on Charlotte Bronte. (Algernon Charles) London, 1894. 8vo, pp. 97.
\ 1
...
1
A study of Ben Jonson. London, 889. 8vo, pp. A study of Shakespeare. Fifth impression.
.
. .
R 41008 R 4 007
London, 1909.
8vo, pp. 309.
R 41 009
London,
A
1909.
study of Victor 8vo, pp. vi, 148.
Hugo.
Second impression.
R R
41 006
SYNGE (Edmund
**
tions with biographical notes.
John Millington) J. M. Synge : a few personal recollec[By J. Masefield.] Letchworth : Garden

8vo, pp. 32.
City Press, 1916.

200
40570
copies printed.
WISE MAN.
How the wyse man taught hys sone. In drei Texten Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwiirde herausgegeben. der hohen philosophischen Fakultat der Friedrich-Alexanders-Universitat Erlangen vorgelegt von Rudolf Fischer. Erlangen, 1889. 8vo, 401 74 pp.49.
. . .
R
.
WORDSWORTH
.
. .
(William) The poems of W. Wordsworth. with an introduction and notes by Nowell Charles Smith. London, [1908]. 3 vols. 8vo. frontispieces.]
.
Edited
R 41047
[With
326

821
YEATS
plates.]
(William Butler) Reveries over childhood London, 1916. 8vo, pp. ix, 213.
&
youth.
[With
41 127
822
LITERATURE: ENGLISH: DRAMA.
FORD
(John) The works of J. Ford, with notes critical and explanatory by new edition, carefully revised, with additions William Gifford. ... to the text and to the notes by ... Alexander Dyce. London, 8vo. 3vols. 1869. R 40573
HUNT,
Duke
afterwards
of
DE VERE
Mercia
historical dramas.
(Sir Aubrey) Julian the Apostate and the London, \ 858. 8vo, pp. xx, 343.
40240 41050
in-
MARLOWE
Tucker Brooke.
(Christopher) The works of C. Marlowe. 8vo, pp. vi, 664. Oxford, 1910.
Edited by C. F.
SHAKESPEARE (William) The works of Shakespeare. troductions and notes by C. H. Herford. (The
.
Edited with
Eversley edition.)
London,
901 - 1
5.
10 vols.
8vo.
40645
Edward Pudsey's booke," temp. Q. Shakespearean extracts from & K. James I., which include some from an unknown play " Blind beggar of by W. Shakespeare [or rather from G. Chapman's Also a few unpublished records of the Shakespeares of Alexandria "]. Snitterfield and Wroxall preserved in the Public Record Office. Collected by Richard Savage. [Stratford-upon-Avon Note Books,
Elizabeth
. .
"
No.
1.]
Stratford-on-Avon, [1888].
8vo, pp.
x,
83.
38394
Text by Malcolm C. Shakespeare in pictorial art. Edited by Charles Holme. [With plates.] [The Studio.]
1916.
4to.
Salaman.
London, 40735
Shake-
Shakespeare tercentenary
commemoration,
1616-1916.
speare's birthplace. Catalogue of an exhibition of original documents of th the XVII th centuries preserved in Stratford-upon-Avon,
XVI
&
illustrating
Shakespeare's
life in
the town, with
appended
lists
of facsi-
miles belonging to the trustees of contemporary Shakespearean documents which are preserved elsewhere. Compiled and arranged by
Fredk. C. Wellstood.
With
a preface
by
Sir
Sidney Lee.
[With
plates.]
Stratford-upon-Avon, 1916.
4to, pp. 50.
40409
The National Library of Wales. Shakespeare tercentenary, 1916. Annotated catalogue of books, etc., exhibited at the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, May,! 1916. 8vo, Aberystwyth, 1916.
pp. 19.
***
40377
The
title is
taken from the wrapper.
catalogue of the Shakespeare exhibition held in the Bodleian Library to commemorate the death of Shakespeare, April 23, 1616. Oxford, 1916. [With a preface by Sir Sidney Lee.] [With facsimiles.]
4to, pp. xv, 99.
40542
CLASSIFIED LIST OF
822
RECENT ACCESSIONS
327
LITERATURE: ENGLISH: DRAMA.
SHAKESPEARE
(William) Catalogue of the Shakespeare exhibition held in
the Bodleian Library at
Oxford to commemorate the tercentenary of the With an illustration. [With a preface by Sir death of Shakespeare. 32261 8vo, pp. yiii, 72. Oxford, 1916. Sidney Lee.]
Hand
Public Libraries. Shakespeare tercentenary, 1616-1916. in the Central Reference and Lending Libraries, on 8vo, [With portrait.] [Bolton, 1916.] Shakespeare and his works. Bolton
list
of
books
pp. 20.
40579
%* The
-
title is
Borough of Southwark Public Libraries and Museums. ... By ... Robt. W. Bowers. paper on Shakespeare and Southwark.
.
. .
Together with a catalogue of the exhibition held in connexion with the dedication to Shakespeare of a bay in the Reference Department of the Central Library, Walworth Road, on Thursday, May 1 1 th, 1916 ... by H. B. Irving. [With illustrations.] [Southwark,
.
.
1916.]
8vo, pp. 33.

.
R 40632
.
CARTER (Thomas) Shakespeare, puritan and recusant. With a prefatory note by ... J. Oswald Dykes. Edinburgh and 40590 London, 1897. 8vo, pp. 208.
. .
.
JAGGARD
.
.
point.
With
(William) Stratford-upon-Avon from a student's stand8vo, Stratford-on-Avon, [1916]. frontispiece.

.
pp.
vii.
40654
plates.]
%*
The
title is
MORLEY (Lacy Collison-) Shakespeare in 8vo, pp. 180. Stratford-upon-Avon, 1916.

-
Italy.
[With
41081
speare's Tempest.
de) The probable source of the plot of Shake[Publications of the Clark University Library, I, 8.] 8vo, pp. (209)-216. [Worcester, Mass., 1905.]
PEROTT Q ose pn
%* The
-
title is
taken from the caption.
R
.
. .
40628
RICHARDSON
of
some
-
of Shakespeare's
corrected.
(William) philosophical analysis and illustration remarkable characters. The third edition, 40393 London, 1 784. 8vo, pp. 207.
ROBERTS
.
(William Wright) Shakespeare Delivered in the Borough Hall, Bolton, on

8vo, pp. 16.
a tercentenary lecture. May 6th, 1916. [Bol-
ton, 1916].
-
R 40630
40595
.
SIMPSON
.
(Richard)
The
religion of Shakespeare.
the writings of
.
.
... R.
Simpson.
... By Henry
Chiefly from Sebastian Bowden.
London, 1899.
8vo, pp. xvi, 428.

.
R
.
STORES
(Charlotte Carmichael) Shakespeare's industry.
don, 1916.
8vo, PP
ix,
352.
.
R
.
.
Lon40575
THORNDIKE
illustrations.
New
(Ashley Horace) Shakespeare'.s theater. York, 1916. 8vo, pp. xiv, 472.
With
1
R 4061
328

822
LITERATURE
ENGLISH
DRAMA.
STRAW
Ein Beitrag zur Ges(Jack) The life and death of Jack Straw. chichte des elisabethanischen Dramas von Hugo Schiitt. [Kieler Studien Heft 2.] zur Englischen Philologie. 8vo, pp. 1 60. Heidelberg, \ 901
.
401 66
1915.
STUDIES
1
in the Religious
Drama.
[With
facsimiles.]
Oxford,
vol.
8vo.
of the Virgin.
Mary, the Blessed Virgin. The assumption N-town cycle. Edited by W. W. Greg. ...
miracle play from the
40212
of
SWINBURNE
(Algernon Charles) The duke
Gandia.
London, 1908.
8vo, pp. 60.
SVMONS
(Arthur) Tragedies.
London, 1916.
8vo, pp. 151.
R 41 010 R 41001
823
LITERATURE: ENGLISH: FICTION.
BELL By
Poems. (Currer) pseud, [i.e. Charlotte Bronte, afterwards Nicholls.] Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell [i.e. Charlotte, Emily Jane, and Anne 19414 London, 184. 8vo, pp. iv, 165. Bronte].
COVENT-GARDEN JOURNAL.
[Conn.], 1915.
The Covent-Garden Journal. By Sir Alexander Drawcansir, Knt. Censor of Great Britain (Henry Fielding). New Haven Edited by Gerard Edward Jensen. [With plates.]
2vols.
printed.
8vo.
41017
500 copies
EDGEWORTH
(Richard Lovell) Memoirs of R. L. Edgeworth ... beby himself and concluded by his daughter, Maria Edgeworth. gun R 28615 [With plates.] London, 1820. 2 vols. 8vo.
.
MELEKARTHA.
Taylor.]
The
1
London,
83
temple of Melekartha. 1 3 vols. 8vo.

.
:
... [A
novel.
R 401
By
I.
1
PANTHALIA.
affection
Panthalia
or the royal romance.
A discourse stored with

Faithfully
infinite variety in relation to state
government and passages of matchless gracefully interveined, and presented on a theatre of tragical and
a successive continuation to these times.
.
comical
state, in
and
(To the living memory of Castalion Pomerano, ingenuously rendred. author of Panthalia or the royal romance.) [Attributed to R. Brathwait] 41076 London, 1659. 8vo, pp. 303.
. . :
824
BEE.
LITERATURE: ENGLISH: ESSAYS.

by ... Goldsmith, a new
edition.
The
bee, a select collection of essays, on the most interesting
entertaining subjects, 8vo, pp. 252. [n.d.].
and London,
41 053
R
. . .
BUSY BODY.
whimsical,
[1789].
The busy body

comic,
vols.
and sentimental,
8vo.
a collection of periodical essays, moral, Oulton. London, by
...
41 032
.
FE RRIAR Qohn)
Second
Illustrations of
edition.
London, 1812.
Sterne 2
with other essays and verses.

8vo.
vols. in 1.
40237

824
329
LITERATURE: ENGLISH: ESSAYS.

The
free-holder, or political essays.
1
.
FREEHOLDER.
London, 1716.
[By
J.
Addison.]
8vo, pp. 3 1
4 036
1
GOSSE (Edmund
London, 1916.
William) Inter arma

8vo, pp. xv, 248.
being essays written in time of war.
R 40565
selected
HUNT
132.
(James Henry Leigh)

facts, illustrative
One hundred romances

of
of real life
and annotated by L. Hunt.

domestic
Comprising remarkable
historical
and
human
nature.
London, 1846.
R
The
religion of the heart.
8vo, pp.
40270
A manual of
faith
and duty.
1853.
8vo, pp. xxiv, 259.
London, 40271
LAY MONK.
The lay-monastery. Consisting of essays, discourse, etc. Publish'd singly under the title of the Lay-monk. Being the sequel of The second edition. [By Sir R. Blackmore and J. the Spectators. 4 1 034 London, 1714. 8vo, pp. 239. Hughes.]
PHAROS.
The
pharos.
A collection of periodical essays.

2
vols.
By the
author
of Constance.
London, 1787.
:
8vo.
R 41031
827
LITERATURE
;
ENGLISH
SATIRE AND HUMOUR.
BRATHWAIT
(Richard) Essaies Vpon The Five Senses, Revived by a Continued VVith with a pithy one upon Detraction. Christian Resolves, and divine Contemplations, full of passion and sundry The devotion purposely composed for the zealously-disposed. second Edition, revised and enlarged by the Author. London. Printed by Anne Griffin, and are to bee. sold by Henry Shep hard in 1635. 12mo, pp. [20], 312, Chancery lane, at the signe of the Bible.
new Supplement
;
[4].
R 41 073
%* There also an engraved title-page by W. Marshall. Times Cvrtaine Dravvne, Or The Anatomic Of
is
;
Vanitie.
. .
VVith
Other Choice Poems, Entituled Health from Helicon. London, Printed by lohn Dawson for lohn Bellamie, and are to be sould at the South entrance of the Roy all-Exchange. 1 62 8vo, ff [1 08] R 4 072
.
1 .
NATURE.
.
Natvres Embassie Or, The Wilde-Mans Measvres Danced naked by twelue Satyres with sundry others continued in the next Section. ([Sig. F 5 recto, title :] The Second Section Of Divine And Morall
: :
1 recto, caption:] [Ornament.] Satyres. [Printer's device.] [Sig. His Pastoralls Are Here Continved With Three Other Tales ; hauing
. . .
relation to a former part, as yetobscured. [Sig. P 4 recto, title :] Omphale, Or, The Inconstant Shepheardesse. [Printer's device.] 7 recto, title:] His Odes: Or, Philomels Teares. [Sig. " " " is subscribed Richard [Printer's device]) [The Epistle Dedicatorie Brathwayt ".] (London), Printed [by R. Field] for Richard Whitaker, 1621. R 41071 8vo, pp. [8], 263, [1].
.
**
Title within
woodcut border
330
827

LITERATURE
:
ENGLISH
SATIRE AND HUMOUR.
PORSON
(Richard) pseud.
new
catechism for the use of the swinish

.
To which is added, a multitude necessary to be had in all sties. between John Bull and President Yankee, on monarchies and dialogue
.
.
republics.
London, [1840?].
8vo, pp. 14.
39914
830
LITERATURE: GERMAN.
BEAUVOIS (Eugene) HI e et IV e siecles.
Histoire legendaire des Francs et des Burgondes aux Paris t Copenhague, 1867. 8vo, pp. viii, 547. .
. .
40380
GESSNER
German
London,
(Salomon) The death of Abel in five books, attempted from the The twenty-eighth edition. of ... Gessner [by M. Collyer.]
:
[n.d.].
8vo, pp. 143.

;
39957
LESSING (Gotthold Ephraim) Laokoon

Mahlerey und Poesie
xii,
.
oder
iiber
die
Grenzen der
Dritte Auflage.
Berlin, 1805.
316.
R 28200
. .
8vo, pp.
ZSCHOKKE
FEY DEL,
London, 1845.
Rabbi.
(Johann Heinrich Daniel) Autobiography of H. Zschokke. 40968 8vo, pp. viii, 220.
.
Ein seltzam vnd wunderbarlichs Gesprach / Von zweyen Rabinen gehalten / Welches ein ehrlicher Mann ohn alle Rabi geferd bekommen / wie der Bericht hernach erfolgen wirdt. Rabi Senderlein. beneath title.] [In verse.] [Woodcut Feydel. R 40501 8vo, ff. [30]. [n.p.] Anno, M.D.LXXI.
ludischen
839
LITERATURE: MINOR TEUTONIC.
APOSTLES. deres kamp
Legendariske fortaellinger om apostlernes liv Efter kristendommens ubredelse samt deres martyrd^d. som Universitetshaandskrifter udgivne af C. R. Unger. Udgiven gamle 8vo, pp. xxx, Christiania, 1874. program for andet semester 1873. R 38702 936.
Postola sogur.
for
EDDA.
bibliothek
Samling pa det store kgl. den aeldre Edda, i fototypisk Udgivet for Samfund til udgivelse af gammel og diplomatisk gengivelse. nordisk litteratur ved Ludv. F. A. Wimmer og Finnur Jonsson. K$benR 38704 havn, 1891. 4to, pp. Ixxv, 193.
gl.
i
Handskriftet Nr. 2365 4 to
K^benhavn, Codex regius
kgl. af
TEUTONIC RACES.
edited by Bruce Dickins.
Runic and heroic poems of the old Teutonic peoples, Cambridge, 1915. 8vo, pp. vii, 91.
. . .
4021 5

840
331
LITERATURE: FRANCE: GENERAL.

ecrivains
.
FRANCE.
progress.
Les grands
de
la
France
sous la direction de
Ad. Regnier.
Paris, 1914-16.
nouvelles editions publiees In 8vo.
Bossuet (J. B.) successively Bishop of Condom and of Meaux. Correspondance de Nouvelle edition augmented de lettres inedites et publie'e avec des notes et des apTome huitieme (-neuvieme). . 1914-15. . pendices . par Ch. Urbain et E. Levesque.
Bossuet.
. . .
R
.
16930
Mc'moires de Saint-Simon : Rouvroy (L. de) Due de Saint-Simon Vermandois. nouvelle edition collationnee sur le manusctit autographe, augmentce des additions de SaintSimon au journal de Dangeau et de notes et appendices par A. de Boislisle. (Avec la
. .
collaboration de L. Lecestre et de
J.
de
Boislisle.)
Tome
vingt-septieme (-vingt-huitieme.)
1915-16.
-
R7913
la
Les grands ecrivains de
France.
Deuxieme
la direction
serie.
Dix-huitieme
Publiee sous et dix-neuvieme siecles. In progress. 8vo. Pan's, 1915.

par G. Lanson.
de Gustave Lanson.
Lamartine de Prat (M. L. A. de) Meditations poe*tiques. 2 vols. 1915.
Nouvelle edition
publie'e
39680
841-42
LITERATURE: FRENCH: POETRY AND DRAMA,

. . .
BERANGER
(Pierre Jean de) Oeuvres completes de P. J. de Beranger. Edition unique revue par 1'auteur, ornee de vignettes en tailleParis, 1834. douce, dessinees par les peintres les plus celebres. 8vo. 4 vols. 40293
CAMMAERTS
poemes.
portrait
.
.
(Emile)
.
New
English translations
Les trois rois et autres Belgian poems. Tita Brand- Cammaerts. With a by
London, 1916.
8vo, pp. 123.
by H. G. Riviere.
23228
JEAN, de la Mote. Li inedit du XIV e siecle. Ashburham par Aug.

Louvain, 1882.
regret
.
Guillaume, comte de Hainaut.

. .
.
Poeme
Public, d'apres le manuscrit unique de Lord Scheler. [Academic Royale de Belgique.]

.
.
8vo, pp. xvi, 220.
40507
Ll MUISIS (Gilles) Poesies de G. Li Muisis, publiees pour la premiere fois le baron Kervyn d'apres le manuscrit de Lord Ashburnham par de Lettenhove. Louvain, \ 882. [Academic Royale de Belgique.] 2 vols. 8vo. 40505
. .
RAOUL,
alien
de Houdenc. Raoul von Houdenc samtliche Werke. Nach bekannten Handschriften herausgegeben von Mathias Friedwagner. (Mil Unterstiitzung der Kaiserl. Akademie der Wissenschaften R 40054 inWien.) Halle, 1897-1909. 2 vols. 8vo.
:
. . .
1.
2.
Meraugis von Portlesguez altfranzosischer Abenteuerroman. La vengeance Raguidel altfranzosischer Abenteuerroman.

: :
1897
1909.
WALCH
Morceaux choisis ac(Gerard) Poetes d'hier et d'aujourd'hui. compagnes de notices bio-et bibliographiques et de autographes paV G. Walch. Supplement a 1' Authologie des poetes francais contemporains. R 38825 Paris, [1916]. 8vo, pp. 514. [Collection Pallas.]
. .
332
841-42

LITERATURE: FRENCH: POETRY AND DRAMA.
Mysteres inedits du quinzieme siecle, publics pour 2 vols. Paris, 1837. par Achille Jubinal.
.
FRANCE.
fois
la
premiere
8vo.
...
R
843-44
3
36303
LITERATURE: FRENCH: FICTION AND ESSAYS.

culte
BARRfeS (Maurice) Le
Yols.
1 .
du moi.
Nouvelle
edition.
Paris, 1910-12.
12mo.
1'oeil
R
libre.
40279
Sous
des barbares.
2.
3.
Un homme
Le
jardin
de Berenice.
BOUCHET
covrt,
(Guillaume) Les Screes De Gvillavme Bovchet Sievr De BronDivisees En Trois Livres. . . Derniere Edition. Reueue
.
&
augmentee par 1'Autheur.
Lyon, [Printer's device beneath title.] Chez Pierre Rigaud, rue Merciere, au coing de rue Ferrandiere a M. DC. XI1II. 3 vols. in 1 8vo. fEnseigne de la Fortune.
.
R 40489
BURNS (Mary) La
384
langue d'Alphonse Daudet.
Paris, 1916.
[error for 374].
8vo, pp.
40930
CARLET DE CHAMBLAIN DE MARIVAUX (Pierre) Le paysan parvenu, A La Haye, 1734-35. 5 vols. in 1. ou les memoires de M***.
8vo.
R
illustre.
40461
DUMAS DAVY DE LA PAILLETERIE

Dumas
8vo.
Paris
(Alexandre) the Elder. 25 vols. 8vo. [n.d.]

vie et aventures.
Alexandre R 40962
2
vols.
La
princesse de
Monaco:
Paris, 1865.
R
: .
.
37283
KOHLER
(Pierre)
Madame
.
litteraire.
Avec
8vo, pp. x, 720.
de Stael et la Suisse etude biographique et documents inedits. Lausanne, Paris, 1916. R 4 1058
.
PlNVERT
1883.
(Lucien)
Un
[With
plates
D. Forgues, 1813ami de Stendhal: le critique and illustrations.] Paris, 1915. 4to, pp. 84.
R 40062
Du VA1R
(Guillaume) Bishop of Lisieux.

. . . . . .
Traite de
la
Constance et con-
pendant le siege de Paris de Orne d'un et F. Funck-Brentano Edite par Jacques Flach 1590. R 40230 de G. du Vair. Paris, 1915. 8vo, pp. 255. portrait
solation es calamitez publiques ecrit
850
LITERATURE: ITALIAN: GENERAL.

A.) Storia della
.
CANELLO
(U.
letteratura
. .
italiana
nel
secolo
XVI.
4.]
[Storia Letteraria d'ltalia Scritta Milano, [1880]. 8vo, pp. xv, 327.
sotto la
Direzione di P. Villari,
R
settecento
:
39146
saggi
NATALI
letterarii.
(Giulio) Idee, costumi, uomini del Torino, 1916. 8vo, pp. 356.
studii e
40292

850
333
LITERATURE: ITALIAN: GENERAL.

Gli
Giornate.
Diporti Di Di Novo Ristampati,
. .
PARABOSCO
Diuisi
in
(Girolamo)
III.
Girolamo Parabosco.
&
con ogni
title.]
diligenza
riueduti,
&
corretti.
[Printer's
device beneath
In
ff.
Appresso Gio. Battista Vgolino.
MDLXXXVI.
8vo,
Venetia, 120.
40502
851
LITERATURE: ITALIAN: POETRY.

Con Dante
e
Leopardi.
BlONDOLILLO
STO,
(Francesco)
Palermo,
1916.
PP
101.
4031 7
CASTELVETRO
(Lodovico) Sposizione ... a xxix canti dell* Inferno Dantesco ora per la prima volta data in luce da Giovanni Franciosi. [Estratto dal Vol. iii., Serie ii., delle Memorie della [With facsimiles.] R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti di Modena, Sezione di Scienze.]
4to, pp. xxxi, 410.
Modena, 1886.
R 40206
DANTE ALIGHIERI. La Divina

antichissimi esemplari.
Di Dante, Di Nvovo Alia Sva Vera
[within ornamental compartment] Comedia lettione ridotta con lo aiuto di molti
& Apostille nel
Con Argomenti, Et Allegoric Per Ciascvn Canto, Et Indice Copiosissimo Di tutti i Vocaboli margine. usati dal Poeta, con la sposition loro. piu importanti [Edited by L. In Dolce.] [Printer's device beneath title.] [With woodcuts.] Vinegia Appresso Gabriel Giolito De. Ferrari, Et Fratelli.
.
2mo, pp.
-
[36] ,
598
[2]
MDLV. R 4 055
1
La
divina comedia.
Traduc. de
Salo.
direccion artistica por
A.
Ornato y Sanjuan. Barcelona, [1916?]. 8vo, pp. 358.
M. Aranda
R 40932
The
Toynbee.]
1,
Laurentian
text,
friend in Florence, epist.
ix.,
cod. Laurent, xxix, 8, of Dante's letter to a with emended text and translation. [By P.
vol. xi., no.
January, 1916.)
title is
(Reprinted from The modern language review, 8vo, pp. 61-68. {Cambridge, 1916.]
40202
%* The
FLAM IN
(Francesco)
.
II
.
significato e
.
il
fine della
Seconda edizione.
Livorno, 1916.
8vo.
Divina commedia. In progress.
R
860
39773
LITERATURE: SPANISH.
de la lengua y literatura castellana. In progress. 8vo. Madrid, 1915-16. R 38588
CEJADOR Y FRAUCA
..
2.
3.
4.
(Julio) Historia
[With
plates.]
poca de Carlos V.
1915
1915.
Epoca de Felipe Epoca de Felipe
II.
III.
1916
334

860
LITERATURE: SPANISH.
autores espanoles, fundada bajo la direccion del Madrid, 1915. 8vo. In pro-
NUEVA
. .
.
BIBLIOTECA de
Marcelino Menendez y Pelayo.

Cruz Cano y Olmedilla (R.F.I, de
Colecci(5n ordenada por
.
.
gress.
23.
ine'ditos.
la)
R
. . .
27408
Sainetes de
R. de
.
la
Cruz en su mayoria
E. Cotarelo y Mori.
SANCHEZ GALARRAGA
(Gustavo) La
fuente matinal.
Poesias.
Pro-
[With portrait.] La Habana, logo de Jose Maria Chacon y Calvo. 1915. 40201 8vo, pp. 116. XENES (Nieves) Poesias. [Academia Nacional de [With portrait.]
Artes y Letras.]
Habana, 1915.
8vo, pp.
xxiii,
224.
40067
870
LITERATURE: CLASSICAL: GENERAL.

The Loeb
.
LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY.

E. Capps
plates.]
.
.
classical
library.
.
E. Page London, 1916. 8vo.

.
T.
W. H.
D. Rouse.
Edited by [With
.
.
In progress.
The communings with himself of M. Aurelius Antoninus (M.), Emperor of Rome. Aurelius Antoninus, Emperor of Rome, together with his speeches and sayings. revised text and a translation into English by C. R. Haines. ... 40551
R R
R
Ovidius Naso (P.) Ovid 2 vois.

Plautus (T.
Plutarch.
Metamorphoses.
With an
English translation by F.
J. Miller.
40548
M.)
Plautus.
With an
English translation by P. Nixon.
...
.
vol.
R 40550
. .
Plutarch's lives.
With an
English translation by B. Perrin.
Vol.
III.
37652
.
.
Vergilius
Maro
(P.) Virgil.
With an
English translation by
H. R.
Fairclough.
40549
WALTERS
Roman
H.
8vo, pp.
(Henry Beauchamp)
.
antiquities,
B. Walters.
x,
dictionary of Greek and Edited by and mythology. biography, geography, With illustrations. Cambridge, 1916.
classical
. . .
. .
1103.
41
040
870
LITERATURE: CLASSICAL: LATIN.

\
C/ESAR (Caius Julius) The commentaries of Caesar, translated into English. The second edition. [With maps and plates.] London, 779. 8vo,
. .
.
pp.520.
238 13
. . .
ERASMUS
pp.555.
(Desiderius)
The
.
colloqui[es]
or familiar
discourses
rendered into English
by H. M. Gent.
London, 1671.
8vo,
R 21255
Epitome Chiliadvm adagiorum Erasmi Roterodami, ad comodiorem Accesservnt studiosorum usum per Hadrianum Barlandu conscripta. his iam nunc adagia quaecunq; nouissimae editioni chiliadum passim addidit Erasmus. Euckarius Ceruicor excudebat ([Colophon sig. S3 Colonice apud Eucharium Cervicornum [1523?] mense Septembri. verso:] cere 8vo, ff. 139 [13]. Impensa Godefridi Hittorpij. .)
:
&
R 40498
%*
Title within
woodcut border.

870
335
LITERATURE: CLASSICAL: LATIN.
ERASMUS
(Desiderius) Parabolas Sive Similia D. Erasmi Roterodami postremum ab autore recognita, cum accessione nonnulla adiectis aliquot uocularum obscurarum interpretationibus. (Vocvlarvm Qvarvndam ExPer lodocvm Badivm.) [n.p.] Anno M. D. XXV. 8vo, ff. [92]. positio
40499
%*
Title within
woodcut border.
:
HERCULANEUM.
Poematis Latini rell ex vol. Herculanensi evulgatas Adiectae denuo recognovit, nova fragmenta edidit loannes Ferrara. R 40153 1908. sunt tabulae XIII. 8vo, pp. 52. Papiae,
Junius) The satires of Juvenal and Persius, from the Second edition. Ruperti and Orellius with English notes. Charles William Stocker. London, 839. 8vo, pp. xviii, 537. 2061 5
:
.
JUVENALIS (Decimus
texts of
By
KORNMANN
. .
.
mentorum ignis, aeris, aqvae & terras disseritur. IV. Quaestiones enucleatae de virginum statu ac jure ex optimis turn sacris, turn prophanis authoribus
:
(Heinrich) Henrici Kornmanni opera curiosa in tractatus quatuor distributa, quorum I. Miracula vivorum II. Miracula mortuorum. miraculis eleIII. Templum naturae historicum, in qvo de natura
;
&
juribusqve natur. divin. canonic, civil, desumpta. Moenum, 1694. 2 pts. in 1 vol. 8vo.
Francofurti
ad
R 39977
Comoediae
Wanting
pts. 3-4.
PLAUTUS
Omnes
cum argumentis singularum comoediarum Nee Non Avctoris Vita Quibus accessit copiosissimus Index omnium quae notatu uisa sunt digna. [Edited by lorentice M. D. LIHI. S. Charpentier.] [Printer's device beneath title.] ([Colophon :] FtorenticB per hceredes Bernardi hmte, anno Domini.
(Titus Maccius) M. Accii Plavti Poetae Antiqvissimi quae nunc extant exactissima diligentia recognitae, vna
M. D.
LIIII.)
8vo,
ff.
[8],
387
[error for 388], [1].

:
R 40468
SjOGREN (Hakan) Commentationes Tullianae de Ciceronis epistulis ad Accedunt Brutum, ad Quintum Fratrem, ad Atticum quaestiones. duae tabulae phototypice expressae. [Vilhelm Ekmans Universi.
tetfond, Uppsala. 8.]
Uppsala, Leipzig, [1910].
8vo, pp. 169.
401 54
TACITUS
libri
(Publius Cornelius) C. Corn. Taciti Annalivm Et Histonarvm * lusti illustrati. jF Eivsdem qui extant, Lipsij studio emendati Taciti Liber de moribus Germanorum. Incerti lulij Agricolae vita.
&
Scriptoris Dialogus
de oratoribus
sui temporis.
Cum
notis lusti Lipsij
Accesserunt huic editioni appelaciones nationum Vertranij Mauri. prouinciarum Germaniae. [Printer's device beneath title.] Lvgdvni,
& &
ApvdAut. Gryphivm. M. D. LXXVI.

VERGILIO
natis
16mo, pp. 925,
[47].
R 40545
(Polydoro) [Ornament above
title].
Polydori Vergilii Vrbi-
De Rervm Inventoribvs Libri Octo. [Printer's device beneath Romae, Apud Hceredes Antonij Bladij Impressores Camerales. title.] Anno. M. D. LXXVI. R 40464 8vo, pp. [46], 478 [2].
.
336

880
LITERATURE: CLASSICAL: GREEK.

Antonini Liberalis Transformationum congeries.
ANTONINUS,
Liberate.
Phlegontis Tralliani
de Mirabilibus
&
longaeuis Libellus.
Eivsdem
De
Olympijs fragmentum.
Apollonii Historiae mirabiles.
Antigoni Mirabil.
M. Antonini Philosophi Imp. Romani, de vita sua narrationu congeries. Libri XII. ab innumeris quibus antea scatebant mendis repurgati, nunc
&
Greece Latineq omnia, Gvil. Xylandro August, cum Annotationibus & Indice. Basileae, per Thomam interprete 40457 Guarinum, M. D. LXVIII. 2 pts. in 1 vol. 8vo.
vere
:
demum
editi.
HERODOTUS.
maps.]
general readers
Herodotus, translated from the Greek, for the use of with short explanatory notes. By Isaac Taylor. [With 40115 London, 1829. 8vo, pp. xxvi, 766.
;
PERNOT
(Hubert Octave)
.
. .
rage orne de
illustrations.
tudes de litterature grecque moderne. Paris, 1916. 8vo, pp. ii, 284.
Ouv-
40658
ROSTAGNI
ROUSSEL
370.
Moderne. 242].
(Alfred)
[Piccola Biblioteca di Scienze (Augusto) Poeti alessandrini. R 40318 Torino, 1916. 8vo, pp. xiii, 398.
La
religion
dans Homere.
Paris, 1914.
R 40291
R
8vo, pp.
NORVIN
(William) Olympiodoros fra Alexandria og bans commentar til Studier i deu graeske philosophis historic. Platons Phaidon. Kfybenhavn og Kristiania, 1915. 8vo, pp. 345. 40252
RICHARDS
167.
(Herbert Paul) Aristotelica.
London, 1915.
8vo, pp.
ix,
40263
SHREWSRURY
Sabrinae corolla in hortulis Regiae Royal School. Scholae Salopiensis contexuerunt tres viri [i.e. B. H. Kennedy, J. RidLondini, Cantabrigiae, 1859. dell, and another] floribus legendis. 39629 8vo, pp. xxxvi, 335.
: ,
890
LITERATURE: MINOR LANGUAGES.
CAILLIN, Saint, Archbishop of Fenagh. The book of Fenagh in Irish and English, originally compiled by [or rather attributed to] St. Caillin, With the contractions Archbishop, abbot, and founder of Fenagh. The whole resolved, and, as far as possible, the original text restored. and revised and W. M. Hennessy annotated, by done into English, by D. H. Kelly. Dublin, \&ft. [With plates.] R 40430 4to, pp. x, 439.
.
O'HUIDHRIN
;
(Giolla Na Naomh) The tribes and territories of ancient Ossory comprising the portions of O'Heerin's and O'Dugan's topographical poems which relate to the families of that district. Enlarged from the Transactions of the Kilkenny Archaeological Society for the year 1850. R 40456 . Dublin, 1851. 8vo, pp. 16. By John O'Donovan.
.

890
iUlSNECH.
337
LITERATURE: MINOR LANGUAGES.

thrhi$.
notes,
OU>e Clomne With translation,
Fate of the children of Uisneach.
and a complete vocabulary.

Language.]
for the Preservation of the Irish

viii,
Dublin,
898.
[Society 8vo, pp.
150.
R 40503
WlNDISCH (Wilhelm Oscar

Serie 1(-2) Heft.
S.
Worterbuch. Herausgegeben von
[An
Ernst) Irische Texte, mil Ubersetzungen und Wh. Stokes und E. Windisch. Zweite interleaved copy, with manuscript notes by
H. O'Grady.]
Leipzig, 1884-87.
pts. in
vol.
8vo.
R 40420
DlNNSHENCHAS.
Stokes.
.
.
Bodleian Dinnshenchas. Reprinted from Folk-lore, vol.
The
Edited
III.,
1892.
[1892?].
8vo, pp. 50.
by Whitley London, R 40444

. .
The Edinburgh
pp.79.
Dinnshenchas.
vol.
Reprinted from Folk-lore,
IV., 1893.
Edited by Whitley Stokes. 8vo, London, [1892?]. R 40441
LEABHAR NA
collected
in
FEINNE. Vol. I. Gaelic texts. Heroic Gaelic ballads Scotland chiefly from 1512 to 1871. Copied from and from rare books and orally collected since 859 manuscripts with lists of collections, and of their contents and with a short account
.
of the
documents quoted.
Arranged by
J.
F. Campbell.
London,
1872.
Fol., pp. xxxvi, 224.

.
R
.
.
40470
MACINTYRE
Songs and (Duncan) Orain agus dana Gaidhealach. Tenth edition. With an English translation of poems in Gaelic. " "Coire cheathaich" and Ben Dorain". Edinburgh, 1887. 8vo, pp. R 40453 233.
. .
.
MACPHERSON
202.
(Donald) An duanaire a new collection of Gaelic songs and poems, never before printed. (An duanaire co-thional ur de dhde dhuanagan, etc. orain, Edinburgh, 1868. 24mo, pp. xii, .)
:
:
40804
Gaelic
ROLLESTON (Thomas
literature,
William Hazen) Imagination and
art in
being notes upon some recent translations from the Gaelic. lecture delivered before the National Literary Society of Ireland on Kilkenny, [1900]. [Library of the Nore. 1.] February 16th, 1900.
8vo, pp. 32.
R 40443
Gweno-
WALES.
progress.
Series of
Welsh
texts.
gvryn Evans.
Llanbedrog :
edited by Reproduced \privately printed\, 1910-15.
&
J.
8vo.
In 10119
9. Taliesin, the Bard. Facsimile & text of the Book of Taliesin. [Preserved in the National Library of Wales.] Reproduced 1910. edited by J. G. Evans. ... 2 vols. *** No. 38, on Japanese vellum. 9B. Taliesin, the Bard. Poems from the Book of Taliesin. Edited, amended,
&
translated
by
J.
G. Evans.
1915.
338

890
:
LITERATURE MINOR LANGUAGES. DEUTSCHE MORGENLAENDISCHE GESELLSCHAFT. Abhandlungen

fur die
.
Kunde des Morgenlandes, herausgegeben von der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft unter der verantwortlichen Redaction des Hermann Brockhaus ([Bd. 5 :] des Ludolf Krehl). Leipzig,
.
1859.
1.
i.
8vo.
In progress.
(F.
39646
Windischmann
H. H.)
Mithra.
Ein Beitragzur Mythengeschichte des Orients.
1859.
I.
ii.
seiner Zeit
1 .
Fluegel (G. L.) Al-Kindi, genannt und seines Volkes. 1857.

2.
ii.
"der Philosoph der Araber".
Ein Vorbild
iii.,
Avesta.
Zarathustra's, seiner Jiinger
Die fnnf Gatha's, oder Sammlungen von Liedern und Spriichen und Nachfolger. Herausgegeben, ubersetzt und erklart von
.
M. Haug.
I.
1858-60.
(A.) Ueber das (Jatrunjaya MShatmyam [of Dhanesvara Suri], [With Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Jaina. 1858. 1. v. Lipsius (R. A.) Ueber das Verhaltniss des Textes der drei syrischen Briefe des 1859. Ignatios zu den iibrigen Recensionen der ignatianischen Literatur. 2. i. Bible. Hermae pastor. Apocrypha. Aethiopice primum edidit et Aethiopica Latine vertit A. d* Abbadie. 860.
iv.
Weber
extracts
from the
original.]
See supra iii. 2. iii. Kasim ibn Kutlubugha. Die Krone der Lebenbeschreibungen enthaltend die Classen der Hanefiten von Zein-ad-din Kasim Ibn Kutlubuga herausgegeben und mil Anmerkungen und einem Index begleitet von G. Fliigel. 1862. 2. iv. Fluegel (G. L.) Die grammatischen Schulen der Araber. Nach den Quellen bearbeitet von G. Fliigel. Erste Abtheilung. Die Schulen von Basra und Kufa und die gemischte
2.
ii.
1 .
.
.
Schule.
1862.
2. v, 4. v.
Somadeva.
1862-66.
Somadeva, son of Rama. Katha sarit sagara. Die Marchensammlung des Buch VI. VII. VIII. (. IX -XVIII). Herausgegeben von H. Brockhaus.
. .
Sze Shoo. Sze-schu, Schu-king, Schi-king in mandschuscher Uebersetzung mit 3. i, ii. einem Mandschu-Deutschen Worterbuch herausgegeben von H. C. von der Gabelentz.
1864.
Mit ... Karten nach 3. iii. Sprenger (A.) Die Post- und Reiserouten des Orients. . Erstes Heft. 1864. einheimischen Quellen. Sanskrit und Deutsch 3. iv, 4. i. Asvalayana. [Grihyasutra] Indische Hansregeln. Ueber die Sitte. Rede zur akademischen Feier herausgegeben von A. F. Stenzler. (Anhang. des Geburtstages Sr. Majestat des konigs Wilhelm am 22 Ma'rz 1863 in der Aula Leopoldina 1864-65. gehalten von ... A. F. Stenzler.
.
.
4. 4.
i.
See supra
3. iv.
. .
ii.
Santanava.
Einleitung, Uebersetzung
4.
iii.
Cantanava's Phitsutra. Mil verschiedenen indischen Commentaren, 1866. und Anmerkungen herausgegeben von F. Kielhorn. Kohut (A.) Ueber die j'ddische Angelologie und Daemonologie in ihrer Abhangigkeit
.
vom
Parsismus.
4. iv.
1866.
Eshmunazar, King of Sidon. Die Grabschrift des sidonischen Konigs Eschmun-ezer 1866. Mit ubersetzt und erklart von ... IE. Meier. Kupfertafeln. 4. v. See supra 2, v. 5. i. Petermann (J. H.) Versuch einer hebraischen Formenlehre nach der Aussprache der heutigen Samaritaner nebst einer darnach gebildeten Transscription der Genesis und einer Beilage enthaltend die von dem recipirten Texte des Pentateuchs abweichenden Lesarten der
. . .
Samaritaner.
5.
ii.
868.
.
. .
Blau (E. O. F. H.) Bosnisch-turkische Sprachdenkmaler gesammelt, gesichtet und O. Blau. 1868. hergausegeben von Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss des 5. iii. Weber (A.) Ueber das Saptacatakam des Hala.
.
. .
PraVit.
5.
iv.
1870.
Kohn (S.) Zur Sprache, Literatur und Dogmatik der Samaritaner. lungen nebst zwei bisher unedirten samaritanischen Texten herausgegeben von 1876.
Drei Abhand.
.
S.
Kohn.
SOCIETE ASIATIQUE.
Societe asiatique.
Paris; 1861-77.
Collection d'ouvrages orientaux. 9 vols. 8vo.
Publiee par
la
'Ali ibn rtusain, al-Mas 'udi. Les prairies d'or. Texte et traduction (tome 1-3) par C. Barbier de Meynard et Pavet de Courteille (tome 4-9 par C. Barbier de Meynard.V 1861-77.
40512

890
339
LITERATURE
:
MINOR LANGUAGES.
.
KALIDASA.
the
Kalidasa
Madras manuscripts.
8vo.
I.
a complete collection of the various readings ot Madras, 1904-07. By ... T. Foulkes.

. .
4vols.
R 41 224
Meghasandesha, Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava.

.
.
1904.
2-3. Shakuntala.
4.
1904.
I.
Vikramorvashi, acts
-V.
1907.
MAHANAMA.
translation]
:
The
first
twenty chapters of the

.
.
Mahawanso
1836.
[with
. .
a
.
and a prefatory essay on Pali Buddhistical

.
literature.
By ... George Tumour.

cxxvii, 139, xvii.
\Cotta\,
Ceylon,
8vo,
R
:
pp.
39257
CALDERON
(George) The maharani of Arakan a romantic comedy in one act; founded on the story of Sir Rabindranath Tagore. ... Illustrated by Clarissa Miles. Photographs ... by Walter Benington. Together with a character sketch of Sir R. N. Tagore, compiled by R 40309 K. N. Das Gupta. London, 1915. 8vo, pp. 64.
(Petr Aleksyeevich) Prince.
KROPOTKIN
realities.
Russian literature
Library.]
ideals
and
[Second
edition.]
[Readers'
London,
8vo, pp. xv, 376.
R
study.
[1916].
40757
[With 40959
MURRY
(J.
portrait.]
Middleton) Fyodor Dostoevsky London, 1916. 8vo, pp. 263.
a critical
900 HISTORY:
BRATHWAIT
Gentry.
Historicall
GENERAL,
(Richard) Svrvey Of History: Or, Nursery for Contrived and Comprized in an Intermixt Discourse upon
and
Poeticall
Relations.
Distinguished
.
into
several
Heads
as be
I.
for the Direction of the
Reader,
to all such Historical Mixtures,

. .
Comprehended in this Treatise. Imprinted at London by Okes,for Iasper Emery at the Eagle and Child in Pauls Churchyard -next Watlin Street, 1638. 4to, pp. [26], 415, [1]. R 40622 Title within border of typographical ornaments. %*
CHAMBERLAIN
Jahrhunderts
.
Die Grundlagen des neunzehnten (Houston Stewart). iv Auflage. 2 vols. Miinchen, 1903. 8vo.
. .
R
OXFORD HISTORICAL AND LITERARY
and literary studies. Walter Raleigh. In progress. 8vo.
.
40382
and
STUDIES.
Oxford
historical
Issued under the direction of C.

.
H.
Firth
[With maps and

s
illustrations.]
Oxford, 1916.
R
work
in
34690
7.
Martin (C. B.) Lord Selkirk
Canada.
1916.
YOUNG
(George Frederick) East and west through being a general history from B.C. 44 to A.D. 1453. tions and maps. London, 1916. 2 vols. 8vo.
. .
.
fifteen
.
.
centuries:
illustra-
With
In progress.
R
22
41088
340

910
HISTORY
VOYAGES AND TRAVELS.

8vo.
HAKLUYT
plates.]
SOCIETY.
Publications.
London, 1913-15.
Second Series. In progress.

.
[With maps and R 1828
China. 33, 37, 38. Cathay and the way thither : being a collection of medieval notices of China. Translated and edited by ... Sir H. Yule. . . With a preliminary essay on the intercourse between China and the western nations previous to the discovery of the Cape route. New edition revised throughout in the light of recent discoveries. By H. Cordier. 3 vols.
1913-15. 36. Spain. The quest and occupation of Tahiti by emissaries of Spain during the years 1772-1776. Told in despatches and other contemporary documents translated into English and compiled, with notes and an introduction, by B. G. Corney Volume II. 1915. 39. Fryer GO new account of East India and Persia, being nine years' travels, 1672-1681. Edited with notes and an introduction by W. Crooke. Vol. III.
:
.
1915.
HANDBOOKS TO ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS

illustrations.]
London, 1916.
8vo.
SERIES. In progress.
:
[With
plates
and
Joyce (T. A.) Central American and West Indian archeology

the archaeology of the states of Nicaragua, Costa Rica,
being an introduction to
Panama and
the
West
Indies.
R
929 HISTORY
:
4061 8
GENEALOGY.
ADAMS
With
(Percy Walter Lewis)
Staffordshire
. . .
&
history of the Adams family of North of their connection with the development of the Potteries.
pedigree charts
&
notes on allied families.
London, 1914
[1916].
4to, pp. xix, 417,
xliii.
R 40744
.
CAMPBELL,
lections
Clan.
The
by
.
formed
...
.
.
clan Campbell. Sir Duncan
From
the
of
Campbell
col-
Glenure, Baronet.
Campbell Edinburgh, 1916. 4to. In progress.
Barcaldine
and
33882
series.
4. Abstracts of entries relating to Campbells from various sources.
Second
1916.
iNGPEN, Family of. the Saxon origin of

[With
ancient family a genealogical study showing the family of Ingpen. By Arthur Robert Ingpen. 41038 London, 1916. 8vo, pp. x, 208. folding tables.]
:
An
O'BRIENS, Family of. Historical memoir of the O'Briens. With notes, Compiled appendix, and a genealogical table of their several branches. from the Irish annalists by John O'Donoghue. 8vo, Dublin, 1860. R 40478 pp. xxxii, 551.
;
PlLKlNGTON, Famiy
.
. .
Genealogy of the Pilkingtons of Lancashire (Pilkington, Rivington, Durham, Sharpies, Preston, St. Helens, and Sutton). By John Har lands. Edited by William E. A. Axon [With frontispiece.] [Manchester} : printedfor private circulation, 875. R 18427 4to, pp. Ixv, 63.
of.
. .
SAINT LEGER (Edward

piled
Frederick) Stemmata
St.
by E. F.
St.
Leger.]
[S cotton, 1862.]
Leodegaria. Folding sheet.
[Com4to.
39989

929 HISTORY:
341
GENEALOGY.
Edited by England and Wales. [London, S.E.] : [With plates.] In progress. R 5086*2
CRISP (Frederick Arthur)

F.
Visitation of
A.
**
Crisp.
Notes.
\
Vol. 4
(-1 1)
privately printed,
902- 15.
8vo.
150 copies printed.
HARLEIAN SOCIETY.
Registers.
46.
. .
The
London, 1916.
. publications of the Harleian Society. In progress. 1870 8vo.

. .
The
.
registers of St.
.
Olave, Hart Street, London,
1563-1700.
Edited by
W.
B.
Bannerman.
LANCASHIRE PARISH REGISTER SOCIETY.

Society.
[Publications.]
[With
plates.]
Wigan,
Lancashire Parish Register In 1914. 8vo.
progress.
6705
The registers of the parish church of Stalmine, 1583-1724. 51. Stalmine, Lancashire. E. Robinson. . . . 1914. Transcribed by Mrs.
W.
PHILLIMORE'S PARISH REGISTER SERIES.

series.
(General
editor: T.
M.
Blagg.)
London,
.
Phillimore's parish register In 1916. 8vo.
progress.
223. Suffolk. 1916. Raven. 225. Norfolk.
Suffolk parish
registers.
R
. .
5093
A.
J.
Marriages.
Vol.
III.
Edited by
Daubeney.
Norfolk parish registers. 1916.
Marriages.
Vol. X.
Edited by A. R.
V
T.
M.
Blagg.
226. Cambridgeshire. Vol. VII. .

. .
Cambridgeshire parish Edited by E. Young.
registers.
.
. .
Marriages. 1916.
General editor
PHILLIMORE'S PARISH REGISTER SERIES.

editor,
Index
series.
T. M. Blagg.
.)
London,
1915.
8vo.
(General In progress.
R5093
\*
1.
100 copies printed. Cornwall. Cornwall parish

1915.
registers.
Marriages.
Index to Vols. I.-IV.
Compiled
by A. T. Satterford.
STAFFORDSHIRE PARISH REGISTER SOCIETY.

<&*, *fe, [1916].
8vo.
[Publications.]
In progress.
Part
1 1
Lon7329
Deanery of Hanley. Burslem parish register. Bursle

Deanery
of Newcastle.
(
1
III.,
with index.
[1916.]
1
Betley parish register
538- 8 2)
[Transcribed and edited by R. Thicknesse .]
6.
ZACHRISSON
fluence
(R. E.)
A contribution to
the study of
Anglo-Norman
in-
Afd.
1.
on English place-names. [Lunds Universitets Arsskrift. N.F. Bd. 4, Nr. 3.] R 40625 Lund, 1909. 8vo, pp. XT, 171.
930 HISTORY:
ANCIENT: GENERAL.
Paris,
BRY (M.
1909.
J.)
Essai sur la vente dans les papyrus greco-egyptiens.

iv,
8vo, pp.
353.
40843
DOTTIN
(Georges) Manuel pour servir a 1'etude de 1'antiquite celtique. Paris, 1906. 8vo, pp. vi, [La Bretagne et les Pays Celtiques, 4.] 407. 40452
342

930 HISTORY
:
ANCIENT
GENERAL.
RAWLINSON (Hugh
world from the
plates.]
George) Intercourse between India and the western times to the fall of Rome. [With map and 1916. R 40567 8vo, pp. vi, 196. Cambridge,
earliest
(Eugene Charles) Les obligations en droit egyptien compare aux autres droits de 1'antiquite. Lemons professees a 1'Ecole du Louvre. Suivies d'un appendice sur le droit de la Chaldee au XXIII e siecle . Victor et Eugene Revillout. et au VI e siecle avant J. C. par R 40817 Paris, 1886. 8vo, pp. Ixxxiii, 530.
.
.
SlNUHE. Notes on the story By Alan H. Gardiner.

. .
of Sinuhe.
.
[With
text
and
translation.]
[With
plate.]
Paris,
1916.
4to,
193.
R
ANCIENT: EGYPT.
pp.
40750
932 HISTORY:
CAIRO.
[With
4to.
plates.]
Catalogue general des antiquites egyptiennes du Musee du Caire. Le Caire, 1916. [Service des Antiquites de 1'Egypte.]
In progress.
R
Manuscrits copies.
:
9699
N os.
920 1-9304.
Par
...
Munier
1916.
KNIGHT
(Alfred Ernest) Amentet

. . .
an account of the gods, amulets and

.
scarabs of the
illustrations.
ancient Egyptians. With London, 1915. 8vo, pp. ix, 274.

. . .
.
plates,
& ... R 41 109
935 HISTORY:
ANCIENT: MEDO-PERSIA.
SARGON, King of
De inscriptione Sargonis, regis Assyriae, Assyria. Dissertatio inauguralis, quam ad summos in quae vocatur Annalium. philosophia honores ab amplissimo philosophorum ordine in alma litter arum . Universitate Berolinensi, rite impetrandos, scripsit Hugo Winckler. R 40 1 79 8vo, PP 62. Berolini, \ 886.
. . .
TELLO.
servir a 1'histoire
Materiaux pour Tablettes sumeriennes archa'iques [from Tel lo] de la societe sumerienne. Publics avec introduction,
.
transcription, traduction et tables par
H. de
Genouillac.
[With
plates.]
Paris, 1909.
4to, pp. Ixxi, 122.
33699
937 HISTORY:
ANCIENT: ITALY.
des institutions
BOUCH-LECLERCQ
romaines.
(Louis Auguste Thomas) Manuel 8vo, pp. xvi, 654. Paris, 1886.
R 40839
. . .
BURCKHARDT O akob)
. .
.
Die Zeit Constantin's des Grossen

Leipzig, 1880.
8vo, pp.
vi,
Zweite
vermehrte Auflage.
456.
R 40450
GREGOROVIUS
hellenischen
1884.
8vo,
Gemalde der romisch(Ferdinand) Der Kaiser Hadrian. Welt zu seiner Zeit Dritte Auflage. Stuttgart, R 40436 PP x, 505.
.

937 HISTORY: ANCIENT: ITALY.
343
HENDERSON
Nero.
issue.
. .
(Bernard William)
.
The
life
.
and principate
. .
of the
Emperor
.
With
maps and
8vo, pp.
xiv,
illustrations.
New
London, [1905].
529.
40596
;
MlSPOULET
ou (Jean Baptiste) Les institutions politiques des Remains des regies de la constitution et de Tadministration expose historique romaines depuis la fondation de Rome jusqu'au regne de Justinien.
2vols.
8vo.
2.
Paris, 1882-83.
1 .
40759
La
constitution.
{-.'administration.
TAYLOR
(Thomas Marriss)
earliest
1].
A constitutional and
political history of
. . .
Rome
from the
London, [191
times to the reign of Domitian. 8vo, pp. ix, 507.
Third
edition,
R 22933
;
WlLLEMS
(Pierre
Gaspard Hubert) Le
stitutions politiques de . Sixieme edition. . .
droit public remain ou les indepuis 1'origine de la ville jusqu'a Justinien. 40852 Louvain, Paris, 1888. 8vo, pp. 670.
Rome
938 HISTORY:
ANC5ENT
GREECE.
Edition francaise Traduit par G.
8vo, pp. xix, 451.
ClCCOTTI
revue
Platon.
et
(Ettore)
Le
declin
de 1'esclavage antique.
Avec preface de 1'auteur. augmentee. et Faits Sociaux.] Paris, 1910. [Systemes
R
le
40796
GLOTZ
Grece.
(Gustave)
. . .
La
solidarite
de
la
famille
dans
droit criminel en
Paris 1904.
8vo, pp. xx, 621.
R 40779
.
HERMANN
(Carl Friedrich) K. F. Hermann's Lehrbuch der griechischen

.
Unter Mitwirkung von H. Droysen ... A. und ... V. Thumser Th. Thalheim (A. Hug) H. Bliimner und neu herausgegeben von W. Ditten-
Antiquitaten.
uller
. . .
berger.
Freiburg
i.
B.
und Tubingen,
. . .
1884-92.
2 vols.
8vo.
R
. .
. . .
.
40780
Sechste Lehrbuch der griechischen Staatsaltertumer Nach der Auflage. von J. C. F. Ba'hr und K. B. Stark besorgten Auflage umgearbeitet und herausgegeben 1889-92. von V. Thumser. Dritte 2 i. Lehrbuch der griechischen Rechtsalterthiimer Nach der Auflage. K. B. Stark besorgten Auflage umgearbeitet und herausgegeben von T. zweiten, von 1884. Thalheim.
1.
ftinhen,
RlDER
(Bertha Carr) The Greek house its history and development from the Neolithic period to the Hellenistic age. Thesis approved for the degree of Doctor of Literature in the University of London. [With
: . . .
illustrations.]
Cambridge, 1916.
8vo, pp.
xii,
272.
40986
WHIBLEY
and
(Leonard)
. .
L. Whibley.
illustrations.]
Edited ... by companion to Greek studies. Third edition, revised and enlarged. [With maps R 40295 Cambridge, 1916. 8vo, pp. xxxvi, 787.
344

940 HISTORY:
MODERN: EUROPE.
GENEVO1X
Lavisse.
xxi,
Preface d'Ernest (Maurice) Sous Verdun, aout-octobre 1914. 8vo, pp. [Memoires et Recits de Guerre.] [Pan's], 1916. R 40991 269.
:
GOULETTE
France,
(Leon) L* absinthe et 1'alcool dans la defense Rationale Russie, Preface de Henri Schmidt. Grande-Bretagne. de la Guerre.] Pan's, Nancv, 1915. 8vo, pp. xii, 207. [Bibliotheque
.
.
.
40060
359.
GUYOT
by F.
(Yves) The
Appleby
causes and consequences of the war. . Holt. London, 1916. 8vo, pp.
. . . .
Translated
xxxvi,
R 40943
:
HAMILTON
tion,
(Lord Ernest William) The

from
enlarged.
first
seven divisions
being a de1916.
41 410
tailed account of the fighting
Mons
.
to
.
revised and
vi,
With
Ypres. maps.
Sixteenth edi-
London,
8vo, pp.
336.
R
The "Manchester Guardian
Fol.
MANCHESTER GUARDIAN.
the war.
4.
"
history of
Manchester, 1916.
In progress.
R 38863
41
1915-16.
MASEFIELD
8vo, pp.
(John) Gallipoli.
183.
[With maps and
plates.]
London, 1916.
viii,
000
NAUMANN
W.
ROSE
1
J.
With an introduction by (Friedrich) Central Europe. Translated by Christabel M. Meredith. London, Ashley.
. . . . . .
1916.r8vo, pp.
xix,
354.
R 41080
London,
(John Holland) Nationality as a factor in modern history. 1916. 8vo, pp. xvi, 208.
1
R
R
40394
[With
41
1
SCHMITT
SERVIA.
(Bernadotte Everly) England and Germany, 8vo, pp. ix, 524. [Princeton, 1916. maps.]!
740- 1914.
10
The kingdom of Serbia. Report upon the atrocities committed Subby the Austro-Hungarian army during the first invasion of Serbia. mitted to the Serbian Government by R. A. Reiss. English translation by F. S. Copeland. [With plates.] London, [1916]. 8vo, pp.
.
. .
xii,
192.
40925
TIMES. The Times history of the war. and illustrations.] London, 1915-16.
Vol.
4to.
III.
(-VII.).
In progress.
[With maps R 38864

:
WATSON
pp.198.
941
in the origins of the great war.
(Robert William Seton-) German, Slav, and Magyar a study [With maps.] London, 1916. 8vo,
40756
HISTORY
MODERN
SCOTLAND AND IRELAND.
GREGORY
(Donald) The history of the western Highlands and isles of Scotland from A.D. 1493 to A.D. 1625, with a brief, introductory sketch from A.D. 80 to A.D. 1493. Second edition. London, 1881. 40413 8vo, pp. xxxix, viii, 453.
.
CLASSIFIED LIST OF
941
RECENT ACCESSIONS
of
345
HISTORY: MODERN: SCOTLAND AND IRELAND.

CLUB.
OLD EDINBURGH
[With
plates
The book
the
Old Edinburgh Club.

4to.
and
illustrations.]
Edinburgh, 1914.
:
Latin Rite. The Holyrood ordinale a Scottish version of a directory of 7. Liturgies. Transcribed and edited English Augustinian Canons, with r/.anual and other liturgical forms. by F. C. Eeles.
.
The acts of the Parliaments of Scotland. SCOTLAND. M.C.XXIV.-A.D. M.CCCC.XX1II. (-A.D.M.DCCVII.).

T. Thomson and C. Innes.]
1
1
A.D.
[Record Commission.]
[n.p.],
[Edited by 1814-44.
vols.
Fol.
40909
Scottish tourist, being a guide to the picturesque scenery and . Ninth edition. Edited by William Rhind. antiquities of Scotland. Illustrated In which the geology and botany are largely introduced.
. .
The
with
xiii,
views
is
maps.
Edinburgh,
[1845?].
8vo,
pp.
414.
40972
%*
There
also an engraved title-page.
A. E.
[i.e.
The
G.
national being
W.
Russell].
some thoughts on an Irish polity. By A. E. Dublin and London, 1916. 8vo, pp. 176.
41 167
BAGWELL
.
.
(Richard) Ireland under the Stuarts and during the interregnum. 41327 London, 1909-16. 3 vols. 8vo. [With maps.]
DERRICK
...
1
discouerie of Woodkarne (John) The image of Irelande with 581 With the notes of Sir Walter Scott, Bart. Edited, with introduction, by John Small. Edinburgh, 1883. 4to, [With plates.]
.
PP
xxiv, 144.
40432
%*
286 copies
printed.
FROST
(James) The history and topography of the county of Clare, from the earliest times to the beginning of the eighteenth century, with map and illustrations. 40451 Dublin, 1893. 8vo, pp. xxiii, 654.
MACKENZIE
[1916].
8vo, pp.
(William Cook) The races of Ireland and Scotland. xiii, 396.

rebellion as
I
Paisley,
R R
40740
NORWAY
OLDEN
Royal
(Mary Louisa) The Sinn Fein

.
saw
it.
... With
41079
illustrations.
London, 1916.
8vo, pp. 111.
(Thomas) The
Irish
oratory of Gallerus.
22, 1895
;
...
A paper read before the

R
40442
from
. .
Academy, April
ceedings," 3rd Ser., Vol. Ill, No. 4. 569.
and reprinted from the "ProDublin, 1895. 8vo, pp. 564-
%*
the
50 copies
printed.
GORMANSTON, Manor
original in
of.
Calendar of the Gormanston

. . .
register,
possession of ... the Viscount of Gormanston. and M. J. McEnery. Prepared and edited by James Mills Dublin, 1916. 8vo, pp. [Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland.]
the
.
xix,
252.
411 49
346

942 HISTORY:
MODERN: ENGLAND: GENERAL.

Camden
In pro-
CAMDEN
gress.
SOCIETY.
series of the
[Publications] continued from 1897 as the Historical Society. 4to. London, 1915. Royal
R4271
The
official
26. England.
of the Peace., 1580-1620. Selected lection of the Marquess Townshend,
papers of Sir Nathaniel Bacon, of Stiffkey, Norfolk, as Justice and edited from original papers formerly in the col.
. .
by H.
W.
Saunders.
1915.
CATHOLIC RECORD SOCIETY.

plates.]
18.
[Publications.]
[With
facsimiles
London, 1916.
8vo.
In progress.
:
and 10892
:
Office series.
Recusant roll No. i., 1592-3. Exchequer Contributed by M. M. C. Calthrop.
Lord Treasurer's Remembrancer

1916.
Pipe
COHEN,
Saxons.
afterwards
.
. .
PALGRAVE
A new edition illustrated.
332.
(Sir Francis) History of the AngloLondon, 1876. 8vo, pp. xliii, 40641
ENGLAND.
The army lists of the Roundheads and Cavaliers, containing the names of the officers in the Royal and Parliamentary armies of 1642. (A catalogue of the names of the Dukes, Marquesses, Earles and Lords,
that
have absented themselves from the Parliament, and are
now with His
Majesty. Earle of
.
... As also, a list of the army of his Essex. ... A list of the Navie Royall,
of
excellency, Robert,
Moreover, the names
and merchant ships. orthodox divines, presented by the knights

.
. . .
.
fit persons to be consulted by the Parliament. Edited by .) Lastly the field officers chosen for the Irish expedition. Edward Peacock. . 39984 London, 1863. 4to, pp. xii, 67.
and burgesses as
Calendar of the charter rolls preserved in the Public Record Office. Prepared under the superintendence of the deputy keeper of the In records. London, 1916. 8vo. [Sir H. C. M. Lyte].
. .
.
progress.
5.
15
Edward
III.-5
Henry V., A.D. 1341-1417.
[Edited by C. G.
Crump and
9856 C
H.
Jenkinson.]
Indies.
America and West Calendar of state papers. Colonial series. Preserved in the Public Record Office. London, In progress. R 2826 1916. 8vo.
. . .
.
1706-1708 June
-
Edited by C. Headlam.
1916.
Record
. . .
Preserved in the Public Calendar of Treasury books, 1681-1685. Office. Shaw. Vol. VII. part I.(-III.). Prepared by William 2822 London, 1916. 8vo. In progress.
A
of both
collection of all the publicke orders, ordinances Houses of Parliament, from the ninth of March
and declarations 642 untill De1
cember 1646. Together with severall of his Majesties proclamations and other papers printed at Oxford. (An appendix of severall ordinances which were omitted in this book and the former book of colLondon, lections.) [Compiled by E. Husband.] [With frontispiece.] 1646. R 39985 Fol., pp. 943, 24.
. .
.

942
347
HISTORY
Close
MODERN ENGLAND GENERAL.

: :
ENGLAND.
Record
Office.
rolls of the reign of Henry III., preserved in the Public Printed under the superintendence of the deputy keeper
of the records.
[Sir
H. C. M.
Lytej.
London, 1916.
8vo.
progress. A.D. 1242-1247.
R
original records
In 3544
[Edited by E. G. Atkinson.]
The
Tomlins,
betical
statutes of the realm.
From
and authentic
manuscripts.
J.
1101-1713.] [Edited by A. Luders, Sir T. E. France, Sir W. E. Taunton, and J. Raithby.] (The alpha[A.D.
.
.
index.
[By
J.
Raithby.
mission.]
The chronological index. [By J. Raithby.] Edited by J. Caley and W. Elliott.]) [Record Com11 vols. in 12. Fol. R 40908 [London], 1810-28.
.
FlENNES (Celia) Through England on a side and Mary being the diary of C. Fiennes.
:
saddle in the time of William
With an
xi,
introduction
Hon. Mrs.
Griffiths.
London, 1888.
FORDHAM
the
short history of English rural life from (Montague Edward) With a preface by Anglo-Saxon invasion to the present time. Charles Bathurst and a plan. London, [1916]. 8vo, pp. xvi, 183.
. . . .
8vo, pp.
336.
R 40554
by the
R 40741
GLADISH
PP.148.
(Dorothy M.)
The Tudor
privy council.
Retford, 1915.
4to,
R
4to.
40587
In pro-
HARLEI AN SOCIETY.
gress.
[Publications.]
London, 1913-15.
1869
64. Benalt (T.) Pedigrees from the visitation of Hampshire made by T. Benolt, Clarenceulx, a 1530: enlarged with the vissitation of the same county, made by R. Cooke, Clarenceulx, cl1 are continued w tjl the vissitation made anno 1575 both by J. Phillipott, Somersett, for
:
W.
As collected 634. Camden, Clarenceux, in a 622, most part then don & finished in a .1913. by R. Mundy in Harleian ms. No. 1544. Edited by W. H. Rylands. 65. Mundy (R.) Middlesex pedigrees as collected by R. Mundy in Harleian ms. No. 1551. Edited by Sir G. J. Armytage, Bart. 1914. 66. England. Grantees of arms named in docquets and patents to the end of the seven1
1
teenth century, in the manuscripts preserved in the British Museum, the Bodleian Library, Oxford, Queen's College, Oxford, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, and elsewhere, and contained in the additional MS. No. 37,147, alphabetically arranged by J. Foster in the British Museum. Edited by W. H. Rylands. 1915.
. .
HAYNES (Edmund
London, 1916.
Sidney Pollock) 8vo, pp. 238.
The
decline of liberty in England.
40924
HEATH
new book of loyal English martyrs and confessors, who (James) have endured the pains and terrou[rs] of death, arraignment, banishment, and imprisonment, for the maintenance of the just and legal government of these kingdoms, both in church and state. London, [1665 ?]. 12mo, 39961 PP. 465.
LlEBERMANN
Halle
a. S.,
(Felix)
The
1913.
8vo, pp.
national assembly in the vii, 90.
Anglo-Saxon period. R 33478
348
942

HISTORY: MODERN: ENGLAND: GENERAL.
SOCIETY.
relating to
NAVY RECORDS
8vo.
49,
1.
[Publications.]
In progress.
Documents
law and custom of the
sea.
{London printed\, 1915. R 12595

Edited by R. G. Marsden.
Vol.
A.D. 1205-1648.
legal history.
OXFORD
STUDIES. Oxford studies in social and 8vo. Oxford, 91 6. by Paul Vinogradoff.

. .
.
Edited
In progress.
R
5.
20290
The
Black Death.
the
Commonwealth.
By
By A. E. Levett and R. Lennard. 1916.
A.
Ballard.
Rural Northamptonshire under
PHILLIPS (Georg) Englische Reichs- und Rechtsgeschichte der Normannen im Jahre 1066 nach Christi Geburt.
tables.]
seit
der Ankunft
[With folding
Berlin, 1827-28.
:
2 vols.
8vo.
40758
1. Einleitung Geschichte der Normannen bis zum Jahre 1066. I. Allgemeine Geschichte von England von Wilhelm 1., bis auf Heinrich II., 1066-1 189. II. Rechtsquellen. 1827. 2. iii. Geschichte des englischen Rechts, von Wilhelm I., bis auf Heinrich II., 1066-1 189.
Tractatus de legibus et consuetudinibus regni Angliae.
1828.
POLITICAL APHORISMS.
government
Political
aphorisms:
is
. .
or,
the true
maxims
of
Wherein displayed. is no absolute authority. authority any absolute government de jure.

.
.
likewise
proved,
that
That there neither is That the children of Israel did That the primitive Christians did often resist their evil princes. That the Protestants in all often resist their tyrannical emperors. did resist their evil and destructive princes. Together with a ages
. .
.
paternal or can be
. historical account of the depriving of kings for their evil government William Sherlock, and ten other new disBy way of challenge to
.
.
...
senters,
bites.
.
and recommended as proper to be read by all Protestant Jaco" T. H. "]. London, 1690. [The preface is subscribed
. .
4to, pp. 31.
40272
SOMERV1LLE (Mary) Personal recollections, from early life to M. Somerville. With selections from her correspondence.
Martha Somerville.
1874.
8vo, pp.
vi,
old age, of
By ...
Fourth thousand.
377.
Bert) 1 760.
[With
portrait.]
London, 40561
WESTERFIELD (Ray
between
1
New
in English business, particularly [Extract from the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. 19.] [With maps.] 39892 Haven, Conn., \ 91 5. 8vo, pp. 11 1 -445.
Middlemen
660 and
942
HISTORY: MODERN: ENGLAND: COUNTIES.
CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORLAND.

[Publications.]
series.
-- CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORLAND ANTIQUARIAN AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Kendal, 1915.
8vo.
In progress.
register of the Priory of St. Bees.
Chartulary 3. Saint Bees. Priory of Saint Bega. with introduction and notes by J. Wilson. ...
The
Edited
34699

942 HISTORY:
Tract
10.
series.
349
MODERN: ENGLAND: COUNTIES.

. .
Penrith.
School Penrith.
Queen Elizabeth Grammar School. Records of Queen Elizabeth Grammar With a facsimile of the foundation charter. 1915. By P. H. Reaney.
.
31
767
DURHAM.
Andrews.
ANDREWS
Edited (William) Bygone Durham. London, 1898. 8vo, pp. 297. [With plates.]
[Publications].
by
W.
In
40557
SURTEES SOCIETY.
progress.
127. Surtees Society.
rolls for the
Durham,
1916.
8vo.
3337
Vol. II. Comprising i. Two thirteenth century assize Miscellanea. ii. North country deeds. [Edited county of Durham. [Edited by K. E. Bayley.] Documents relating to visitations of the diocese and province of York, iii. by W. Brown.] 1916. 1407, 1423. [Edited by A. H. Thompson.]
GLOUCESTER.
Gloucestershire.
145.
CLIFFORD (Harry)
[With
plates.]
History of Bourton-on-the- Water,
Stow-on-the-Wold, 1916.
R
on the best means
4to, pp.
40602
LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE. SHIRE AND CHESHIRE. Hints
HISTORIC SOCIETY OF LANCAof carrying out the
objects of the society, with a list of queries for the systematic collection of information on the history, antiquities, etc., etc., of the district. Ry H.
C. Pidgeon, one of the honorary secretaries of the

the Council of the Historic Society.
society.
Circulated by
8vo, pp. 23.
Liverpool, 1849.
R
-
4061 5
RECORD SOCIETY.
documents relating In progress. 8vo.
The Record
to Lancashire
Society for the publication of
original
and Cheshire.
[Manchester]
1916.
1838
Part
1.
71. England. Lancashire and Cheshire cases Edited by R. S. Brown. . . .

-
in the
Court of Star Chamber.
DEE Gohn)
of
Warden MSS. in
portrait
Manchester from
Diary, for the years 1595-1601, of ... J. Dee, 1 595 to 1 608. Edited, from the original
.
.
and
the Bodleian Library, by John Eglington Bailey. facsimile.] [London ?] Not published, 1 880.
[With
4to, pp. 97.
39846
trades,
WILKINSON (Henry
and
its
Broadhurst)
Old Hanging Ditch

plates.]
its
its
traders,
ix,
renaissance.
[With
London, 1910.
8vo,
pp.
269.
40562
LINCOLN.
DE LA PRYME
. .
.
(Abraham) The
history of Winterton, in the
Communicated to the Society of Antiquaries, county of Lincoln. with an introduction, by Edward Peacock. [Reprinted from the 40335 London, 1866. 4to, pp. 17. Archaeologia, vol. xl.]
. .
.
LINCOLN RECORD SOCIETY.

Society.
The
8vo.
publications of the Lincoln
Record
1
Horncastle,\^\^.
In progress.
of St.
R 25223
2.
Lincoln.
Cathedral.
A.D. 1520-1536.
Chapter acts of the cathedral church Edited by R. E. G. Cole
Mary
of Lincoln,
350

942 HISTORY:

.
.
MIDDLESEX. COMMITTEE FOR THE SURVEY OF THE MEMORIALS OF GREATER LONDON. The survey of London. Edited
. . .
.
from the material collected by members of the Survey Committee and (Issued by printed under the auspices of the London County Council. the joint publishing committee representing the London County Council and the Committee for the Survey of the Memorials of Greater London under the general editorship of Sir Laurence Gomme Philip Norman [James Bird]). [With plates and illustrations.] London, In progress. 1900-15. R 37358 4to.
.
H. Godfrey. 2 vols. ( 1909-]! 3. By parish of Chelsea. . with drawings, illustrations and architec. parish of St. Giles-in-the-Fields tural descriptions by E. Riley. . . . Edited, with introduction and historical notes, by Sir
2, 4. 3, 5.
.
The The
W.
W.
L.
Gomme. ... 2 6. The parish
vols.
1912-14.
of
Hammersmith.
By
the
members
of the
London Survey Committee.
1915.
LONDON.
.
.
Records of the Worshipful Company of Carpenters. Transcribed and edited by Bower Marsh. Oxford, 1915.
. .
8vo.
3.
In progress.
Court book, 1533-1573.
35878
LONDON.
man.
Edited
London past and present. Text by Malcolm C. Sala[With plates.] [The Studio.] by Charles Holme.
4to.
London, 1916.
40209
NORFOLK.
plates.]
BRYANT (Thomas Hugh) The churches of
Norfolk.
[Norfolk and Norwich Archaeological Society.]

8vo.
of Diss.
[With Norwich,
1915.
R 40320
8vo,
Hundred
1915.
RYE (Walter) (Rye's Norfolk hand In progress.

** The
1
lists.)
Norwich, 1916.
40301
title is
in Norfolk. Hundred courts and more hills in Norfolk. 1916. as to Scandinavian names, remains in Norfolk : with addenda to No. hundred courts and mote hills. 1916. 2.
50 copies printed. 1. Scandinavian names
Roman camps &
OXFORD.
1915.
.
.
OXFORD HISTORICAL
8vo.
Sailer.
SOCIETY.
[Publications.]
Vol. X.
Oxford,
In progress.
. . . . .
048
67. Hearne (T.) Remarks and collections of T. Hearne.

.
... Edited by
John
H. E.
.1915.
68. Oxford. the Baptist.
Hospital of Saint John the Baptist.

.
. .
A
II.
cartulary of the hospital of St.
Edited by
H. E.
Salter.
Vol.
SOMERSET.
don
:
1.
SOMERSET RECORD SOCIETY.

,
[Publications
printed]
878- 9 1 4.
1
4to.
In progress.
[Lon1
9965
Bath and Wells Diocese of. Calendar of the Register of John He Drokensford, Edited ... by ... Bishop Hobhouse Bishop of Bath and Wells, A.D. 1309-1329.
1887.
fraternities,
The survey and rental of the chantries, colleges and free chapels, guilds, lamps, lights and obits in the county of Somerset as returned in the 2nd year of .1888. King Edward VI. A.D. 1548. With an introduction. By E. Green.
2.
England.
CLASSIFIED LIST OF
942 HISTORY:
4.
RECENT ACCESSIONS
351
bath,
Croscombe. Church-warden's, accounts of Croscombe, Pilton, Yatton, Tintinhull, Moreand St. Michael's, Bath, ranging from A.D. 1349 to 1560. Edited by ... Bishop 1890. Hobhouse. . 5. Glastonbury. Abbey of Saint Mary. Rentalia et custumaria. Michaelis de Ambresbury, 1235-1252, ei Rogeri de Ford, 1252-1261, abbatum monasterii Beatae Mariae Glastoniae. and introductory historical With an excursus on manorial land tenures, by C. J. Elton 1891 notes by ... Bishop Hobhouse and the Honorary Secretary [i.e. T. S. Holmes]. Pedes finium, commonly called feet of fines, for the county 6. 12, 17, 22. Somersetshire. 4 vols. 1892-1906. of Somerset. By E. Green. 7. Bath. Abbey of Saint Peter and Saint Paul. Two chartularies of the priory ofSt. I. The chartulary in MS. No. cxi, in the library of Corpus Christi College, Peter at Bath. Cambridge. II. Calendar of the MS. register in the library of the Hon. Society of Lincoln's .1893. Inn. Edited by W. Hunt. 8. Bruton, Somersetshire. Abbey of Saint Mary. Two cartularies of the Augustinian Edited by priory of Bruton and the Cluniac priory of Montacute in the county of Somerset. members of the council [i.e. T. S. Holmes, E. Hobhouse and H. C. Maxwell-Lyte. With a 1894. contribution by F. W. Weaver]. The register of Ralph of Shrewsbury, Bishop of Bath 9-10. Bath and Wells, Diocese of. and Wells, 329- 363. From the original in the registry at Wells. Edited by T. S. Holmes. 1896. 2 vols. Somersetshire pleas, civil and criminal, from the rolls of the itinerant justices England Edited by C. E. H. C. Healey. .1897. close of 2th century-41 Henry III. The registers of W. Gifford, Bishop of Bath and Wells, 3. Bath and Wells, Diocese of. Edited by T. S. Holmes 1265-6, and of H. Bowett, Bishop of Bath and Wells, 1401-7.
. . .
.
1899.
14.
tine
Muchelney.
of
.
Abbey
of Saint Peter
and Saint Paul.
Two
cartularies of the
Abbeys
.
Muchelney and Athelney
iu the
county of Somerset.
Edited by
BenedicE. H.
.
Bates.
.1899.
Drawn up
. .
.
15. Gerard (T.) The particular description of the County of Somerset. Edited by E. H. Bates. 1633. 1900. by T. Gerard Somerset medieval wills. Edited by 16. 19, 21, Somersetshire. 90 -05 3 vols Weaver. Bellum civile. Hopton's narrative of 18. Hopton (R.) Baron Hopton. Edited by C. E. H. C. Healey. in the west, 1642-1644, and other papers.
.
.
.
F.
W.
his
.
.
campaign
1902. 20. England. Certificate of musters in the county of Somerset. Temp. Eliz. A.D. 1904. 1569. Extracted, and with notes by E. Green. Commission of the Peace. Quarter sessions records for the Somersetshire. 23, 24, 28. Edited by . E. H. Bates. ... 3 vols. . 1907-12. county of Somerset.
.
. . . .
.
25. Buckland Sororum. Priory of Saint John the Baptist. cartulary of Buckland Edited by . F. Weaver. . . . 1909. Priory in the county of Somerset. 26. Glastonbury. Edited Abbey of Saint Mary. feodary of Glastonbury Abbey. With an introduction by . . . C. H. Mayo. . . . 1910. Weaver. . . by . . . F. 27. England. Proceedings in the Court of the Star Chamber in the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII. (Somerset Star Chamber cases, 1485-1547). Edited by ... G. Bradford.
. .
W.
W.
-1911.
The register of N. Bubwith, Bishop of Bath and 29, 30. Bath and Wells, Diocese of. From the original in the Registry at Wells Edited by T. S. Holmes. Wells, 1407-1424. 1914. 2 vols.
. . .
SUSSEX.
8vo.
SUSSEX RECORD SOCIETY.

The
[Publications.]
London, 1916.
In progress.
parish register of Cowfold.
.
R
.
29682
Godman
22. Cowfold, Sussex.
Edited by P. S.
[Withfacsimile.]-19l6.
YORKSHIRE.
lection of
YORKSHIRE.
Early Yorkshire charters: being a col-
documents anterior
public records, and other available sources.
to the thirteenth century made from the monastic chartularies, Roger Dodsworth's manuscripts
Edinburgh, 1916.
8vo.
Edited by William Farrer. In progress.
Vol.
III.
37643
352

943 HISTORY:
MODERN: GERMANY.
DMOWSKI
Beaulieu,
(R.)
.
.
La
.
Gasztowtt revue
336.
Traduction du polonais par V. Preface de Anatole Leroyapprouvee par 1'auteur. Carte hors texte. Pan's, 1909. 8vo, pp. xxiv,
question polonaise.
.
et
R
Die Geschichtschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit.
Leipzig, [1888-91].
40061
GERMANY.
Zweite
Gesammtausgabe.
5.
vols.
8vo.
Neuntes Jahrhundert. Nithard's vier Bucher Geschichten. Nach der Nithardus, S. Richarii Abbas. Ausgabe der Monumenta Germaniae ubersetzt von. J. v. Jasmund Dritte, neubearbeitete Auflage von W. Wattenbach. 888.] ( 40384 1
. . . 1
'
Zehntes Jahrhundert.
Widukinds sachsische Geschichten. Nach Wittekindus, Monachus Corbeiensis. der Ausgabe der Monumenta Germaniae ubersetzt von R. Schottin. Zweite Auflage. Neu bearbeitet von W. Wattenbach. Nebst der Schrift iiber die Herkunft der Schwaben und Abraham Jakobsens Bericht liber die Slavenlander. (1891.) 40384*2
6.
HANSE TOWNS.
fiir
Hansisches Urkundenbuch.
Herausgegeben Tom Verein

1916.
4to.
Hansische Geschichte.
II.
Munchen und Leipzig,

W.
Stein.
.
. .
In pro-
gress.
I486
bis
R
1500.
Bearbeitet von
33008
1916.
HOLMES (Edmund Gore

German
character.
.
Alexander) The nemesis of London, 1916. 8vo, pp.

:
docility
vii,
a study of
264.
40314
gospel
ROBERTSON
of race
;
1916.
(John Mackinnon) The Germans The old Germany and the new. 8vo, pp. viii, 291.
II.
I.
The Teutonic
[With maps.]
London,
40306
SAMVIRKENDE S^NDERJYDSKE FORENINGER.

Slesvig du Nord;
Public
"
specialement pendant
les
La situation dans le annees de 1906 a 1914.

Foreninger"
. .
par
De
samvirkende
s^nderjydske
du
Danemark.
[With maps.]
Copenhague, 1915.
8vo, pp. 166.
39697
WARD
1.
(.SVr
Adolphus William) Germany,

Cambridge, 1916.
1815-1890.
/;/
[Cambridge
Historical Series.]
1815-1852.
8vo.
progress.
40608
944 HISTORY:
MODERN: FRANCE.
AlX DE LA CHAISE
(Francois d') Histoire du Pere La Chaize, jesuite et Ou Ton verra les intrigues secrettes confesseur du roi Louis XIV. et qu'il a cues a la cour de France et dans toutes les cours de 1* Europe,
les
particularitez les plus secrettes

portrait.]
de
2
sa vie.
vols.
[By P.
le
[With
Bruxelles, 1884.
8vo.
Noble.]
40282
BONNARD
romaine.
(Louis)
.
. .
La
[With
navigation interieure de la Gaule a I'epoque galloParis. 1913. 8vo, pp. 267. illustrations.]
40049

944 HISTORY:
353
MODERN: FRANCE.
et
la
BARRES
4
vols.
1.
(Maurice)
8vo.
L'ame
franchise
guerre.
Paris,
1915-16.
40636
2.
3.
L'union sacree. JVingt et unieme edition.] 1915. Les saints de la France. La croix de la guerre. [Deuxieme Edition.]
[Septieme edition.]
1916
191
5.
4. L'amitie des tranchees.
1916.
FRANCE.
An
Epitome Of All the
lives of the
Kings
of France.
From
Pharamond the first, to the now most Christian King Lewis the thirteenth. With a Relation of the Famous Battailes of the two Kings of England, who were the first victorious Princes that Conquered France. Translated out of the French Coppy by R. B. Esq. [i.e. R. Brathwait ?] London : printed by I. Okes, [With original and inserted portraits.] and are to be sold by lames Becket, at his shop within the Inner Temple R 41074 Gate 1639. 8vo, PP [14], 344 [8].
.
i* There
is
also
an engraved
title-page.
Guerre de 1914. Documents omciels textes legislatifs et regleer er Aout-15 Octobre 1915 mentaires. Publiee (l Janvier 1916). Gaston Griolet Charles Verge. sous la direction de Avec la collaboration de Paris, [1915Henry Bourdeaux. In progress. 8vo. R 38528 16].
:
The
. . .
London, [1916].
The
. .
Edited national history of France. In progress. 8vo.

eighteenth century.
.
by
Fr. Funck-Brentano.
40135
Stryienski (C.)
et politiques.
Translated from the French by
Madelin (L.) The French revolution. Translated from the French.
Crowned by the Academic des sciences morales H. N. Dickinson. Crowned by the French Academy, Gobert prize.
Rapport
.
. .
fait
au
nom de
la
Commission chargee de 1'examen des
papiers trouves chez Robespierre et ses complices, par E. B. Courtois dans la seance du 16 nivose, an iii e de la Republique francaise,
et indivisible. Imprime par ordre de la Convention nationale. Paris : Nivose an Hi* de la Republique [1795]. 8vo, pp. 408. R 38572
une
LEGGY DE LA MARCHE
administration,
(Richard
Albert)
Le
roi
Rene:
sa vie,
son
ses travaux artistiques et litteraires.

et d'ltalie.
ments inedites des archives de France

8vo.
D'apres les docu2 vols. Paris, 1875.
R
. .
.
40323
MAUGIS
rois
(Edouard) Histoire du Parlement de Paris de I'avenernent des Valois a la mort d'Henri IV. In 8vo. Paris, 1916.
progress.
3.
R
la
34905
Role de
cour par regnes, 1345-1610
presidents, conseillers,,gens
du
roi.
PROYART
1788.
ecrite sur les
(Lievain Bonaventure) Vie du Dauphin, pere de Louis XVI, memoires de la cour. Cinquieme edition, augmentee
.
de plusieurs
traits interessans, et
de
1'eloge
du meme prince.
8vo, pp. 378.
A Lyon, R 40931
354

944 HISTORY:
MODERN: FRANCE.
.
. .
SAN FRANCISCO.
cisco.
La
vols.
Exposition universelle et internationale de San Franscience francaise. Paris, 1915. [With portraits.] 8vo. 40547
SAROLEA
(Charles) The French renascence. don, [1916]. 8vo, PP 302.

.
[With
illustrations.]
Lon-
40278
Socij DE L'HlSTOIRE DE FRANCE.

de THistoire de France.]
[Ouvrages publics par la Societe In progress. 8vo. Paris, 1907-14.
R2485
Du
Lair et
le
Plessis
i'edition des
Richelieu. (Armand Jean) Rapports et notices sur Me"moires du cardinal de Richelieu prepared sous la direction de J. baron de Courcel Tome II. .. .1907-14.
. .
Cardinal, Due de
SOCIETE DE L'HlSTOIRE DE PARIS

tions].
(et
de 1'lle-de-France)
[Publica-
Paris, 1878-1913.
20
vols.
ct
1
8vo.
23690
. .
Baudot (F. N.) Seigneur du tiuisson 648- 1 652. Public par G. Saige. 2 vols. Dionysius, Saint, 2fishi)p of Paris.
. .
.
cTAmbenay.
Journal des guerres civiles
883-85.
miniatures
.
Legende de Saint Denis. Reproduction des du manuscrit o.ieinal. Introduction et notices des planches par H. Martin. .-1908. De Marville, lieutenant Feydeau de Marville (C. H.) C&mie de Gien. Lettres de
. . .
. . .
general de police, au
Maurepas, 1742-1747.
Publiees ... par

l
A. de
Boislisle
3 vols.
^1896-1905.
R. Gaguin, le Janvier, 1472, par G. Fichet, sur 1'in1889. [By L. D., i.e. L. Delisle.] Louis IX, King of France, Saint. Documents Parisiens sur 1'iconographie de S. Louis. Publics par A. Longnon d'apres un manuscrit de Peiresc. 1882. Paris. Les comediens du roi de la troupe francaise pendant les deux derniers liecles. Documents ine'dits recueillis aux Archives nationales par E. Campardon. 1879. Paris. Documents parisiens du regne de Philippe VI. de Valois, 1328-1350. Extraits 1899-1900. des registres de la chancellerie de France, par J. Viard. ... 2 vols. Documents sur les imprimeurs, libraires, cartiers, graveurs, fondeurs de lettres, Paris. relieurs, dorerrs de livres, faiseurs de fermoirs, en lumineurs, parcheminiers et papetiers ayant exerce a Paris de 1450 a 1600. 1901. Recueillis par P. Renouard. Documents sur les Juifs a Paris au xviii e siecle actes d'inhumation et seel les. Paris.
Fichetus (G.) Epitre adressee a troduction de rimprimerie a Paris. .
ei
. .
.
Recueillis par P. Hildenfinger. 1913. Paris. Journal d'un bourgeois de Paris
[i.e. J.
Chuffart
? ],
1405-1449.
Public*
par
A. Tuetey.
Paris.
1881.
Histoire et documents par E. Coyecque.
L'Hotel-Dieu de Paris au moyen age.
vols.
1889-91.
Paris pendant la domination anglaise, 1420-1436. de France par A. Longnon. 1878.
Paris.
Documents
;
extraits des registres
de
la chancellerie
Polyptyque de I'abbaye de Saint-Germain-des-Pre's redige' au temps de 1'abbe*. 2 vols. 1886-95. par A. Longnon. Paris. Recueil des chartes de I'abbaye de Saint-Germain-des-Pre's des origines au debut e siecle. 1909. du xiii Public par R. Poupardin. Tome premier, 558-1 182.
Paris.
Irminon
et public
VARAMUNDUS (Ernestus), pseud,

Gallicis,
De Fvroribvs [i.e. Francois Hotman?] ilhorrenda indigna Amirallij Castillionei, Nobilium atq lustrium virorum caede, scelerata ac inaudita piorum strage passim edita per complures Galliae ciuitates, sine vllo discrimine generis, sexus aetatis conditionis hominum Vera & simplex Narratio. Edimburgi [?]. Anno salutis humanae. 1573. 8vo, pp. ccxii. 41132
&
&

944 HISTORY:
355
MODERN: FRANCE.
VlLLENEUVE-BARGEMONT
.
(Louis Francois de) Marquis de VilleneuveHistoire de Rene d'Anjou, roi de Naples, due de Lorraine et Trans. Ornee de portraits, de vues, de fac-simile et de c te de Provence. R 40583 8vo. 3 vols. Paris, 1825. musique.
. .
.
VlOLLET
administratives
(Paul Marie) Droit public histoire des institutions politiques et de la France. Le roi et ses ministres pendant les trois derniers siecles de la monarchic. 8vo, pp. x, 615. Paris, 1912.
:
R
945 HISTORY:
40835
MODERN:
ITALY.
BURCKHARDT
Versuch
. .
(Jacob) Die
.
Zweite
Cultur der Renaissance in Italien. 8vo, pp. 464. Leipzig, \ 869. Auflage.
Em
R 40433
RAVA
(Beatrix) jusqu'a la mort rares et inedits.
Venise dans de Henri IV. [With
la
litterature
Avec un
franqaise depuis les origines recueil de textes dont plusieurt
frontispiece.]
Paris, 1916.
8vo, pp. 612.
R40%1
946 HISTORY:
MODERN: SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.

. . . . .
.
DALGADO
. .
.
(D. G.)
.
. .
With
climate of Portugal and notes on its health resort! and . tables. 8ro, Lisbon, 1914. maps
The
pp. xxir, 479.
R 40745
OLIVEIRA SA CHAVES
das nossas lutas
d'Oliveira
civis,
(Francisco d') Subsidies para a historia militar as campanhas de meu pai [i.e. Francisco Jose
Sciencias de Lisboa.]
I.
Sa Chaves]. [With maps and portrait.] [Academia das R 40746 Coimbra, 1914. 8vo. In progress.
campanha de 1823.
947
HISTORY
MODERN
RUSSIA.
HRUÊVSKYJ
.
.
(Michael) Geschichte des ukrainischen (ruthenischen) Volkes Autorisierte Ubersetzung aus der zweiten ukrainischen Ausgabe. In progress. 8vo. 40726 [With map.] Leipzig, 1906.
.
1 .
Urgeschichte des Landes und des Volkes.
Anfange des Kijever
Staates.
JARINTZOV
With an
;
The Russians and their language. . (N.) Madame. introduction discussing the problems of pronunciation and transliteration and a preface by Nevill Forbes. 8vo, Oxford, 1916.
. .
.
pp. xxxi, 222.
R 41062
Russian
. . .
KlRYEEVA, afterwards NOVIKOVA (Olga) With an introduction by Stephen Graham and

don, 1917[1916].
8vo, pp. 310.
memories.
illustrations.
Lon41394
RUSSIAN YEAR-BOOK,
London, [1915].
8vo.
1915.
Compiled and edited by N. Peacock. In progress. R 40649

23
356

948 HISTORY:
MODERN: SWEDEN.
LUNGWITZ
(Matthaeus) Alexander Magnus Redivivus, Dasist/ Dreyfachen Schwedischen Lorbeer-Krantzes Vnd Triumphirender Siegskrone Erster Theil/ Von Des Durchleuchtigsten/ Groszmachtigsten Fursten vnd Herrn Herrn Gustav-Adolphi Der Schweden/ Gothen vnd Wenden Konigs
/
:
. . . .
.
andern mal gedruckt/). Leipzig} In Verlegung Iohaii [With portrait.] Buchhandlers. Anno 1632-33. ([Colophon to Appendix :] Groszen\ Zwickaw\ Gedruckt bey Melchior Gopnerni im lahr Christi 1633.) 4to. R 40284 3vols. inl.
zusammen bracht Durch M. M. Lungvvitium. Des Dreyfachen Schwedischen Lorbeer-Krantzes ?c. Ersten (Appendix losua Redivivus, Das istt Dreyfachen Schwedischen LorbeerTheils. Krantzes vnd Triumphirender Siegs Crone Ander Theil. Zum
.
.
Geschlecht vnd Berichten
Regierung
Aus
Historien/
Vrkunden
.
\*
There
is
Gothic
letter.
949 HISTORY:
MODERN: BELGIUM AND HOLLAND.

legislation for the
.
BELGIUM.
.
. .
German
occupied
.
. .
territories of
Belgium.
Edited by Charles Henry Huberich Third (fourth and fifth) series.

progress.
-
and Alexander Nicol-Speyer. The Hague, 1916. 8vo. In
R 38330
Belgique.
Royaume de
etrangeres.
Ministere de
la
justice et Ministere des
Reponse au livre blanc allemand du 10 Mai 1915, "Die volkerrechtswidrige Fuhrung des Fol., pp. viii, Paris, 1916. [With map.] belgischen Volkskriegs." R 40724 517.
affaires
Guerre de
1914-1916.
CRAM
8vo,
(Ralph Adams) Heart
of
Europe.
Illustrated.
PP
xii,
325.
short der) 8vo, pp. 168.
London, 1916. R 40261

[With
plates.]
ESSEN (Leon van

Chicago, [1916].
history of Belgium.
R 40752
tot
REYNTJES (Geerko Marten) Groningen en Ommelanden,

1
van 1580
Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor in de Neder594. landse Letterkunde, aan de Rijks-Universiteit te Groningen, op gezag H. J. Hamburger, Hoogleraar in de van de Rector Magnificus Faculteit der Geneeskunde, tegen de Bedenkingen der Faculteit in het openbaar te verdedigen op Zaterdag 14 Maart 1914, des namiddags om
.
4 uur.
Groningen, 1914.
8vo, pp. xxv, 204,
iv.
41026
950 HISTORY:
MODERN:
ASIA.
GENERAL.
AHMAD IBN MUHAMMAD, called IBN

vitae
'ARABSHAH.
Ahmedis Arabsiadae
rerum gestarum Timuri, qui vulgo Tamerlanes dicitur, historia. Latine vertit, et adnotationes adjecit Samuel Henricus Manger. Leovardia, 1767-72. [With the Arabic text.] 2vols. 4to. R 40472
et
%*
"
Tomui
"
II.,
pars posterior
is
wanting.

950 HISTORY:
ASIA.
357
MODERN:
ASIA.
An
official
guide to eastern Asia.
Trans-continental connections
illustrations.]
between Europe and Asia. [With maps and In progress. 8vo. 1915-1917.
4.
Tokyo,
37359
China.
5.
East Indies.
HUBBARD
(G.
E.)
From
the Gulf to Ararat

.
an expedition through
With Mesopotamia and Kurdistan. 1916. 8vo, pp. xv, 273. London,
. .
illustrations.
Edinburgh and R 41037
CHINA.
TCHOU (Louis Ngaosiang) Le regime des capitulations et la reforme constitutionnelle en Chine. These de doctoral presentee pour 1'obtention du grade de docteur en sciences politiques et diplomatiques. Ecole des [With portraits.] [Universite Catholique de Louvain. Sciences Politiques et Sociales.] Cambridge, 1915. 8vo, pp. viii, 230.
.
. .
R 40249
JAPAN.
policies.
ABBOTT (James Francis) New York, 1916. 8vo,
pp.
Japanese expansion and American 41096 viii, 267.
MACLAREN
era,
(Walter Wallace) political history of Japan during the Meiji 1867-1912. 40736 London, [1916]. 8vo, pp. 379.
ARABIA.
CART (Leon) Au Sinai et dans 1'Arabie Petree. Extrait du tome XXIII du Bulletin de la Societe neuchateloise de geographic. 8vo, pp. 52 [With plates and illustrations.] Neuchatel, 91 5, [1 91 6] R 40581
1
.
JlRJIS IBN
Historia Saracenica, Qva AL-'AMlD, called AL-MAKIN. Res Gestae Mvslimorvm, inde a Mvhammede primo Imperij & Re. . .
ligionis
Muslimicae auctore, usque ad initium Imperij Atabacaei, Insertis per XLIX Imperatorum successionem ndelissime explicantur. etiam passim Christianorum rebus in Orientis potissimum Ecclesijs eodem
jaseri
Arabice olim exarata a Georgio Elmacino fil. Abvltempore gestis. Elamidi f. Abvlmacaremi f. Abvltibi. Et Latine reddita opera ac studio Thomae Erpenii. Accedit & Roderici [Arabic and Latin.]
Ximenez, Archiepiscopi Toletani, Historia Arabum longe accuratius, quam ante, e Manuscripto codice expressa. [Edited by J. Golius.] [Printer's device beneath title.] Lugduni Batavorum, Ex Typographia Erpeniana Linguarum Orientalium. 1625. Prostant apud loJtannem 2 pts. in vol. Fol. R 40471 Maire, & Elzevirios.
1
954 HISTORY:
MODERN:
Shans.
.
. .
INDIA.
[With
plates].
COCHRANE
1915.
(Wilbur Willis) 8vo, pp. xx, 227.
The
Rangoon, R 40389
to the
ENGLAND.
of
A collection of
1887 (-191 2).
Calcutta, 1913.
statutes relating to India 2 vols. 8vo.
... Up
R
R
end 41182
HUTCHINSON
[With
plates.]
(R. H. Sneyd) An account of the Chittagong Hill Tracts. 41257 Calcutta, 1906. 8vo, pp. 202, xxxix.
358

954 HISTORY
:
MODERN
INDIA.
INDIA.
Archaeological Survey of India. Annual report, 1902-03 (-1912-13). In progress. 4to. Calcutta, 1904-16. [With plates and illustrations.]
39297
Annual progress report

Southern 1908-14.
Circle,
for
of the Archaeological
the
year
Survey Department, 1907-1908 (-1913-1914). Madras,
6vols.
Fol.
39459
Vols. 191 1-12 and 1912-13 are wanting.
Archaeological Survey of India. In progress. 1890-1913. 4to.

9, 10, 29.
New
. .
.
Imperial series.
1890-1913.
Madras, 33572
India.
South-Indian inscriptions.
Chiefs and leading families in Raj pu tana.
[Compiled by C.
S.
Bayley.] xiii, 102.
Third
edition.
[With folding
in the
tables.]
Calcutta, Fol., pp.
R
1
41200
List of
Europeans and others
the time of the siege of Calcutta in the year
English factories in Bengal at 756. With an appendix

.
.
containing lists of European sufferers. 1902. 4to, pp. 99, xiv.
S. Charles Hill.
Calcutta, 41 199
Chronological tables of the Indian statutes. Compiled, under the orders of the Government of India, by F. G. Wigley. . (Vol. 2,
. .
Index to the Indian statutes in force.)

-
Calcutta, 1909-1
1.
vols.
8vo.
41 183
R
Government
of India.
Legislative Department.
general acts of the Governor table of all unrepealed acts.

Calcutta,
1
General
. .
.
in
Council
to
From 1834
909- 1 4.
I
7 vols.
8vo.
The unrepealed with chronological 1867. (-1913). 4 81

: .
. .
**
SlND.
. .
Vols.
-6 are of the fourth edition.

tiles.
Portfolio of illustrations of Sind

.
Prepared by Henry Cousens.
Superintendent, Archaeological Survey of India, Western Circle. 41 190 Fol. {London}, 1906.
STRACHEY
(Sir John) Hastings and the Rohilla war.
Oxford,
1892.
8vo, pp. xxvi, 324.
39885
960 HISTORY:
MODERN:
.
AFRICA.
LA CAILLE
(Nicolas Louis de) Journal historique du voyage fait au cap de Bonne- Esperance, par Precede d'un discours de la Caille. sur la vie de 1'auteur Claude Carlier], suivi de remarques & de re[by flexions sur les coutumes des Hottentots & des habitans du cap. (Notes et reflexions critiques sur la description du cap de Bonne-esperance, 12mo, pp. xxxvi, par Pierre Kolbes) Avec figures. Paris, 1763.
. .
380.
40984
siecle.
MARCjAIS (Georges) Les Arabes en Berberie du XI* au XIV"

[With map.]
Constantine, Paris, 1913.
gvo, pp. 767.
40289

970 HISTORY:
359
MODERN: AMERICA (NORTH).

.
ACADEMIE DE LA HlSTORIA
Ramon Meza Elogio del [Havana]. Evelio Rodriguez Suarez In clan, individuo de numero, leido por. y Lendian, Presidente de la Academia, en la sesion solemne celebrada en la noche del 5 de diciembre de 1915. [Academia de [With portrait.] R 40250 la Historia.] Habana, 1915. 4to, pp. 68.
.
. . . .
CHAPMAN
(Charles
Edward) The founding

of
northwestward expansion
New
duction by H. M. Stephens.] 1916. 8vo, pp. xxxii, 485.
the of Spanish California an intro1687-1783. [With Spain, New York, [With maps and plates.]
:
41308
DOSTER
(William E.) Lincoln and episodes of the Civil War.

8vo, pp.
v,
New
41099
York and London, 1915.
282.
R
R
ECKENRODE
New
(Hamilton James) The revolution in Virginia. York, 1916. 8vo, pp. 311.
(Armistead Churchill) John
States.
Boston
and
40742
of
GORDON
United
Tyler
tenth
President
the
1915, of the monument erected by Congress in Hollywood Cemetery, Richmond, Va., in memory of President Tyler. [n.p.], [With plates.] 401 37 1915. 8vo, pp. 44.
at the dedication,
An
address
...
October
12,
ROBINSON
Illustrated from (Albert Gardner) Cuba old and new. 41 1 14 the author. London, 1916. 8vo, pp. 264. photographs by
. . .
SAMS (Conway
America.
8vo, pp.
Whittle) The conquest of Virginia the forest primeval an account, based on original documents, of the Indians in that portion
:
of the continent in
. . .
xxiii,
which was established the first English colony in New York arid London, 1916. illustrations. R 41 100 432.
With
TUPPER
Bart.
...
vols.
The life and (Sir Charles) Bart. Edited by E. M. Saunders. Sir R. L. Borden, K.C.M.G.
.
letters of
.
. .
...
With an
Plates.
Tupper, by London, 1916. 2

introduction
Sir C.
8vo.
R'1122
. .
CUNDALL
stitute of
(Frank) Historic Jamaica.

Jamaica.]
With
illustrations.
London, 1915.
8vo, pp.
xxiii,
424.
[In-
40066
980 HISTORY:
MODERN: AMERICA
(SOUTH).
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.
de La
Plata.
Antecedentes de politica economica en el Rio Documentos originates de los siglos XVI al XIX seleccionados en el Archive de Indias de Sevilla, coordenados y publicados por Roberto Levillier. [Estudios Editados por la Facultad de Derecho Madrid, y Ciencias Sociales de la Universidad de Buenos Aires.] In progress. 2 vols. 1915. 8vo. R 39676
1.
Regimen
fiscal.
vols.
1915.
360

980 HISTORY:
MODERN: AMERICA
(SOUTH).
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.
la
Republica Argentina. Publicacion editada por Correspondencia de la ciudad de Reunida en el Archive de Buenos Ayres con los ryes de Espafia. Indias de Sevilla, coordenada y publicada por Roberto Levillier Buenos A ires, 1915. 8vo. In progress. 588- 61 5. R 39678
municipalidad de Buenos Aires.
.
memoriales presentados en Cartas del cabildo ados y enviados especiales de la ciudad.

1 .
:
la
corte por los procuradores, apoder-
BONARDELLl
italiana.
(Eugenic)
Lo
stato
[With map and

Torino, 1916.
illustrations.]
di S. Paolo del Brasile e 1'emigrazione " Italica [Publicazione della
Gens".]
8vo, pp. 164.

of
R
. .
40232
.
ROSS (Edward Alsworth) South

don, [1915].
Panama.
Illustrated.
Lon41 103
8vo, pp. xvi, 396.
990 HISTORY:
MODERN: OCEANICA.
CHOLMONDELEY
the year
1827
to the year
original settlers. the islands after
(Lionel Berners) The history of the Bonin Islands from 1876, and of Nathaniel Savory one of the To which is added a short supplement dealing with
their occupation 8vo, pp. viii, 178.
by the Japanese.
Illustrated.
London, 1915.
R
W.
41087
IjZERMAN (Jan Willem) Dwars door Sumatra. Tocht van Padang naar Onder leiding van den Hoofd-Ingenieur der Staats-Spoorwegen Siak.
J.
W.
J.
F. van
Ijzerman, beschreven door de leden der expeditie J. Bemmelen, S. H. Koorders en L. A. Bakhuis.
Ijzerman,
Met
illustrates
en een reiskaart.
Haarlem, Batavia, 1895.
4to, pp. xvi,
536.
40626
BULLETIN OF THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY
^
LIBRARIAN
MANCHESTER
VOL.
4
FEBRUARY-JULY,
1918
Nos. 3 and 4
LIBRARY NOTES AND NEWS.
AT
likely to
the January meeting of the Council of Governors the librarian
presented his eighteenth annual report, in which the work of the library during the year 1917
;
WORK OF
RARY DURING
1917
-
was reviewed
to our readers
and following our usual custom we

a brief
offer
its
summary
them.
of such portions
of
contents as are
be of
interest to
looked forward at the commencement of the year it was not unnatural again to anticipate a decline in the library's activities, and it
is
As we
gratifying, therefore, to
be able
to
report that in no sense have those

point of view the
fears
been realized.
is
From whatever
work
of the
library
regarded, notwithstanding the inevitable difficulties
and inconconsequent
veniences by which
we
have been confronted
at every turn,
upon
It
the exigencies
of the war, there are unmistakable evidences of
progress.
is
true that several important pieces of work,
which
we had
in
contemplation, have had to be set aside for the time being, in consequence of the absence on active military service of so many members of
the
staff,
but that
is
not to be
wondered
at, for
plans conceived in times

strain
of peace naturally
change and shrink under the
and
stress of
war.
Much valuable work has been accomplished, however, and not only has the regular routine of the library been "carried on," but new avenues of service, wherever possible, have been opened out, thanks to
the loyal co-operation and unflagging industry of the remaining of the staff.
members
The
only difference to be noticed in the number of readers making
regular use of the library, during the period covered by the report, was that there were fewer males, with, at least, a corresponding increase in the number of women readers.
The
most gratifying feature of the use made of the library
is
the
steadily increasing
amount
of research, especially in history
and
literature,
24
362
which
is
being conducted not only by students of our* own university, but by members of other universities including the older foundations,
of
many
whom
express their grateful appreciation of the
facilities
which
the library offers for such work.
The development
along the lines which
excellent results,
of the resources of the library has
been continued
hitherto
and
in this respect the officials
have been productive of such renew their
GROWTH
COLLEC
T1NS. acknowledgments of the valuable assistance which they have received from readers, who often in the course of their investigations
have been able to
ities
call attention to
the library's lack of important authorIn every instance these helpful
in
their
special
line of research.
prompt and sympathetic attention. numbered 364 volumes, and interesting items, a few of which, taken almost including many rare at random, may be mentioned as furnishing some idea of the character
suggestions have received
The additions
to the library during the year
of
the accessions which are constantly being obtained.

:
The
Foure bookes of Offices," 1606 " Discourse on the Pharisee and the the first edition of John Bunyan's " the second edition of Richard Brathwaite's Publicane," 1685 Engbooks include
; ;
Barnabe Barnes's
"
printed
lish
Gentleman," 1633
"
Clement Cotton's
"
Mirror of Martyrs," 1615

"
John Calvin's
Abridgement
1
of the Institution of Christian

1
;
Religion,"
printed at Edinburgh
cation of Beggars,"
Simon Fish's Suppliby Vautrollier in 585 599, to which Sir Thomas More wrote a reply
;
Thomas
"
God," D'Urfey's " Bernardino Baldi's Versi Purge State Melancholy," 1716 " 1560 A. F. Doni's Bernardo Capello's e Prose," 1590 Rime," " " 552 Bernardo Tasso's L'amadigi," 53 I marmi," Torquato
1
;
Norton's
"
Treatise on the Nature of

;
599
Pill to
Tasso's
"
Discorsi dell arte Poetica,"

;
587
"
;
Les Quatrains des Sieurs

"
Pybrac, Favre, et Mathiou," 1667 " 701 Sadeler's Symbola divina

1 ;
J.
Boschius's
Symbolographia,"
1601
* ;
Surius'
.
.
codicibus
.,"
pontificum imperatorum," Vitae sanctorum ex probatis auctoribus et MSS. " Certamen 1617, 5 vols. Angelus a S. Francisco,
; ;
et
humana
seraphicum
provinciae Angliae pro sancti Dei ecclesia," 1649 " Steinschneider's Catalogus librorum Hebraeorum in Biblotheca
Bodleiana,"
Sets of
1852-60.
the following important historical publications
were
in
1
also
"
acquired
its
:
The
Scots Magazine," from
its
commencement
"
739
to
termination in 1877,
97
vols.
Didron's
Annales arche'ologiques,"

1844-81, 28
of the
vols.
;
363
The
Smithsonian
Institution's
"Annual Reports
"
; ;
Bureau
historiques
Les Archives Ethnology," 1879-1912, 33 vols. du Departement de la Gironde," 1869-1915, 52 vols.

of
its
"
Canada and
Provinces,"
1914-17, 22
vols.
together with
sets
of the transactions, proceedings,

historical
and other
publications of the principal
and archaeological societies of the United States of America, Alabama, Connecticut, Dover, Essex, Illinois, Iowa, including those of Massachusetts, Minnesota, Montana, New Jersey, Kansas, Maine,
:
York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Vermont, Virginia, and Wisconsin.
Newport,
New
Rhode
Island,
Texas,
Furthermore, the library acquired a selection, numbering about

volumes, from the library of the
of
late Professor J.
300
H. Moulton,
;
consisting
works
of comparative philology
and
religion,
and including some imalso a collection
portant authorities on Iranian language and literature

of works, comprised in
1
Law,
including
many
texts of,
50 volumes, on Roman Law, and Comparative and commentaries upon, Justinian, from
the libraries of Craigie Hall, and that of
Andrew
Fletcher of Saltoun.
manuscript purchases, though not numerous, were of considerable importance. They comprise a collection of Greek papyri obtained
The
by Dr. Rendel Harris during his stay in Egypt in the early part of the year, including a number of finds from the famous Oxyrhynchus site.
The
awaited with great interest, but unlikely that work upon them can be commenced until the close of the war. The Western Manuscripts consist of twelve
result of the
it is
examination of these documents
is
interest to the historians of the period to
Wardrobe and Household Expenses books which should prove of great which they belong. Three of
relate
;
them
respectively to
the
22nd, 28th, and 30th years
of
King
Edward I one to the Household Expenses of Queen Joan of Navarre, widow of King Henry IV two to the Household Expenses of Queen Philippa [of Hainault], Consort of King Edward III one is the Wardrobe Book of Queen Katharine of Aragon for the year 530 another is the Account Book of and Expenses of the Officers, Bailiffs, Receipts etc., of King Edward III, at Calais, Guisnes, and Ardres, 1371-72.
;
;
In the following
list
of donors,
which contains
8 names, we have
fresh proof of the ever- increasing interest in,

tion of, the
and apprecia|
work
of the library,
,
and
. .
we
take this oppor-
TO THE
LIBRARY,
gifts,
GIFTS
renewing and emphasizing the thanks already expressed to each individually, in another form, for their generous
tumty
ot
364
assuring

them
that these expressions of goodwill are a most
welcome
source of encouragement to the Governors.
it
which number 5 3 volumes, include many works which would have been difficult if not impossible to obtain through any other
gifts,
1
The
channel, notably a
tions relating
number
of privately printed works,
and
of publica-
to
India,
many
of
them printed
in
remote parts of our
Eastern Empire, which by the instructions of the Secretary of State for India are regularly sent to us as they are published.
The names
Admiralty
of individual donors
and
institutions are as follows
Office.
Director of the
Intelligence Division.
A. L. Hetherington, Esq. The Rev. A. Du Boulay HilL
Editor of the Ampleforth Journal. John Hodgkin, Esq. " " Aurel [Mme. Alfred Mortier]. John Howell, Esq.
I
Charles Bailey, Esq.
The Rev. Canon
J.
Clare Hudson.
The Rev. H.
J.
Bardsley.
Robert Bateman, Esq. The Rev. J. L. Bouch.
Mrs. Charles Hughes. R. Jaeschke, Esq.
Miss
I.
R. Broad.
Cole, Esq.
Collijn.
Maurice Jones, Esq. Messrs. King & Co.

C. Lang, Esq. Howard C. Levis, Esq.
G.
Dr.
W.
I.
Lord
Cottesloe.
The
A.
Librarian.
Frank Cundall, Esq. Professor T. Witton Davies.
Mrs. L. S. Livingston.
I
J.
Macdonald, Esq.
The Abbot of Downside. E. H. Dring, Esq.

Mrs. Emmott.
R. Macdonald, Esq. The Rev. H. W. Mackey, O.S.B,

Dr.
W.
A. Mingana.
D. Scott Moncrieff, Esq.
Fiddian Moulton.
The Rev. G. Eyre
Evans.
W.
Miss Helen Farquhar. Senor D. Figarola- Caneda.

Mrs. Figarola- Caneda.
Professor R. G. Moulton.
The Rev. W.
F. C. Norton, Esq.
Sam Gamble,
J.
Esq.
C. Maxwell Garnett, Esq.
Stephen Gaselee, Esq. A. P. Hacobian, Esq. T. Walter Hall, Esq.
Hubert Ord, Esq. Hanson Ormerod, Esq. Sir William Osier, Bart.,
A.
C.
Pallis,
Esq.
W.
Pidduck, Esq.
The Rev.
Dr.
J.
J.
Arnott Hamilton.
D' Arcy Power, Esq.

Edgar Prestage, Esq.
Rendel Hams.

Publisher of
"
Publications sur la Sir Herbert
365
Thompson, Esq.
The H. L. Roth, Esq. The Secretary of State
W. Tomkinson, Esq. guerre," 1914-15. Rev. H. L. Ramsay, O.S.B. Professor Francesco Torraca.
Dr. Paget Toynbee.
for India.
Yusuke Tsurumi, Esq.
W.
B.
Shaw, Esq.
F.
D. B. Updike, Esq.
Professor Colonel
Sir
Dr. C.
Smith, and
W.
Hall Walker.
H.
J.
B. Smith.
Adolphus
W. Ward.
T. Spalding, Esq. H. Ward, Esq. Foster Watson, Esq. H. M. Spielmann, Esq. The Lady Abbess of Stanbrook G. Parker Winship, Esq.
Abbey.
E. L. Stevenson, Esq. Stubbs' Publishing Co.
T.
J.
Wise, Esq.
The Hon. Margaret Wyndham.
Aberystwyth.
Boston, Mass.
British
National Library of Wales.
American Art Association.
Museum
of Fine Arts.
Columbia.
Provincial
Museum.
Peace.
Museum. Carnegie Endowment

British
for International
Carnegie Trust.
Institut
d'Estudis Catalans.
Chicago.
Chicago.
The John Crerar Library. The Newberry Library.
Chicago University. Clark University.
Columbia University.
Cornell University.
Durham
University.
Edinburgh University Library.
Glasgow University Library. Habana. Academia Nacional.

Habana.
London.
Biblioteca Nacional.
London
Institution.
Dr. Williams's Library. School of Oriental Studies.
Manchester.
Free Reference Libraiy.

Victoria University.
Manchester.
366

Michigan University Library.
New York Public Library. New Zealand. Government
Statistician's Office.
Norwich Public Library. Provincial Museum. Ontario.

Pennsylvania.
Military
Order
of the
Loyal Legion
of the
U.S.
Com.
of
Penn.
Reading. University College Library. Research Defence Society.
Rome.
St.
Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana.
Andrews
University Library.
Springfield,
111.,
U.S.A.
Insurance Department.
Toronto University Library.

Washington.
Washington.
Washington.
Congressional Library.
of
Department
Labour.
Surgeon General's Office Library.

St. Louis,
Washington University Library,
Mo.
interest to
..
Amongst
01 ten
recent
gifts to
the student of the history of the
quarto volumes or newspaper and other literary cuttings which deal with the history of the Irish National
if
the library
is
one of exceptional
modern drama>
iii
consisting
_,.
NATIONAL THFATRF
Theatre from
This
material,
its
inception in
903
of
to the present time.

fugitive,
interesting
collection
but none the less valuable
which has been presented to the library by Miss Horniman, would have been lost, because through accident of birth it is buried in
the
files
of the various
newspapers and periodicals
in
which
it
appeared,
it,
but for the
praiseworthy energy displayed by and with her own hands preserving it and making
in its existing form.
the donor in collecting

it
available to students
The
Revival
Irish
National Theatre
this in turn is
is
a natural outgrowth of the Celtic
but a phase of the Irish National Move; ment, which has met with a good deal of ridicule in this country merely because of certain extravagances and absurdities in which some of the
and
more aggressive
pathetic interest.
spirits
it
have looked upon
have indulged, but amongst literary people who with unprejudiced eyes it has aroused a real sym-
The aim
of the
little
band
of Irish enthusiasts to
whom
belongs the

credit of
367
was to laying the foundation of the Irish National Theatre, render in dramatic form some of the best of the fascinating legendary
tales
and
traditions
which
tell
of the faith
and
life
of the Irish people,
of the
deeds of
their heroes,
and
of the glories of their kings,
and
in so
doing to substitute a
live national
drama
worthy of the name, for
what
Mr. Yeats
merce, that
describes as
lifeless
"
:
the machine
made
play of modern com-
come away
product of conventional cleverness, from which we knowing nothing new about ourselves, seeing life with no
it
new
ment
eyes,
and hearing
with no
new
ears ".
If it
be true that the
Irish are
is
a hearing rather than a reading people, then this new movefraught with great possibilities, and is an event of far-reaching
in the national history of Ireland.
importance
In the ultimate realization of
their
aim Miss Horniman played
a very important part, by generously undertaking to provide these struggling enthusiasts with a permanent home in Dublin, where they
could develop the literary and dramatic instinct of the Irish people. Until the advent of this fairy god-mother they had had to write their
own
plays,
and with very
limited resources to produce them, often under
the most distressing circumstances

surroundings.
and amidst the most inconvenient
The new experiment was
a complete breaking
it
away from
the
modern
stage development. provided no accommodation for an orchestra, since no musical instruments were employed or needed to
give an artificial swing to the entertainment
for as
;
For one thing
neither
Mr. Yeats would say
"
:
was there any
bar,
People
who
are on a pilgrimage in quest
for truth
too,
and beauty, have no call for such distractions ". Limelight, was banned and tabooed, whilst the scenic arrangements were of
the simplest and every-day order, not only with a view of avoiding un-
of scenery
necessary expenditure, but because rightly understood the proper role and mounting is to suggest and not to realize.
In this respect the Irish National
plicity of
Theatre
is
a return to the sim-
the Elizabethan Stage, or of the
Greek Drama, when the
improvised stage was never cumbered, never tawdry as in those theatres where the actors and perhaps the audience are too little imaginative to
It is noteworthy that the Irish audience possesses that faculty of emotion, those easily aroused passions which distinguished the Elizabethan playgoers. Ireland was not
trust to the
work played
for their effect.
hampered by
either tradition
or convention, for until
the period
to
368

refer,
which these volumes

that
is
drama had been non-existent in

;
that country,
to say,
drama
Irish
of
were
so-called
it is true there home-growth, racy of the soil but they were sheer burlesques. Most of plays,
the plays of the revival are of the country people, so that a few coloured
shawls, an old hat or two, a market basket,
and
(in
normal times) a
pennyworth
of apples are almost all the stage properties required.
fact is that the
young men
dry bones.
in this
the old masters of the art,

Irish valley of
and a
The new movement have turned back to new spirit has been breathed into the
Since the publication of our
last issue
we
have received a number

library for
of very important contributions to the
new
THE LOULIB
the University of Louvain, which, as most of our readers

are aware,
is
RARy
SCHEME.
in process of formation
here in Manchester,
of ten
and which already comprises upwards

to the time of going to press
it
thousand volumes.
Up
was our
intention
to include in the
present issue a detailed report of these most recent contributions, but such have been the demands upon our space, that we have been compelled to postpone the publication of this report until October,
it is
hoped
that
the succeeding number
of the
BULLETIN
will
when make its
appearance.
promised report will be accompanied by a complete list of the names of all who have in any way participated in this endeavour
to restore the library resources of the crippled
since
its
The
and exiled University,
inauguration in December, 1914.
In the
meantime we renew our appeal

either of suitable
for further offers of help,
which may take the form

of
books or of contributions
money. may wish

to
In order to obviate
to participate in this
any duplication of gifts, those who scheme of reconstruction are requested

to
be good enough,
in the first instance,
send to the writer, the

titles
Librarian of the John Rylands Library, Manchester, the works they are willing to contribute.
of the
THE VENETIAN POINT OF VIEW

HISTORY.
BY
R. S.
1
IN
ROMAN
CONWAY,
IN
LiTT.D.,
HULME PROFESSOR OF
is
LATIN
THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER.

work
common
diversion of historical writers to trace in the
IT
and
to
of
some individual member
of a given race the characteristics
which mark the race as a whole.

in
This
is
often profitable
some degree necessary,
if
either the race or the individual are
be
clearly understood.
The name Venetian

associations
;
has for most English readers probably
many
the ideas of a courageous independence, of the triumph

the use of
that
of
sea-power, of
against oriental
history
;
barbarism,
are part of
power in defence of civilisation what Venice stands for in

suggests also an architecture of
but to most of us the

;
name
all
a number of pictures that represent, perhaps, the highest level of perfection which the art of painting has ever reached.
unique beaut v
and more than
The
present writer desires to claim nothing that can be called a
knowledge of that art, but only to be allowed to state simply the things which have given him especial delight in a few great pictures which he has visited many times. Probably there are many others
like
him who had never found themselves
in the least excited
about
anything on canvas, until they saw the work of Titian and Giorgione or some others of the same school. These pictures seem to have the
power
awaken, even in minds comparatively dull to such things, a certain humble eagerness and a strange sense of light and friendship,
to
comparable
to that
poem
or piece of
which comes from hearing some great speech or music a sudden consciousness that there is before
;
us in these pictures something which concerns us intimately, so in1
An
outline of this paper
was delivered
369
as a Lecture in
the John
Rylands Library on October
10, 1917.
370

the whole of
timately that their
made
I
think, in
who have and richer. And the arresting quality, deeper these great works of art is something that may be called
authors become henceforward friends
life
dramatic.
It
represents
is
some
strong
human
feeling in a setting of cirit,
cumstance which
in
some way
vitally related to
life.
so that the
whole
seems not a
the
St.
little
picture, but a part, of
Titian's
St.
John
offering roses to the Christ,

;
Holy Family with and the grey headed
Antony
standing beside
or Santa Caterina devoting herself to
or Giorgione's Concerto,
the same lovely child with St. John this time playing with a pet lamb ; where the young harmonist, who, after some
seeking, has just found or
is
just finding the right chord, looks

;
up with
a flash of insight and delight

portrait of
the
of
warmth
power armed warrior Giovanni De' Medici, all these have feeling, almost of passion, which till then we had never
conveyed on canvas
life.
;
or the indescribable
of Titian's
dreamt
is
of seeing
and yet
as
this spiritual
element
somehow
1
fenced in and surrounded convincingly with the concrete

daily
*
conditions
of
In Venice,
vitality in the
learn from
of
'
Mr. E. V.
Lucas,
this
is
warmth and
called
work
one
of
the painters of
The
il fuoco Giorgionesco *. not merely intense but moral in the widest feeling depicted sense, springing from the most essential parts of human nature and so
the school
the
glow of Giorgione*
is
making universal appeal for example a great tenderness to women and children a great reverence for old age, especially natural ta
;
;
Venetians,
of daily life
who were
;
long lived folk
a genial interest in the details

;
a sense of greatness in public relations

of the things
these are some,

felt
though only some,
which seem
to
be most deeply
in the pictures of the
Venetian masters.
happened to me in pursuing a rather obscure path of study among the monuments of the early languages of Italy ^ to realise what I might have known before, that this Venetian race,
Not
long ago
it
which
to us is the glory of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, had played a part in the civilisation of an earlier epoch, had made in fact no small contribution to the humanising of Central and Western
Europe from the very beginning
of history.
Few
1
people in this country, and not very
many
in
any
other,
in Venice (London, 1914), p. 293. To this delightful indebted, both for some points of Venetian history and for the choice of the typical lines from Shelley quoted below.
Wanderer
book
am much
THE VENETIAN VIEW

have even heard
record
to the
is
IN
ROMAN HISTORY
as Venetic, of
B.C.
371
of a
language
known
which the only
in a
few score
era.
inscriptions dating from about 500
down
Christian
These scanty fragments are
of considerable
interest to students of
us a language in a few years ago

its
Comparative Philology because they present to many ways intermediate to Greek and Latin and
;
began
to collect materials for a
complete edition of
is
remains.
In
l
19161
received from a friend
who
a distinguished
a copy of some newly discovered inscriptions of considerable interest, which date from the third century B.C. They were
Italian scholar
found in the summer of
4, at
Pieve di Cadore during the conrailway ever built there.

(situle,
struction of the station for the

inscriptions
first
Both
as
were on rather beautiful bronze vases

call
pails,
one might
ornament)
these
;
them,
if
one regarded
of similar of artistic
and the Cadore valley has yielded
only their shape, not their so long a series of

as to
and other objects must have been a centre

least the fifth
workmanship
show
that
it
century B.C.
At
manufacture and export from at that date and later this valley was
of the
one
of the regular tracks of
communication between the head
Adriatic and Central Europe.

discovered, on a hill which the Gail and Drave valleys,
is
About twenty known to-day as
years ago there were
the Gurina, between
in the Tyrol,
almost north of the Alps,
the remains of an important but hitherto nameless ancient city which

in the fifth and later centuries B.C., by same Venetic language and among these spoke people remains there are a number of bronze plates, fashioned in what we
must have been inhabited
who
call
this
should
repousse
style,
which served,
if
believe,
to
adorn the
panels of doors, and which,

of the art of
so,
show
that this characteristic feature
North
Italy, the decoration of doors by bronze panels,
goes back to the third or fourth century B.C.

this race of
The
other remains of
Veneti, especially numerous on the site of the modern city of Este, connect them closely with the culture of Hellas and
Crete of the sixth
which
1
lies
But in the valley of the Piave, century B.C. in the route from this nameless city over the mountains to
latest
For the
215ff.
discoveries in this Piave valley see Pellegrini, Atti
Memorie R.
ff.,
2
Ace. Set. Lett. Art. in Padova, Vol. XXXII. (1916), pp.

ahsu's' occurs on the dedicatory inscription of "
I
209
,
The Venetic word

them
;
two
of
-
and
it is
best interpreted,
think, to
mean " door
(cf.
Gr.
372
Italy,

He the towns of Treviso,
;
Feltre,
students of the Renaissance

last inscriptions
and Pieve
and Belluno, well known to di Cadore, where the two
were found, was the birthplace of Titian. In view of such facts one naturally asks whether there was any link between this early art of the Veneti and the great Venetians of
the Renaissance.
To
?
ask the question
is
to
answer
it.
They
are
demonstrably the same people.
From whence were
the Lagoons of
Venice peopled
From
all
the district to the west of
them when
the barbarians overran

ally
from Altinum, from Aquileia and especiit, from Padua, which was in ancient times the chief seat of the
Veneti
and only 14 miles from the

still
sea.
At
the Christian era
Padua
celebrated
every year a regatta in commemoration of
the victory of
pirate in the
Paduan sailors who repelled the invasion of a Greek and the point which historians choose as year 302 B.C.
;
marking the
A.D.
real
independence
of the
new Venice,
whole
is
the year
584
when
the claim of
traffic
Padua
to control the
district
(a claim
based on the old
from Padua
down
the river Brenta which

is
then ran out into the sea along the north side of what
now
the
Giudecca) was
finally
defeated through the

like
Pact with the Exarch
to a northerner Padua, Longinus. a sea of summer light between the Alps and the Euganean Hills,
And
Venice,
lies in
what seems
which Shelley has described
\K
Julian and Maddalo:
And
'.'.., the hoar towards the north, appeared, aery Alps, Through mist, an heaven-sustaining bulwark, reared Between the east and west and half the sky
;
Was
roofed with clouds of rich emblazonry,

at
Dark purple
the zenith,
Down
the steep west into a
which still grew wondrous hue
Brighter than burning gold, even to the rent Where the swift sun yet paused in his descent
Among
the many-folded hills

hills,
Those famous Euganean
they were which bear,
As
The
seen from Lido, through the harbour piles, likeness of a clump of peaked isles
then, as
if
And
the earth
and sea had been
Dissolved into one lake of fire, were seen Those mountains towering, as from waves of flame, Around the vaporous sun, from which there came The inmost purple spirit of light, and made
Their very peaks transparent/

1
Livy, X. 2.
THE VENETIAN VIEW

known
IN
ROMAN HISTORY
373
Padua, as became a city so gloriously placed, was proverbially in the ancient world as the home of simple living and high
;
morals and an intense affection for freedom
it
became, as
we
all
know, the seat of the greatest University of the
which
here
is
all
our English Universities are deep in
Middle Ages, to debt and its greatest

;
ancient citizen
is
was the
as
historian Livy.
And
what
want
to suggest
that the
truest
to
regard him
is,
judging and enjoying Livy's work 1 taking essentially a Venetian point of view.
way
of
That
what gave him most pleasure, and what he was to paint a series of pictures, each embodying, in the fewest words, some clash of feeling and circumstance, some struggle of rival passions, some triumph of wisdom or valour or devotion pictures instinct with dramatic imagination and
to realise
that
counted
his greatest object,
coloured with lively
human sympathy.
it
The
rest
of his narration,
though he dealt with
honestly and frankly in his
own way, was
to
him only the

scenes.
If this
setting for the true
work
of his art, the pictures of noble
remember how Livy deHe begins his Preface by an apology for scribes his own design. a task undertaken by so many before him and attempting again But it will divert his mind from acknowledges its enormous scope.
seems
new
doctrine, let us at least
the miseries of recent times/ to dwell on the earlier period.

It is
not
my
intention either to affirm or
deny the
of
truth of the stories
which have gathered round the
earliest beginnings
Rome.
They
are
better fitted for the imagination of poets than the sober chronicles of history. Antiquity has the privilege of exalting the origin of great cities by interweav-
ing the actions of gods and
men and if it be reasonably granted to any people to hallow its beginnings and call the gods its founders, surely it is granted to the people of Rome. The glory which they have won in war is great enough for the world which acknowledges their supremacy to ac;
knowledge also their claim to the son of Mars himself for their founder. But howsoever these stories and their like be judged or censured, will, I It is to other confess, trouble me but little. things that I would have my
reader direct his best attention, the
1
life,
the character of the nation, the
Some
Anderson,
to
time after this lecture had been given, my friend Prof. W. B. whom the paper is indebted for other valuable help, called
'
my
in
attention to a note in Niebuhr's Rom. Hist. (Eng. Tr. new ed. II. 544) which among Livy's own peculiar excellencies he reckons that richness and warmth of colouring which many centuries after were the characteristics of the Venetian painters born under the same sky *.
'
'
374
men and the conduct, at home and on the field, from which its power sprang and grew. Then he may trace how the ancient government broke down, and how the ancient character of the nation gave way too, until at length we have reached a point in our own day when both the abuses of our national life and their remedies are greater than we can bear.
There you hear the
next sentence has a no
free
Venetian
spirit,
recognising,
and yet
lamenting, the necessity of the
new Empire
of the Caesars.
:
And
the
less characteristic
Paduan touch
Yet unless I am deceived by fondness for my task, there never was a whose history is richer in noble deeds, nor a community into which greed and luxury have made so late an entrance or in which plain and It is just this which thrifty living have been so long or so highly honoured. is so health-giving and fruitful in the study of history, that you can fix your
nation
;
gaze upon well-attested examples of every kind of conduct, blazoned upon a splendid record.
From
him was
these words
it is
*
clear that
what Livy
*
:
first
of all set before
to paint these
great examples
great men, great institu*
tions, great
deeds, are the things on which the reader must

as the
fix his
first of a few such pictures from LJvy's a brief and to us not very exciting scene in a dilapidated pages, It is a footnote which temple in Rome, somewhere about 27 B.C.
gaze*.
Take now
Livy adds to the spirited story of a fight in the fifth century B.C. between a Roman called Aulus Cossus and an Etruscan Chief, in which
Cossus had
won what was
called royal spoil, spolia opima,
by de-
feating the enemy's leader
in single
combat
(iv. 20. 5).
I have followed all the authorities in relating that it was in the office * that Cossus won these spoils and dedicated them in the of military tribune But in the first place spoil is only properly called of Jupiter. Temple commander from the commander of when it is taken by a Royal
Roman
the enemy,
and we recognise no one as commander unless he
is
actually the
And secondly, the actual inscription written general in charge of an army. the spoil itself proves that both I and my authorities are wrong and upon
This fact I learnt from Cossus took them when he was Consul. Augustus Caesar, the second founder of every temple in Rome, since I heard him say that when he entered the shrine of Jupiter Feretrius, which he restored from #n almost ruinous state, he read with his own eyes this inAnd I feel that it would be almost scription written on the linen corselet. a sacrilege to rob Cossus of such testimony to his achievement, the testimony of the Emperor himself, the second founder of the temple. But if
that in truth
the source of the confusion

point on
lie in
is
certain ancient authorities
that is a
which every reader

1
free to use his
own
conjecture.
colonel.
A rank corresponding to that of a modern
THE VENETIAN VIEW

Then
after
IN
ROMAN HISTORY
difficulties
375
pointing
:
out
further
in
the
traditional
account Livy concludes

But
toss these matters of small importance, to and fro, accordman's opinion and when all is done, the author of this battle every his own self, having set up these fresh and new spoils in a holy place, in
we may
ing to
and Romulus
false
title,
the sight of Jupiter himself standing thereby, to whom they were vowed, also, two witnesses not to be despised nor abused with a
hath written himself,

is
A.
Cornelius Cossus Consul. 1
This
quite typical of Livy's
whole attitude
is
;
to difficult points in
His judgment on the evidence tradition. that his usual authorities must be wrong
reader to say so in so
quite sound.
He
it
sees
but he leaves
that,
to the
many
But
words, because
he
felt,
would
cast
doubt on the
rest of his history, since
plaining their vagaries.

at all
;
his despair
he despairs altogether of exdoes not weigh on his mind
it
his
own
did not even lead him to go to look at the inscription with what interests him is the picture of the young, eyes
;
triumphant Emperor Augustus,

of the ancient shrines of
in the course of his
devout restoration
the archaic letters
Rome,
stopping to read
written on a linen breast-plate torn from a dying Etruscan chief

his vanquisher the
by
Consul Cossus, 400 years before. Let us turn to a few pictures on a larger canvas, putting first the familiar passage which led our own Turner to one of his most vivid
paintings, Hannibal's crossing the Alps.
Into the controversies that
have sprung from the perennial

enter
;
interest of
the story,
we
will not
but
modern
well to observe that on every point the course of research (in which the investigations of Dr. G. E. Marindin,
it
is
and Prof. Spenser Wilkinson may be especially has vindicated the good faith and sound judgment with mentioned) which Livy has interpreted, so far as he could, a tradition well atCapitaine
Colin,
It is unlucky that the gravest piece of carelessness which ever sullied the high repute of Theodor Mommsen should have led him to impugn the truth of Livy's account on the ground of its divergence from the account
tested but almost wholly devoid of local names.
given
by Polybius
what Polybius
1
only necessary to read the whole of about Hannibal's point of descent and not the says
;
whereas
it
is
The
discerning reader will have scented in this concluding paragraph

;
of the rendering a freshness hardly to be compassed in our own labouring It is from .Philemon Holland's version on which see below.. day.
376
first

part only,
which
1
is all
that
Mommsen
heeded
to
see that in
every essential point the two stories are closely parallel, and wholly
worthy of credence. This version and those that follow are
either taken from,
or
largely based upon, the translation of Philemon Holland which was 2 dedicated to Queen Elizabeth and breathes everywhere the masterfulness and enthusiasm of her Those which, like spacious times '. the Hannibal passage, are here taken over, I have modified where
'
we have now
his
better
knowledge
of
Livy's text or (which
is
rare) of
where the English of the sixteenth century would be now and where the richness of Holland's vocabulary and his misleading manful resolve to discover in the Latin every atom of its meaning,
Latin
; ;
have done
than justice to the pregnant gravity of Livy's style. Wherever Holland's English suggests a brilliant and voluble schoolless
boy, that
is
it
the
but where
century ; flows in a strong tide of feeling, moving with speed and
mark not
of Livy, but of
Holland and
his
power, there he has exactly expressed his original. Let us begin at a point at which Hannibal, already in high altitudes, has had a sharp conflict with one Alpine tribe, and is approached by delegates from another (XXI., C. 34, 4).
First
went
in
marched
after with
an heedful eye. on one side lay under a steep hill, the barbarous people rose out of their ambush from all parts at once, before and behind, and attacked him yea
;
the van guard the Elephants, and the horsemen himself the flower of his infantry, looking all about him with So soon as he was entered a narrow passage which
;
For the details of Mommsen's error see Class. Rev., XXV. (1911), 56 Mr. F. E. A. Trayes gives an excellent comparison of the two p. narratives in the Appendix to his edition of Book XXI. (London, 1905,
x
1
;
& Co.). Prof. Spenser Wilkinson in a brilliant monograph (HannibaFs March, Oxford, 1911) gives the results of his own exploration of the district and makes a strong case for the Col. Clapier. few sentences from this dedication I cannot withhold Vouchsafe also, of your accustomed clemency showed to aliens of your fervent zeal to learning and good letters ... to reach forth your who having arrived long since and conversed gracious hand to T. Livius as a mere stranger in this your famous Island and now for love thereof learned in some sort the language, humbly craveth your Majesty's favour to be ranged with other free citizens of that kind, so long to live under your princely protection, as he shall duly keep his own allegiance and
Bell
'
wisdom,
acquaint your liege subjects with religious devotion after his manner, with and not otherwise.' policy, virtue, valour, loyalty
;
THE VENETIAN VIEW

and
rolled
IN
ROMAN HISTORY
377
down mighty
and without
all
stones
;
greatest
number came behind
his infantry,
upon them as they marched. But the against whom he turned and made head with peradventure, if the tail of his army had not been
strong and well fortified, they must needs have received an exceeding great Even as it was, Hannibal spent one night cut overthrow in that valley.
off
number and
in
After this the mountainers (fewer in from his baggage and cavalry. in robbing wise rather than in warlike sort) attacked him only small bands, one while upon the vaward, other while upon the rereward,
them could get the vantage of ground. Elephants though they were driven very slowly, because through these narrow straits they were ready ever and anon to run on their noses, yet what way soever they went, they kept the army safe and sure from the
as
any
of
The
The enemy, who being not used unto them, durst not once come near. ninth day he won the very tops of the Alps, mostly through untrod paths after he had wandered many times out of the way, either through the deor because when they durst not trust them, they ceitfulness of their guides had adventured rashly themselves upon the valleys without knowing the tops There the soldiers wearied with travail and fight rested two thereof. certain also of the sumpter horses (which had slipt aside from the days
: ;
:
rocks) by following the tracks of the army as it marched, made their way to the camp. When they were thus overtoiled and wearied with these tedious a fall of snow (for now the star Vergiliae was setting) increased travailes,
For when at the break of day the ensigns were set forward, the army marched out slowly through deep snow all around them ; and there appeared in the countenance of them all heaviness and despair. Then Hannibal advanced before the standards and commanded his soldiers to halt upon a certain projecting spur of the mountains (from whence they
their fear exceedingly.
had a goodly prospect and might see a great way all about them) and there displayed unto them Italy and the goodly champain fields about the Po, which lie hard under the foot of the Alps saying That even now they had mounted the walls not only of Italy but also of the city of Rome all besides and after one or two (saith he) will be plain and easy to be travelled battles at the most ye shall have at your command, the very castle and head
; :
; :
city of Italy.
Howbeit they had much more difficult travelling down hill, than in the climbing up for well nigh all the way was steep, narrow and slippery, so as neither they could hold themselves from sliding, nor if any tripped and stumbled never so little, could they possibly (they staggered so) recover themselves and keep sure footing, but one fell upon another and horses upon the men. After this they came to- a much narrower path of rock with crags
;
so steep downright that hardly even a nimble soldier without armour and baggage (do what he could to take hold with hands upon the twigs and plants that there about grew forth) was able to creep down. This place being before naturally steep and precipitous, now was cut right off by a new fall of earth, which had left a bank behind it of nearly a thousand feet depth. There the horsemen stood still as if they had been come to their ways end and when Hannibal marvelled much what the matter might be that stayed
:
25
378
them
so, as

they marched not on
:
word was brought him that the Rock was he went himself in person to view the place and Whereupon, unpassable. then he saw indeed without all doubt that he must fetch a compasse about, however far round, and conduct his army, to pass through the wild places around it such as before had never been trodden. And verily that (of all
was such as it was impossible to pass through. For whereas snow untouched and not trodden on, and over it other snow newly fallen, of a moderate depth: in this soft and tender snow, and the
other ways)
there lay old
same not very deep, being once with the
their feet as they went, easily took hold but that snow, gait of so many people and beasts upon it, fretted and
;
thawed, they were compelled to go upon the bare frozen surface underneath, and in the slabbery snow-broth, as it relented and melted about their heels. There they had foul ado and much struggling, for they could not tread sure
which betrayed their feet the sooner for the downwhether with hands or knees they strove to rise, down they fell again, when those their props and stays slipped from beneath them and there were here no stocks of trees nor roots about, whereupon a man so all they could might take hold, and stay himself, either by hand or foot do, was to tumble and wallow, upon the slippery and glassy ice, in the molten slabbie snow. Otherwhiles also the poor beasts cut through the surface of the lower snow, where they trod hard upon it and when once were fallen forward, with flinging out their heels, and beating with their they hoofs more forcibly for to take hold, they brake the under surface quite through so as many of them, as if they had been caught fast and fettered, stuck still in the hard frozen and congealed ice. At last, when both man and beast were wearied and overtoiled, and all to no purpose, they encamped upon the top of an hill, having with very much ado cleansed the place aforehand for that purpose such a deal of snow there was to be digged, and thrown out. This done, soldiers were and brought to break that rock, through which was their only way the time that it was to be hewed through, they felled and overthrew against many huge trees that grew there about, and made a mighty heap and pile of wood the wind served fitly for the time to kindle a fire and then they all set aburning. Now when the rock was on fire, and red hot, they l When the rock poured thereon vinegar for to calcine and dissolve it. was thus baked (as it were) with fire, they digged into it and opened it with pick-axes, and made the descent gentle and easy by means of moderate windings and turnings so as not only the horses and other beasts Four days Hannibut even the Elephants also might be able to go down. and the beasts were almost bal spent about the levelling of this rock For the hill-tops for the most part are bare of pined and lost for hunger. and look what forage there is, the snow conceals. But the lower grass, grounds have valleys and some little banks lying to the sun and streams withall, near unto the woods, yea and places more meet and beseeming for
upon the slippery
slope
;
ice
ward
so that
This device was practised in ancient times by Spaniards in their quarries (Pliny, 33. 96) and it was from Spain that Hannibal's best troops
had been drawn.
THE VENETIAN VIEW

men
to inhabit.
;
IN
ROMAN HISTORY
379
and the soldiers that pasture three days allowed to rest in.
There were the labouring beasts put out to grass and were wearied with making the ways had
1
Turn now
century, of
Dictator.
traits
;
to
two
pictures
of
Roman
character in an earlier
T. Manlius Torquatus the Consul and Q. Papirius the are meant by Livy to stand as companion portheir likeness, and their unlikeness, will appear.
The two
The
of
story of Titus
Manlius
is
an incident
in the great
Latin
War
340
B.C.,
which was almost a
civil
war, since the Latins
who were
now in revolt spoke the language Roman legions and many of

;
of
Rome and had

men
in
long served in the
the
the rebel
side.
army were
preclude
familiarly
known
to old
comrades on the other
To
the opportunities for treachery which these conditions offered, the

suls, of
Con-
whom
one was T. Manlius, forbade
all
irregular fighting (ne
But the Consul's own son, who was a quis iniussu pugnaref). commander of a cavalry patrol, was challenged to single combat by a The young Roman unhorsed his Latin noble and did not refuse.
challenger and slew him.
This
is
the sequel (vill. 7.
2)
Then the young Manlius returned with his spoil to his companions and So he came into his father's rode back to camp amid their shouts of triumph. presence in the praetorium, ignorant of what his destiny had in store, whether " So that all the world," said he, " my he had earned praise or penalty. father, might truly report that I am sprung from your blood, when I was challenged by an enemy, I fought him horse to horse, and slew him, and took these spoils." But when the consul heard these words, he could not bear to look upon his son, but turned away and bade the trumpet sound for an assembly of the soldiers. The soldiers being assembled in great number, then said the elder " Manlius to his son Since you, Titus Manlius, have neither feared the of a consul nor revered the command of your father, but have disauthority obeyed our edict by leaving the ranks to engage in single combat and since, so far as in you lay, you have broken the discipline of war on which the safety and the power of Rome have to this day depended and have me to a strait pass where I must choose either to forget the combrought monweal, or to forget myself, you and I shall abide the smart for our misdeeds rather than that our country, to her so great damage, should pay for our folly and transgression. shall afford a fearful but a wholesome
: ; ;
We
example
that
I
to
young men
of future time.
acknowledge as
look upon you
am
touched not merely by natural affection for
my
son but by the
Both passages come from a Book too little read in our schools, the Eighth, perhaps partly because of a grievous difficulty in the text of the eighth chapter, which recent study of the MSS. has now, I think, removed.
380
deed
of valour you have done, tempted by a false show of glory. But since the authority of the consuls must needs be either confirmed by your death, or if you escape the penalty of disobedience, be for ever annulled and since,
;
your veins, even you yourself will not, I believe, refuse to vindicate by your punishment the discipline that has been then said he to the lictor overthrown by your fault" "go, lictor, I command you, bind him to the block."
if
you have aught
of
my
blood
in
Vergil's
that stern
comment on this scene is brief and famous, headsman (saeuumque securi Torquatum).
*
'
Torquatus,
Twenty years
later in the great
Samnite
War the Dictator
Papirius,
having to leave his
army
in
order to discharge some ceremony at
Rome, gave precise instructions to his Master of the Horse, who was command, not to engage the enemy until he, Papirius, should return. The instruction was disobeyed and Fabius having won a
left in
;
victory announced
it
in
a dispatch which
was read
at
to the Senate in
the presence of the Dictator himself,
who
once
left
Rome
for the
front, making no secret of his intention to inflict summary punishment on Fabius. Arrived in camp he found the army and its superior
officers
unwilling to surrender Fabius to be scourged and beheaded,

altercation
and a long
tor hurried
ended
in Fabius' escape to
Rome.
The
Dicta-
back
after him.
There followed a debate and

effect
resolution
of the Senate,
which had no
upcn the
Dictator's resolve.
'
(Book
V11I. 33. 7.)

'
much,' said he,
For as slept forth M. Fabius the father. neither the'authority of the Senate, nor mine old age,
Then
whom
you seek to make childless, nor yet the noble courage of the Master of nor any humble prayers, Horse, by your own self chosen, can prevail which are often able to appease the fury of an enemy, yea and to pacify I the wrath of the Gods implore the lawful help of the Tribunes, and to Then out of the Councilthe whole body of the people I appeal house they went straight to the common place of audience and when the Dictator, attended with some few, was ascended up to the rostra, and the Master of the Horse, accompanied by all the whole troop of the chief of the city, had followed him, Papirius commanded that Fabius should come down, or else be fetched, from the Rostra, unto the lower ground. His
; ;
Well done/ quoth the father, 'in commanding us to be brought hither, from whence we may be allowed to speak our Then at the first minds, even if we were no better than private persons/ there passed no continued speeches so much as wrangling and altercation. But afterwards, the voice and indignation of old Fabius surmounted the
father followed after him.
'
other noise
who greatly cried out upon the pride and cruelty of Papirius. What, man?' quoth he, 'I have been also a Dictator of Rome myself, and yet was there never so much as a poor commoner, no Centurion, nor soldier But Papirius seeketh victory and triumph over a hardly entreated by me.
;
THE VENETIAN VIEW

Roman
enemies.
IN
the
is
ROMAN HISTORY
381
General, as
much
as over
See, what difference there
leaders and commanders of his between the government of men in
old time, and this
new
pride and cruelty of late days.
Quintius Cincinnatus
when he was
Dictator, proceeded no farther in punishment against the Consul Minucius, when he had delivered him lying besieged within his own camp, but to leave him as a Lieutenant instead of Consul, in the army Neither the people itself, whose power is whereof he had charge
sovereign, was ever more angry against those that through rashness and want For the misof skill lost whole armies, than to fine them a sum of money.
carriage of any battle, that a General should be brought into question for his
But now, rods and axes, whipping and of to this day. are prepared for the Commanders under the people of Rome, and beheading, those, who are conquerors and have deserved most justly triumphs
life,
was never heard
son have endured, if he had suffered the (I pray you) should my be lost and his army likewise? If he had been discomfited, put to and driven clean out of his camp, how far forth further would the flight, And Dictator's ire and violence have proceeded than to scourge and kill ? see how fit and seemly a thing it is that the city for the victory of Q. Fabius, should be in joy, in processions to the gods, and thanksgivings, with conand he himself by whose means the gratulation and feasting one another stand open, the altars smoke with incense and sacrifice, and are temples heaped up again with vows, oblations, and offerings, to be stripped naked, to be whipped and lashed to death in the sight of the people of Rome, lookelse
field to
;
What
ing up to the Capitol, lifting up his eyes to the gods, whom in two such With what heart will the noble battles he has invoked and not in vain ?
army take this, which by
What
lamentation
will there
*
his leading and be in the
under
his fortune
achieved victory
Roman camp ? and what
rejoicing
Thus fared Fabius the good old father, calling upon amongst our enemies ? God and man for help and withall embraced his son in his arms, and shed many a tear. On the one side, there made with young Fabius, the majesty
;
Senate, the love of the people, the assistance of the Tribunes, and remembrance of the army absent. On the other side were alleged against him by Papirius, the invincible command and government of the people of Rome the discipline of war the Dictator's orders (reverenced at all times, no less than an oracle of the gods) the severe edicts of Manlius, whose fatherly love and affection to his son was counted less than the service and common good of the state the same exemplary justice which L. Brutus, the first founder of Roman liberty, had executed in his two sons. And now,
of the
the
mild and kind fathers, fond old men, when other men's commandment have been contemned, gave liberty to youth, and pardoned as a small matter the
overthrow of military persist in his purpose
discipline.
.'.till
Howbeit, he Papirius
jot of
for his part
would
nor remit one
condign punishment to him

;
who
contrary to his commandment, and notwithstanding the disturbance of religion and the doubtful auspices, had given battle saying, that as it was not in his power to abridge any jot the eternal majesty of that State and Empire
;
so neither,
prayed
should,
that neither
by
of the authority thereof and he the Tribunes' puissance, sacred and inviolable itself, their intervention violate the power of Rome nor that the people
;
would he diminish aught
382
of Rome should in him above all others abolish and extinguish both Dictator and Dictatorship. Which if it did, the posterity hereafter should lay the weight and blame (although in vain) not on L. Papirius, but on the Tribunes. For when once the discipline of war was profaned, no private soldier would obey his centurion nor any man in any rank in any army him that is set over With these crimes and inconveniences (o ye Tribunes) charged him. you must be to the world's end lay down you must, and gage your own
' . .
.
Q. Fabius, for whom ye are now answerable/ The Tribunes were astonished hereat, and for themselves now rather anxious and perplexed, than for him who had recourse unto them for succour. But the general consent of the people of Rome, turning to prayer and enand with one voice humbly besought treaty, eased them of this heavy load the Dictator, to remit the punishment of the Master of Horse, for their sake. The Tribunes also, seeing that was the way, and all others, inclining and growing to petition, followed after, and did the like earnestly beseeching the Dictator to forgive this human frailty, and youthful folly of Q. Fabius, saying that he had suffered chastisement enough. Then the young man himself, then his father M. Fabius, forgetting all strife, and laying aside debate, fell down at the Dictator's feet, and besought him to appease his wrathful dislives
for the audacious disobedience of
pleasure.
'
Hereupon
I
he,
o Quirites, this
the Dictator after silence made, like well, and thus it should be
;
'
Yea marrie,* quoth now hath military
now hath the majesty of the Empire prevailed indeed, which lay both a-bleeding, and were in hazard to be abolished for ever, after this day. Q. Fabius is not acquit of his offence, in that he fought
discipline got the victory
against his Dictator's

forgiven,
commandment
nay
is
given to the people of
but being thereof convicted and cast, is Rome and the Tribunes' power,
whose help was granted merely for his instant prayers, and not of right. Well, Rise up, Q. Fabius, and live, a more happy man for this agreement of the city in thy defence, than for that victory, upon which erewhile thou barest thyself so bravely. Live (I say) thou that hast been so bold to commit that fact which thine own father here, if he had been in L. Papirius* And as for me, into my grace and place, would never have pardoned. But to the favour thou mayest come again, at thine own will and pleasure.
people of Rome to whom thou art beholden for thy life, thou shalt perform no greater duty and service, than that the example of this day's work may be a warning to thee for ever, to obey, as well in war as in peace, all lawful
hests of superior Magistrates.'
We may glance finally at

tenderness towards
one or two examples

is
of the
high-minded
women which
a marked feature of Livy's thought
and which places

Christian Church.
his influence
the humanising factors of mediaeval
second only to Vergil's among such of Europe as were older than the
like
Some
is
of the stories,
those of Lucretia and

;
Volumnia,
the
mother
of Coriolanus, are too
the noblest of
them
the story of
famous to quote perhaps Verginia's death by her father's
THE VENETIAN VIEW

hand.
IN
ROMAN HISTORY
which allows a bare ten
be newly appreciated
383
lines
The power
of
Livy's brevity
will
to the final scene of the tragedy
if it
be
compared with the prolix though not unspirited Lay of Virginia by Let me rather Macaulay, himself no mean orator, when he chose.
>
end by quoting two less familiar passages, both eminently characteristic of Livy, one of his gentle humour, the other of his chivalrous grace.
The
first is
a picture of the rugged old
Roman
farmer and states;
man, staunch Conservative and would-be Philistine, Cato the Censor who however gave way in his old age and learnt the Greek that he
had
for so
many
years defied and denounced.

rights.
He
is
speaking on a
at the darkest
question
of
women's
Twenty
more than
years earlier,
point of the struggle
with Hannibal, a law called the
Lex Oppia had

wear
that
forbidden
women
to possess
half an oz. of gold or to
brightly coloured dresses, the costly iridescent purple of Tyre being
no doubt the
the danger
chief luxury
whose import was
prohibited.
Now
past and the sixteen years of war at last ended, the women and their lovers and husbands were eager to have the law
was
repealed.
The whole
speech of Cato against the repeal and the reply of his

1
opponents are well worth reading,
though too long to quote here. But the opening passage will serve to show the humour with which
Livy portrays the
gruff old partisan
(Book XXXIV. 1.5.) The dames by persuasion nor advice nor authority of but do what men could, they bespread
the
of the city themselves could neither their husbands be kept within doors ;
all
the streets of the
city,
beset
all
ways into the forum, entreating their husbands as they passed and went down thither, to give their consent, that seeing the good estate of the commonweal now flourished, and the private wealth of every man increased
The daily, their wives also might be allowed to have their gay attire again. concourse of the women increased daily and they ventured now to approach and solicit even the Consuls, the praetors, and other magistrates. But as for one of the Consuls, Marcus Porcius Cato by name, they could not with all their prayers, entreat him to incline unto their suit who in the maintenance of the said lav/, and that it might not be revoked, spake " to this effect My masters and citizens of Rome, if every one of us had fully resolved with himself, to hold his own, and keep the rightful authority that he hath over his own wife, less ado and trouble we should have had
: :
recently published
though perhaps sometimes too forcible a version has been by Prof. Darney Naylor of Adelaide (" More Latin and English Idiom," Cambridge, 1915).
brilliant
384
with them
all

so
home
much,
But now having given them the head at together at this day. that the curstness and shrewdness of women hath
;
:
conquered
behold, here also in public place it is trodden down and trampled under foot and because we were not able every man to rule
our freehold there
his
own
I
separately,
now we
stand in fear, and dread
them
all in
general.
myself thought ever until now, that it was but a feigned fable and tale that went of a certain Island, wherein by a conspiracy of women all the men were murdered every one, and that sex utterly made away. But well I see now, be creatures never so weak, let them once have their meetthey ings, their conventicles and secret conferences, they will work mischief in the
Certes,
highest degree, and be as dangerous as any other."
The
'
rest of the
I
speech
is is
one which,
believe,
taken up with two arguments, the first known to suffragists as the thin end of the
is
'
wedge
the second
a general, and quite sincere, plea for simplicity
The reply of Valerius is what one would expect from that noble house, dignified, liberal, and chivalrous and the end of the story " is that the matter was settled by a little peaceful picketing".
of living.
;
After debate of words passed

the law, the day following, the
in
this
women
wise, in favour and disfavour of flocked in greater multitudes into the
open
they
streets
beset the
and banding themselves together, as it were, in one troop, doors and houses of the Bruti, the tribunes who were
threatening to interpose their veto upon the bill preferred by their fellowand the women never gave over to keep this stir, until those tribunes which done, there was no doubt then, tribunes slackened in their opposition
: ;
but
all
the tribes with one voice
Thus twenty
years after
would abrogate and abolish the old law. the enacting thereof, it was repealed.
Lastly, consider the picture of the

1
young
Scipio, a
man whom
In the year 210 or 209 B.C. Livy admired, but with some reserves. in the middle of the Hannibalic War, Scipio had just taken New Carthage, the chief stronghold of the Carthaginians in Spain.
(Book XXVI. 50.) After this there was presented unto him by his maiden of ripe years, taken also prisoner but so surpassing in that wheresoever she went, every man's eye was upon her in adbeauty miration. Scipio having enquired in what country she was born and of what parents, among other things learned that she was affianced to a young Forthwith he sent Prince of the Celtiberians, whose name was Allucius. home to her parents and her betrothed to repair unto him and in the
soldiers, a
:
:
'
We
'
see
(writes a distinguished Irish scholar, Prof.
R. Mitchell
p. 12) 'the
Henry,
in the Introduction to his recent edition of
Book XXVI.,
lofty airs
and self-approving virtue, the genuine kindliness and bonhomie of the young patrician, too kindly to be a prig and too young to know how near he is to being one.'
THE VENETIAN VIEW
IN
ROMAN HISTORY
385
that should be was wonderfully enamoured of her, and ready to die for her love. So soon as Allucius was come Scipio entered into more careful speech with him, than he did either with the father or mother of the maiden, and in these terms he " I am a young man," quoth he, " as well as yourself. entertained him. Come on therefore, let us, young men both, commune together more freely and be not too coy and bashful one to the other. When your espoused wife taken captive by our soldiers was brought unto me and when I heard
meantime, he heard that her husband
of the
exceeding affection that you cast unto her,
believed
it
full
well
for her singular beauty deserveth no less. Now, for as much as myself, if I be allowed to use the pastimes of youth, especially in an honest might and lawful love, and were not called away by the common-weal, and em-
ployed wholly
in
affairs of
state,
extraordinary favour and tender your love, I may not the other in any wise.
liking to a betrothed of
would think to be pardoned if I had an mine own I must therefore needs which is the thing I can, considering that
I
;
Your sweetheart
have entertained
as well and as respectfully as she should have been with your father and Safe kept she hath been for you alone, mother-in-law, her own parents. that you might receive her at my hands, a gift unspotted and untouched
and beseeming me and you

I
both.
In
recompense, therefore, of
this
boon,
require at your hands again this one promise and covenant, that you will be a friend and wellwisher to the people of Rome. And if you take
indeed to be a good and honest man, such as these nations here in Spain have known my father and uncle to have been before me know you thus much, that in the city of Rome there are many more like unto and that there cannot at this day a nation in the world be named which us would wish less to be an enemy to you and yours, or desire more to you
; ;
me
entertain as your friend."
being 'abashed for very modesty and yet right held Scipio by the hand, called upon all the gods, and besought them in his behalf, to thank and recompense him therefor, since it lay not in his own proper power in any measure to make requital, either as himself could wish or as Scipio had deserved. Then were the parents
joyful withal,
The young gentleman
and kinsfolk of the maid called for who seeing the damsel, freely given them again, for whose ransom and redemption they had brought with them a good round sum of gold, fell to entreating Scipio, to vouchsafe to accept the same at their hands, as a gift assuring him, that in his so doing they should count themselves no less beholden unto him, than for the restoring and delivering of the maid. Scipio seeing them so earnest and importunate, promised to receive it, and withal, commanded that it should be laid down Then calling Allucius unto him, " Here," quoth he, " over at his feet. and besides your other dowry which your father-in-law must pay you, have from me thus much more money wherewith to mend your marriage take this gold therefore to yourself, and keep it for your own use." So after this rich reward given, and honour done unto him, Allucius was dismissed, and departed home with much joy and heart's content where he filled the ears and minds of his country-men with right and just praises of Scipio saying, there was come into Spain, a young man most resembling the im:
386
;
mortal gods who as well by bounty, and bestowing benefits, as by force So when he had assembled of arms, is in the very way to conquer all. and mustered all his vassals, he returned within few days, accompanied
with a train of fourteen hundred of the best and most choice horsemen of
his country/
*
No
'
historian/ said Quintilian
of
Livy,
has ever represented
feeling
more
eos
perfectly, especially feelings of the gentler sort
{praeciis
pueque
his
qui sunt dulciores)*
And
in
this
too his spirit
proven kin to the great painters
who made
glorious the later days of
Venetian race.
1
X.
1.
101.
DREAMS AND PRIMITIVE CULTURE.
BY W. H. R. RIVERS, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., FELLOW OF ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.
THE
influence of
is
dreams upon the

culture.
lives of
savage and barbarous
peoples
a theme which has often attracted the interest of
students of
human
These phantom
visitations of
the night have done much to determine human beliefs concerning 2 the nature of the soul and of its continued existence after death,
and many peoples

It is
still
trust greatly in the
value of dreams as guides
to the ordering of their daily conduct.

not,
however, with
Its
this aspect
is
of the subject that
shall deal
in this lecture.
purpose
rather to
compare the psychological
characteristics of the
culture.
I
dream with those
of the ruder forms of
human
of
which the dream
propose to consider the psychological mechanism by means is produced, and then to compare this mechanism
characters of
with
the psychological
the social
behaviour of
those
rude peoples
of
who
are our nearest representatives of the early stages
human
progress.
This subject has recently been taken up with much enthusiasm by the psycho- analytical school of psychologists, Freud and Jung and These writers have paid especial attention to the their followers.
3
myth
dream.
and have
tried
to
the product of
the collective
show, with a certain degree of success, that mind has much in common with the
They
believe that the
myth
of a people
comes
into being
through the action of laws very similar to those which produce the
dream
I
of the individual.
do not propose now
to discuss the value of this work.
In
its
Lecture delivered in the John Rylands Library, April 10, 1918. " For instance, E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture," London, 1871, vol. i., H. Spencer, " Principles of Sociology," London, 1885, vol. i., p. 32. p. 397 *Cf. K. Abraham, "Dreams and Myths," New York, 1912; F. " Wishfulfilment and Symbolism in Fairy Tales," New York, 1915 Ricklin, (Nos. 15 and 21 of Nervous and Mental Diseases, Monograph Series).
2
;
387
388
present form

it is
open
to serious criticism
is
My
The
to
aim on the present occasion

relation of the
from several points of view. to extend the field of comparison.

part of the far
dream
to the
myth forms but one
larger
human
its
of
problem concerned with the psychological relations of the dream culture in general, and especially to those less developed forms which we are accustomed to regard as primitive.
1
his
The wider problem has been approached by Freud himself in This work does not deal exbook on "Totem und Tabu".
with the dream, but with the relation between certain mani-
plicitly
In it primitive culture and the symptoms of neurosis. Freud compares a number of social customs and beliefs with the behaviour and ideas of sufferers from different forms of functional nervous
festations of
disorder.
Only here and
there does he refer to the dream.
It
is,
however, a prominent feature of Freud's scheme of psychology that

the processes which produce the
dream
are of the
same kind as those

and taboo
to
which underlie the neuroses, so that a

the
relation of totem
dream
It
is
implied.
perhaps because Freud has dealt explicitly with neuroses rather than with dreams that he seems to have overlooked a number
is
of remarkable resemblances
that of the ruder forms of
human
between the psychology of dreams and culture. more important reason,
however,
is
that Freud's interest has been absorbed
by
certain special
features of his psychological scheme, such as the role of incest in the
He has consequently neglected production of dreams and neuroses. a number of resemblances which are not only closer, but of greater " Totem und Tabu ". Some importance, than those considered in
of these resemblances,
and especially those connected with the subject of symbolism, have frequently been mentioned by writers of the psycho-analytical school, but no one has hitherto treated them systematically.
Though I shall deal with my subject in a manner widely different from that of Freud, yet the scheme of dream- psychology which I adopt
is in
the main that which
we owe
to the genius of this worker.
canthis
not on this occasion attempt to justify

respect.
It
my
adherence
to
Freud
in
an investigation
must be enough to say that this adherence is based on of dreams during the last two years, of which I hope
1
Leipzig
u.
Wien, 1913.
DREAMS AND PRIMITIVE CULTURE

to give a full account in the
389
to of
This study has led me accept, though with some important modifications, Freud's scheme the processes by which the dream is produced.
near
future.
The
it,
first
and most
essential feature of
cording to
which the dream as
we remember
dream
is
Freud's theory is that acrecord or relate it, and
the manifest content of the
the product of a process of
transformation.
By means
of this process
the motives producing the

often
dream,
the latent content of the dream, or the dream-thoughts,
find expression in a
form differing profoundly from that by which they
in the usage of the ordinary waking life. Freud accustomed to speak of this process as one of distortion and in many ways the term is appropriate. It has come to stand, however, in a
would be expressed
is
close relation to a feature of Freud's
scheme according
to
which
it is
the function of the transformation to disguise the real nature of the

so that the sleeper shall not recognise the motives
dream,
prompted.
Since for the present

Freud's scheme,
I
by which it has been do not wish to commit myself to

from using a term with
speak of the proitself as one of
shall therefore
this portion of
shall abstain
I
which
cess
it
is
so closely connected.
by which the
latent content of the
dream manifests
work
transformation.
Those
familiar with Freud's
will recognise that
my
this
"transformation" corresponds almost exactly to his "distortion".

I
by considering the various processes through which the dream-work of Freud. transformation comes about, Departwill begin
ing slightly from Freud's
own mode
of exposition,
shall consider
these under the headings of dramatisation, symbolisation, condensation,
displacement, and secondary elaboration.
The dream
has a dramatic character in which
its
events unroll
themselves before the sleeper and preserve this character even if the dreamer himself is one of the actors. The dramatic quality is a
The process by which this character is property of the dream itself. acquired is one of those by which the latent is transformed into the
manifest content of the dream, the dream-thoughts finding expression by means of a process of dramatisation.
This dramatic character would hold good whatever view be held concerning the nature of the transformation, or indeed if no such transformation took place at all. The next process, that of symbolisation, implies a relation between the underlying motive of the dream and the
form in which
this
motive
is
expressed, this relation being of such a kind
390
that the

image
of the manifest
dream
is
a concrete symbol of
its
the
thought, emotion, or sentiment
which forms
latent motive.
Thus,
thoughts and anxiety about a person

surroundings
who
is
out of
harmony with his

which the
may
find expression in a
game
of billiards in
place of one of the balls is taken by a cup and saucer, or motives connected with the dreamer's personal safety may be represented by a
burglar's life-preserver.
The
process of condensation
which may range from those of of the dreamer, and thoughts and emotions connected with these
find expression in the
one by means of which events the previous day back to the infancy
is
events,
dream by some simple image
or group of images.
Thus, the life-preserver just mentioned may express a long story of the relations between a physician and a homicidal patient, while thoughts
and
anxieties concerning a suicidal

of the
patient
may
also contribute,
the
of
image
dream being
in this case the highly
condensed product
two
different sets of thoughts
and emotions.
of displacement
This condensation necessarily involves some degree

of interest.
If
several different thoughts find their expression in a single
image, certain interests arising out of one part of the latent content may be represented by an image with which they seem to have no natural
connection.
different
If
the
dream contains a number

interests
of images,
symbolising
to find their
dream- thoughts, the
which would seem
natural expression in one of the images
may be
transferred to another.
Freud attaches
an
affective
form of displacement in which special importance or emotional state which forms the most prominent motive
to a
of a
its
dream
finds expression, not in the
form which would seem to be
most natural symbol, but in some apparently insignificant image of
the dream.
frequent example of displacement

state of the
is
that in
which a
wish or other
the
affective
dreamer's mind finds expression in
word
or act of
some other person.

is
Secondary elaboration
the dream attains such congruity
Freud's term for the process by which and coherence as it possesses. He
attaches especial importance to a process
day-dream
form
is
taken into the dream of the night, of which

structure.
his
by which the phantasy of a it comes to

Freud's treat-
part, preserving its relatively coherent of

this process is
ment
closely
bound up with
part
concept of
the
censor,
a kind of personification of
its
of the unconscious which
controls
more deeply
lying elements.
According
to
Freud the
391
censor exercises a power of selective choice by which only certain elements of unconscious experience are allowed to manifest themselves
in the dream,
and then only
in
such altered guise that their real nature
is
not recognised by the dreamer.
Freud regards the processes which have
been described, dramatisation, symbolisation, condensation, displace-
ment and secondary elaboration, as designed to distort the real meaning of the dream so that this shall not disturb and awake the sleeper. Passing now from the processes of the dream-work to the dreamthoughts which thus find expression the causation of the dream.
we come
to the role of desire in
According to Freud every dream expresses the fulfilment of a wish, the most prominent underlying motive of every dream being some wish on the part of the dreamer. That a vast number of
dreams can be so explained stands beyond all doubt, the expression being sometimes direct and subject to no special transformation,
especially in the case of
are,
lines
children
and uneducated
persons.
There
however,
if
many dreams which can

"
"
only be so explained on these
the term
wish
be used
in
an indirect and unusual
sense,
whereas they receive a natural explanation if they be the expression Desire of some other emotional state such as anxiety, fear or shame.
is
only one, though probably the most frequent, of the affective states
to
which dreams are due.
Another problem which will have to be considered is concerned with the part taken by sexual motives in the production of the dream. According to Freud, sexual motives form the predominant elements
in the experience
which
is
manifested in the dream.
Freud uses the
term
to
is
it
"
"
sexual
with a
far
in ordinary speech,
but even
wider connotation than that usually assigned if this be taken into account, there
no doubt that he has over-rated the frequency with which sexual elements enter into the production of the dream, while many of his disciples have far outrun in this respect the greater discretion of their
Freud himself has provided us with abundant evidence in his Traum-Deutung" that dreams may depend on such motives as professional jealousy, self-reproaches concerning patients, and other
master. "
affective states incident
I
upon the
life
and work
of a physician.
must be content with

I
this brief description of the chief characters
of the dream.
can
now
turn to the special task of this paper
and
inquire
how
far these characters
apply to rude culture in general.
392

There
to
is little
Dramatisation.
tation has
question that dramatic represen-
appealed
ment, not so
much
as
mankind from an early stage of his developa means of amusement and instruction as among
he has attached special significance to
ourselves, but rather because
effects
mimetic representation and has believed that such representation has similar to or identical with those of the acts represented
direct evidence of such dramatic represenin
Though we can have no

tation
pictorial
palaeolithic times,
the rock-paintings and
other forms
of
or plastic art
of the
Aurignacian and Magdalenian show
clear evidence of ideas of a dramatic kind.
The
art of these peoples,
and
especially
its
its
situation in the darkest
and most secluded

which
parts of
it
caves, receives
most natural explanation on the assumption that

it
was designed
to bring success in the activities
represented.
Dramatic representation is very prominent in the rites of existing It is a feature of the ritual of all savage and barbarous peoples. early
forms of religion, being definitely present, for instance, in the Mass of the early Christian Church, the details of which become most readily
intelligible as
elements of a dramatic representation of the
life
and death
of Christ.
Among
more deeply
tend only to
existing savage peoples, dramatic representation goes far
into the texture of their lives than

its
would appear
itself in
if
we
at-
place in religious ritual.

life.
It
shows
many
of the
practices of their every-day
Thus, the rich and complicated customs of avoidance between relatives which are practised by so many peoples may be regarded as a kind of dramatic representation, expressas
ing certain sentiments arising out of the relation between the sexes, or,
I
have
tried to
show,
out of those existing between migrant and
indigenous peoples.
Again, the large group of customs which were be relics of marriage by capture from hostile tribes for long supposed receive a natural explanation as dramatic representations of sentiments
to
formerly set up by relations between immigrant and indigenous peoples
which made necessary the taking of women by force. The close resemblance between dreams and primitive
spect of the prominence in both of the dramatic quality
culture in re-
becomes the
more
J
striking
when we
consider
why
dramatic representation should
W. H. R. Rivers, "History of Melanesian Society," Cambridge, 1914, vol. ii., p. 333. *Ibid. % vol. ii., P 107.
.

among
ourselves.
393
bulk more largely in the minds of savage and barbarous peoples than
The may
dramatic quality of the dream
is
certainly
due
in large
measure
to the necessity for expression
by means
of sensory images.
Thoughts
images
occur in dreams unaccompanied by such images, though even here of some form of speech are probably more prominent than in
the waking state.

definite
By
far
the larger part of the
dream
consists
of
images of sight and hearing,
those
of
smell,
taste,
touch,
fre-
temperature or pain, being, in the majority of persons,

quent.
much
less
Often the images by which the dream-thoughts are expressed

vivid than those of
is
are
more
waking
life,
while persons in
see
whom
sensory
imagery
almost or wholly absent
when awake may

if
and hear the
occurrences of a
life.
dream
as definitely as
they formed a part of real
Similarly, there
vivid
of
is
reason to believe that sensory imagery
is
more
and more necessary

rest
to the savage than to civilised persons,
many
whom
are able to conduct their lives so as to be indistinguishable
though the power of expressing their thoughts by means of sensory imagery is very defective or even wholly absent. difference in such a subjective character as the vividness of
from the
imagery among
is
is
different peoples is not, of course,
a theme on which
it
possible to
produce
direct evidence, but the conclusion that

fully
imagery
accords
especially vivid
their
and necessary among savage peoples
with
almost exclusive interest in the concrete, with the high degree of development of their powers of observation, and with the accuracy
and
fullness of
is
memory
of the
more concrete events

well
of their lives.
This
de-
conclusion
supported by
observation of their demeanour

I
when
scribing events they
have witnessed.
remember the
first
time on
Island,
which
I I
had the opportunity

first
of observing this.
On
Murray
gained my held by a British
where
acquaintance with savage people, courts were official in collaboration with the native chiefs, at
which disputes were settled and offences punished. On the first occasion on which I attended these courts an old woman gave a vigorous and animated account of her experience in relation to the case. As
she gave her evidence she looked
first
in
one direction and then
in
another with a keenness and directness which showed beyond doubt that every detail of the occurrences she was describing was being enacted before her eyes. I have never seen a European show by his
26
394
or

this
her demeanour with any approach to the behaviour of

closely
old
woman, how
imagery.
pression
I
suggest,
knowledge and memory depended on sensory therefore, that as in the dream, the need for eximagery furnishes the chief motive
for the
by means
of sensory
prominence have to rely on imagery

grasped and held.
necessary
of the dramatic quality in primitive culture.

in order to
People
who
to
remember
will necessarily put their
experience into such concrete
and imaged form
as will enable
it
be
when
It
Such a dramatic quality will be perhaps even more sentiments, and the memory of occurrences on which
natural, for example, that such sentiments as those
the sentiments are based, are to pass with success from one generation
to another.
is
between an indigenous people and aliens settled among them with regard to marriage should pass from generation to generation in a dramatic form. It is natural that this form should persist when the
existing original relations
have entirely disappeared in the complete fusion of the two peoples, producing what we call a "survival" of the state of society in which the dramatic representation had its origin.
Symbolisation.
the expression of
its
The
second special character of
the
deeper sense by
doubt.
means
of symbols.
dream is Here again,
the importance of this character in the culture of savage and barbarous
peoples stands beyond
all
We
cannot
point to such clear
evidence of
tisation,
its
presence in palaeolithic times as in the case of

is
drama-
but there
much
if
in
the art of this period which will be-
come
easier to understand
in
we
look for symbolic rather than direct
meanings
many
of its presentations.
Even
if
we
concede that the
mangled hands of the Aurignacian caves are the direct reproduction of members from which digits have been severed, we are still left
with the problem why these hands should be represented at all and why they should take so prominent a place in the pictorial art of this
period.
Among
I
existing peoples of rude culture the importance of

is
sym-
bolic representation
evident.
When
beginning to write this paper,
History of Melanesian Society," but gave it up because I found that I should have to cite nearly every page of the book which recorded any form
started to collect instances
first
from the
volume
of
my
"
of ceremonial.
All
varieties of
symbolism occur
in Melanesia, ranging
from such
obvious examples as the representation of clouds by smoke, thunder

by beating the
fruit
395
and
shell
of a coconut, lightning
by
the rapid opening
shutting of clam-shells,
strung on a creeper,
and the rainbow by a bright orange-coloured to such an indirect and apparently irrational
2
symbol as the representation of an absent child by a coconut. native of Mota in the Banks Islands who is marking out a plot of ground which is to be the -property of an unborn child carries a dried
coconut under his
purpose.
left
arm
or on his
left
shoulder as a symbol of his
These examples
are taken from magic
and
social
custom,
and symbolic representation is even more frequent This use of a concrete object as a symbol of vague sentiments difficult of expression by means
in religious ritual.
abstract relations or
of language
is
probably to be connected with the great prominence of sensory imagery The relations in the mental processes of savage and barbarous Man. which should exist between a man and his wife's brother are kept in
mind the
better
and
their
importance the more

of concrete imagery
fully realised
if
they
are represented
by some kind
which comes
a symbol
to
form
a symbol of the relations in question.
Moreover, to such people that which
we
call
is
much
more than we understand when we use the term.

is
its
To
them there
an idea of community or identity of interest between an object and The best known symbol which is difficult for us to understand.
of this
example
community or
identity of interest,
which has over and
over again aroused the interest of students of anthropology, occurs in the relation between a person and that special symbolic representation
of
him which we
call his
name.
characters
Condensation.
as
The two
dream and
which
have
just
considered
common
to the
primitive culture are such as could be
demonstrated quite apart from any special mode of interpreting dreams such as that which I have made the basis of this lecture. The character
I
have
now
to consider
is
one which
is
intimately connected with
this question
of interpretation.
When we
that
speak of condensation in
relation to the
dream,
we mean
feature
whereby the manifest
content of the
the highly abbreviated and synthetic product of the life-long experience of the dreamer. The process of condensais
dream
tion is
1
one
in
which a vast body

p. 157.
i.,
of experience finds expression in perhaps

Society,'*
W. H.
i.,
R. Rivers, " History of Melanesian
Cambridge,
1914, vol.
-Ibid., vol.
P 56.
.
396
only a single incident of a dream. According to this view any immediate and obvious interpretation of a dream is almost certain to be
false or at least incomplete, while
any attempt
to interpret a
dream
in
a vague general manner as the result of a natural tendency to personify or represent in some other concrete manner is wholly inadequate. Only when the life-history of the dreamer has been thoroughly
examined from every point
dream
is
view which can possibly concern his the investigator satisfied that he is getting somewhere near
of
the truth.
are acquainted with the recent course of speculation students of early culture, especially in this among country, will see how nearly we are approaching the point of view adopted by those
Those who
who
tion
are trying to explain this culture on historical lines.
The
descriphis
which
have
just
given of the
way
in
which Freud and
followers endeavour to interpret dreams might have been taken, with
few words changed, from a discussion of to-day concerning the interpretation of some element of primitive culture.
a
Wholly independently of one another, two groups of students concerned with widely different aspects of human behaviour have been led
by the facts methods of
to
adopt an almost identical standpoint and closely similar
inquiry.
Both agree
in
basing
their
it
it
studies
upon a
thorough- going determinism according to which detail of the phenomena they study, whether
phantastic
is
held that every
be the apparently
and absurd incident

ridiculous rite or
of a dream, or to our eyes the equally
phantastic and
custom of the savage, has
its
definite
historical antecedents
and is only the final and highly-condensed product of a long and complex chain of events. In this matter of condensation we meet a fundamental problem of those sciences which deal
with
human
behaviour, whether individual or collective.
culture abounds in examples of condensation. Thus, to an example already mentioned, I may cite the carrying of a coconut by a native of the Banks Islands as the symbol or representative
Human
return to
of a child on whose behalf he is marking out a plot of ground. Here the observer from another country would see a man carrying a coconut as he marked out his land. inquiry he would find that the man attached great importance to this simple object and regarded its use as
On
essential to the proper
was engaged.
On
performance of the social ceremony in which he investigation our observer would find that the

coconut was used on other occasions as the representative of the
397
human
as a whole.
point out
head and that the head was regarded as the representative of the body If he were an anthropologist of the old school, he would
eminently noble characteristics, the seat of the chief senses and of the more obvious
natural
it
how
is
that
the head with
its
organs of speech, should be chosen as the symbol of personality.

instead of being content with this facile interpretation, he probed
If,
more
that
deeply and extended the

definite ideas
field
of
his inquiries,
he would
find
were associated with were combined.
the head in which sanctity
and
dangerousness
He
would
learn
that
the
it is
heads,
believed
If
especially of certain persons,
must not be touched, and that
to be especially dangerous to pass
above the heads
of these persons.
the inquirer went further afield to Indonesia, a region

tainly
which has
cer-
had much
is
influence
on Melanesian
culture,
the head
regarded as the seat of
an
entity, called
he would "
find that
soul- substance"
this region.
by the Dutch ethnographers to whom we owe our chief knowledge of This entity which, regarded from one point of view is a kind of vital principle or essence, and from another point of view is
ordinarily understand as the soul,
is
what we
believed to be capable of
anterior fontanelle.
1
leaving the body, usually passing out
by the
Our
anthropologist would
learn that the people ascribe death or disease to
the loss of this soul

tact
and
that there are definite ideas of danger in con-
the soul-substance on the top of the head
with the soul- substance of another person. The place of exit of almost certainly explains
it
why
the head of another
should elsewhere be regarded as so dangerous to pass above and why ideas of both danger and sanctity should
attach to this part of the body.
The
illustrates
sketch
have
just given
may
not wholly correspond with the
true course of historical
a process which stands beyond
development of the Melanesian custom, but it all doubt, a process by which
a long and highly complex chain of events finds expression in savage culture in some highly simple and concrete manner. Just as the disciple of
Freud
is
not content to regard the image of a
dream
as
due
to the incongruous
and
irrational nature of this manifestation of

it
mind,
but does not rest until he has traced

of the dreamer,
T
back
to events in the life-history
back even to
"
his early infancy, so the
modern student
W.
P
.
191 8,
J. Perry, 149.
The
Megalithic Culture of Indonesia/' Manchester,
398
of

culture does not accept a simple, even
if
human
apparently obvious,
explanation of a savage
or symbolise.
He
is
custom as the expression of a need to personify not content until he has traced out the history of
his vigilance until his search has led
race.
the custom,
and should not relax
him back
to the infancy of the
human
Just as a simple dream-image, described in a line of print,
may
re-
quire a chapter to enable its full meaning to be recorded, so does such an object as the coconut of the Melanesian cultivator, seen at a
glance and described in a phrase, require a whole chapter or even
volume
complete history and trace out the various influences which have led to its choice as a symbol.
to record its
Displacement.
considered
is
The
process of condensation which

It
have
just
not limited to rude forms of culture.
is
equally a
feature of our
own
or
any other advanced civilisation, just as, properly

is
speaking, condensation
true of the
waking as well as
of the sleeping
Every object complex history behind

life.
we
see,
it.
every word we
It
utter, has a long and highly has been necessary, however, to consider
the process of condensation at some length in order to understand how the concept of displacement derived from the study of the dream also
applies to primitive
human
culture.
As we
have already
seen, dis-
placement in the dream signifies a process by which the interests associated with one motive are transferred from that image by which they
would naturally be expressed

this exists in all culture,
to
some
other.
process resembling
but
it is
much
less
striking in civilised than in
rude
society.
Thus, the
historical process
by which any
object
we
use,
such as the paper on which, or the pen with which I write, is the final result of a long series of transitions in the course of which there has
been displacement from one kind of material to another and from one to another form of technical contrivance, but such displacements are
slight
and orderly beside those which have been exemplified in the history I have cited of the coconut of the Melanesian agriculturalist.
It
would be
difficult to find in
the history of any
modern
object or in-
such an extensive and apparently incongruous example of displacement as that by which a belief in a vital principle localised in the
stitution
head has led

child.
to the use of
a coconut as the representative of an unborn
The
Melanesian
who
is
believes in the sanctity

interested in the
and dangerous
character of the
human head
head
for its
own
sake.
So
far as
we know,
he has no idea that
this interest is
derived from a

belief in the presence of
399
a vital essence in this part of the body, though

is
the belief in a vital principle or soul
present
among
his people in
another form,
direction.
having perhaps suffered displacement in

the history of the custom
final
some other
for these
Once we know
and the reasons
which the process finds expression displacements, the among the Melanesians or other savage people no longer appears It is seen to be the logical and natural outgrotesque or irrational.
form
in
come
of
a definite chain of causation
just as the
equally grotesque and
dream becomes intelligible and image natural when we have traced it back to its source and discovered the reason for the displacements to which its motives have been subject. Both dream and savage custom appear senseless or absurd because in each case we are viewing the final and highly condensed product of a
seemingly equally irrational
of a
process leading back to times widely remote from our present standthe inpoint, going back, it may be, in the one case to the infancy of
dividual
in the other, to the infancy of the race.
Secondary Elaboration. As we have seen, this term is used by Freud for that part of the dream-work by means of which the maniWithfest dream attains such sense and congruity as it may possess.
out necessarily accepting Freud's special interpretation of this process which he supposes to assist in the disguise of the real meaning of the
dream by
whereby
the censor,
we
must acknowledge the existence

rate at the
of a process
the symbolic expressions of a long history are
woven
is
together
to form a scene which, at
any
moment
it
experienced,
has a certain amount of coherence, though often of a peculiar kind. As we all know, dreams differ greatly in their degree of coherence and apparent rationality, and
this
is
due
to differences
in the extent to
which the process of sensory elaboration has been in action. have here to do with a process which is less definite and
We
less
clearly
worked out by Freud than the other

there
is
features of the
dream- work,
pointing to
and consequently
discover
its
an element
of uncertainty in
I
attempting to
counterpart in early culture.

it
will begin
by
the
fact, experience dreams differing greatly in coherence and apparent rationality, so when we examine examples of human culture widely different from our own we find
obvious though
be, that just as
we
striking differences in
the corresponding characters, while in
any one
people
we
find
that different parts of their ritual or customary be-
400
haviour
view.

show
similar
differences in
intelligibility
from our point of

in this
this is due to different degrees in which a process corresponding to the secondary elaboration of the dream has
According to the general lecture, we must suppose that

in action.
If
line
of the
argument followed
been
we examine
the histories of customs which seem to
us the
more coherent and
rational,
we
find that often they
show
the
the same elements, or elements which correspond very with those which have helped to produce the customs which closely seem to us absurd or meaningless. On inquiry we find that the dif-
presence of
ference between the
two kinds
of
custom
is
that in the one case these
elements have undergone constructive development on lines approximating to those of our own culture, while in the other there has either
been no such development or
Thus,
of
to return to the
has proceeded along different lines. example I have used to illustrate other parts
it
my
argument, the use of a coconut in the
way
have described as
the outcome of a belief in the localisation of the vital essence in the
head
is
but one example of the need for concreteness and symbolic
representation
of mentality.
which
have supposed to be characteristic of early forms
Elsewhere, including other parts of Melanesia, the belief in the presence of the vital principle in the head has led to the development of a cult which, though strange to us, is yet in itself quite coherent and
rational.
is
Thus,
in
in the
preserved
a shrine,
Western Solomons, the head of a dead relative this shrine forming an abode to which the
ghost
may
still
resort in order to receive the offerings of his descendants.
In
belief
other places, again including parts of Melanesia, the
same
itself
has become the motive for a definite system of warfare, in

is
coherent and rational, the main object of which
to obtain the
heads
of enemies in order that they shall act as representatives of the captured
victims
who were
formerly sacrificed.
Here
the belief in the localisato
tion of the vital principle in the
head has been elaborated
produce
a special kind of warfare and in some places, as in the Solomon Islands, this mode of warfare has so developed that it has come to form a
highly complex religious ritual, the performance of which over years before and after a head-hunting expedition.
may
extend
This
process of
secondary elaboration
is
very prominent
in
the
in
neuroses, and has consequently been commented upon by Freud
DREAMS AND
"'Totem und Tabu". 1
considered in
elaboration
is
PRIMITIVE
CULTURE
the
401
Although the
characteristics of
dream
this lecture are those first
pointed out by Freud, secondary
alone mentioned
in this book.
Disguise and Censorship.

far dealt are features of the
The
now
topics
with which
have so
I
dream-work, the reality of which

subject
to
far
believe
it
to be
demonstrable.
The
to
be considered, though
is
takes a most prominent place in the scheme of Freud,

to question.
more open
from
According
Freud the process

is
of
transformation of the
to disguise
latent into the manifest content,
definitely designed
It is
the dreamer the real meaning of his dream.

distortion
supposed that the

censor
and
disguise are effected
by
the action of an endopsychic
agent which
Freud
calls
the
"
censor".
This
is
supposed
carefully to scrutinise all
only to allow that to

shall not be recognised
which comes up from the unconscious, and pass which is so distorted that its real nature
by the dreamer.
Leaving aside
inquire
It
is
for the
moment
the validity of this concept,
let
us
how
far
any
similar process can
be discerned
in social
culture.
obvious, of course, that such a parallel exists, for Freud's concept

are directly derived
and terminology
from a
social
institution.
His
endopsychic censor performs just such functions as would be appropriate to an exceedingly unscrupulous censorship of the Press, which not
merely stops certain news from passing but deliberately
falsifies
that
which
with
it
allows to pass.
parallels in
In this lecture, however,

general,
am
not concerned
social
but with
culture.
the comparison of dreams
with the ruder forms of
human
Let
to
us inquire,
therefore,
whether there
of the anything corresponding censor in the culture of savage peoples. Such parallels are certainly
is
Freud's concept
The culture of rude peoples abounds in features whereby present. those in power, especially priests and sorcerers, deliberately mystify the
general body of the population.
their
acme
in the secret
fraternities
This disguise and mystification reach which are found in so many parts
of the world.
These are
organisations possessing
only allowed to reach the general body of the people
knowledge which is in some distorted
and misleading form,

spread
in rude society to act
effectually disguising
its
real nature.
is
The
wide-
distribution of such organisations suggests that there
a tendency
and
react in a
manner not
far
removed from that
ascribed by Freud to his endopsychic censor.

1
Pp. 60 and 87.
402
There
is

reason to believe that the knowledge thus inaccessible to
the people at large has

external cultures of
come from elsewhere, having been derived from
which even those
who
act as
is
its
custodians have
no
tradition.
The knowledge
thus guarded
closely analogous to
it
the unconscious experience of the individual in that
belongs to a re-
mote past which has become inaccessible. In the secret societies we seem to have guardians of this unconscious experience who only allow its content to reach the It is general public in some disguised form.
worthy
of note that such
the motive of dramatic

collected
by me
in
esoteric knowledge is with especial frequency and symbolic representation. Of all the facts Melanesia none show the dramatic quality and the
use of symbolism more definitely than the ritual of the secret organisation of the
Banks
I
Islands called the
Sukwe?
I
Before
function
leave this aspect of the subject,

ascribes to his
is
must
refer briefly to the
which Freud
mechanism
of censorship.
He
thereby protected from being disturbed and awakened by thoughts which would have this effect if they came up from the unconscious in their real guise. According to this view the
supposes that the sleeper
nightmare
is
due
to the failure of the censor
who
is
helpless before the
overpowering strength of some emotional stress calling for expression, and in some cases, as in many dreams of warfare, is forced to let the
experience
social
through
is
without transformation of
any
kind.
Here the
parallel
obvious.
The
ruler, priest, or sorcerer,
who
only
allows knowledge to reach the people in distorted form does so because

his
own power and

nightmare
is
comfort depend upon
it.
The
social counterpart
of the
the revolution.
In the case of the
dream
as in that
of the social event, the
upheaval have carried out their system of repression. controlling agencies Thus far I can now pass to an easier topic. Wish-fulfilment. I have been dealing with the nature of the processes by which the latent
is
will
be the
greater, the more fully the
transformed into the manifest content of the dream.
have
now
to
consider the nature of the material which makes up the latent content
of the
dream.
According
to
Freud
desire.
this
material consists wholly of
wishes, or strivings actuated
by
He believes
criticising
every dream to be
view,
let
a wishfulfilment.
quire
Here
again, without
this
us in-
how
far
a similar process holds good of rude culture.

1
W. H.
Op.
cit.,
R. Rivers,
vol.
i.,
op.
V. f vol. ii.,
p. 210.
pp. 61-143.

There
is
403
no question that the greater part
of the rites
is
and customary
behaviour of savage, as of
sire.
human
and
culture in general,
actuated by de-
The
by
rites
of prayer
propitiation are in
most cases obviously
inspired
desire,
while the mimetic acts by which the sorcerer attempts
to induce rain, cause
and cure
disease, or stimulate the
growth of ani-
mals or plants, are

of desire.
all of
a kind naturally explained as the expression
however, to trace back the majority of savage rites and customs, on the one hand, or of dreams on the other, to wishes. It is quite another thing to say that desire is the only motive in either
It is
one
thing,
case.
states,
It is,
of course, difficult to disentangle desire from other affective
but there are
many dreams which

Similarly,
find their
most natural motive

of desire
as the expression of an emotional state in

is
which the element

rites
far
from obvious.
many
savage
largely based
less
on emotions such as
rites
fear or grief
and customs may be in which desire is far
obvious than in
designed to bring benefits upon the individual
or the community.
One
present.
striking parallel
between the dream and rude culture

clear
i
is
clearly
There
is
abundant evidence that
and manifest dreams
of wishfulfilment are especially frequent
among
is
children
and uneducated
direct
persons.
Similarly, the motive of desire
far
more obvious and
in the rites of
savage peoples than
among
cases
the
more highly
civilised.
Though
rites of
desire for benefits
may
have been the
original motive of the
the
more
civilised, this in
many
is
entirely
overshadowed
and
transfigured by such emotional motives as adoration, thanksgiving,
praise
and
love.
The Role of Sex.
According to Freud and
his followers, sex plays
the predominant part in providing the motives for the dream.
The
wishes which thus find ideal fulfilment are believed to arise in the vast
This part of Freud's scheme has aroused the liveliest opposition, and we seem now to be approaching a phase in the controversy in which the part taken
majority of cases out of the needs of the sexual
life.
by sexual motives will be underrated, the case thus obeying the law by which opinion swings alternately to one or other side of the truth.
A precisely similar
primitive
culture.
all
movement has taken place among students of During the last century there was an influential
to
school which scented sex throughout the whole texture of early culture,
kinds of
rite
and custom being traced
a phallic
origin.
404

In anthropology
reached a stage in which no one That argues for or against the influence of sexual motives in general. motives of this kind take their part in the production of certain manifestations of culture
its
is
we
have
now
acknowledged by
all
and each case
is
treated on
merits.
Moreover,
assign
its
each
rite
widely recognised that we can only expect to when we have traced out the history of or custom and studied the various influences which have comit
is
now
proper place to sex
bined to give
to
it
its
present form.
The
among
There
general trend of research goes
show
that sexual motives are often present,
occupy a very prominent place behaviour has been moulded.
and among some peoples the influences by which social

is
little
doubt, however, that
among
the majority of
instinct of
mankind emotions and sentiments based on the self- preservation take a far more important place as motives
for rite or custom. There is reason to suppose that when sexual motives are found in apparently primitive culture, they are the result 1 of an influence from without, a product perhaps of degeneration rather than a sign of infancy.
It is
noteworthy that
of neurosis,
in
his
comparison of primitive culture with

to see that sex
the symptoms
Freud himself has been led

rite
does not take that prominent part as a motive for
and custom which

2
he believes
it
to
have
in the causation of neurosis.
the difference between the two manifestations of
Freud explains mind which he is com-
paring by supposing that one deals with society, the other with the holds that sex is a matter of the individual life, and individual.
He
therefore regards
strikingly in
it
as natural
that
it
should not manifest
itself
so
the social sphere.
This mode
of explanation implies a
difference
between the individual and

It is
the social
likely that
mind which
for
one
am
loth to accept.
far
more
the difference be-
tween the individual and

exist.
the social
put forward by Freud does not

in the history of
wider survey will show that

the
individual,
human
society,
as in the history of
sex furnishes only some of
the
it
If motives by which development has been stimulated and directed. should appear that sexual motives are more prominent in producing
the
dream
of the civilised person than in the determination of early rite

this
and custom,
need not indicate any difference between the psychocit.

9
W.
J.
Perry, op.
p. 108.
"Totem und Tabu,"
p. 67.

logy of the individual and that of the group.
the fact that in general the sexual instinct
of repression in the civilised
I
405
It
would
more
rather indicate
is
far
often the subject
community.
have
now
finished the comparison of the
dream and
of the psy-
mechanism by which it is produced with the culture of rude and the processes by which this culture has come to be what peoples it is. I have now to inquire what we can learn from this comparison,
chological
what
by
is
the meaning of the remarkable series of resemblances
shown
these
two
manifestations of the
of the
human mind.
of the
is It
The scheme
with
little
mechanism
dream which
lies at
have taken
modification from
Freud
one which
is
the foundation
of the psychology of this writer.
not necessary here to dwell on
the opposition that these views have aroused, except to say that they
form the best possible witness to their originality and to the greatness of Freud's discovery if the future should prove him to be right. The
fact that
resemblances so close should
have been found
in
another
aspect of
human thought and
action might well
be held
to provide
striking confirmation of the truth of Freud's interpretation of dreams.

I
show
do not lay any great stress on this argument, but if, as later, his scheme in its main features affords the best
dream, then the
fact
hope
to
interpreta-
tion of the
that certain kinds of
human
culture
show such
close resemblances will

to
its
add a corner-stone
stability.
to the structure
and thus contribute

I
strength
and
may
say at once,
not, in
however,
that all
the resemblances
have
shown do
scheme.
Thus,
my opinion, necessarily imply the truth of Freud's have shown that even so disputable a part of Freud's
"
"
scheme as
his doctrine of the
censor
has
its
definite counterpart in
savage culture,
social
and yet
believe that both
the individual and the
phenomena may be explained more
naturally,
and more
in ac-
cordance with our knowledge of other mental processes, by a different
mechanism.
however, another problem to the solution of which believe the comparison of this paper supplies a definite contribution.
is,
There
It
points strongly to the truth of the proposition that the
dream
is
an ex-
pression of infantile mentality.
however,
it
if
This conclusion would only be justified, the examples of human culture with which I have compared
human
were themselves representative of a primitive or infantile stage of progress, and I must therefore consider briefly how far we are
406

the examples by which this lecture
illustrated.
justified in ascribing this character to
has been
It is
peoples
now widely recognised that who have been left behind
existing savage races are not merely

in the
stream of progress.
are not simply examples of early stages in the development of

culture
They human
beyond which other peoples have progressed. It can be shown that each one of them has a highly complex history in which rites and customs introduced from elsewhere, perhaps from some highly advanced society, have blended with others of a really primitive or infantile kind.
From one
primitive.
rites
point of view
I
cannot regard any existing culture as really have tried to show elsewhere, however, that introduced
1
we
or customs only establish themselves by a process of modification
or transformation which adapts process of
them
which
to their
new home.
By
such a
adaptation they necessarily
come
to acquire the primitive or
infantile character of the culture
assimilates them.
Though
existing cultures
may
not be primitive in the sense that
they represent simple and uncontaminated stages of social development, we can safely accept the primitive character of their mentality and take
them
ment.
as our guides to the history of
mental development, though
they
are of very questionable value as guides to the order of social develop-
We
are thus justified in regarding

this
the striking resemblances
considered in
paper as evidence that the
dream
of the civilised in-
dividual represents a similar infantile stage of mental development.

It is
necessary here to point out that
when we speak
of the
dream
as infantile,
two
quite different meanings must be distinguished.

that the
The
on the
proposition
may mean
it
dream
is
actuated, mainly or altogether,
by motives which go back

other hand,
to the infancy of the dreamer, or,
by which the motives of the dream find expression are such as are characteristic of an early stage of I cannot consider these two mental development. meanings here, but
that the process
may mean
must be content
lecture bears only
to
point out
that the
of these
.
evidence
provided
in
this
on the second
it is
that can be claimed for
that
it
two meanings. The interest has shown the mechanism by which

same general characters
the dream-thoughts find expression to have the

as those
which have produced the rites and customs of savage man. One important feature of the dream in its relation to primitive culture
1
"Medicine, Magic, and Religion,"
"The
Lancet," 1917,
vol. cxciii.,
p. 960.

remains to be considered.
sential part, of Freud's
It is
407
an
essential part,
if
not the most es-
scheme that the dream reveals the unconscious,

in the
that the thoughts
which are manifested
dream
as
we immediately
it do not enter into consciousness in ordinary waking states. Freud's method of interpreting dreams depends on a process by which Many thoughts buried in the unconscious are brought to the surface. of the dream- thoughts which underlie the manifest content of the dream
experience
do
not necessarily belong to the unconscious in
this sense,
but have oc-
cupied the
mind
shortly before the occurrence of the dream.
The more
become
deeply one goes in dream-analysis, however, the more certain does it that dreams are essentially expressions of the unconscious.
Even
in those cases in
which the manifest content
of
a dream seems at
first sight
to be
wholly explained by
recent occurrences, further study
shows the
existence of deeper meanings
and general trends
of mentation
belonging to levels
ness.
which do not
ordinarily enter into manifest conscious-
Here
again, without further criticism, let us inquire
how
far the
social behaviour of savage peoples
has
its
roots in the unconscious.

rites
Anyone who
and customs from
has attempted to discover explanations of rude

those
who
practise
them
will
It
is
have no
hesitation in
accepting their origin in the unconscious.
a striking feature of
it
ethnographical investigation
among
peoples of
lowly culture that
is
quite impossible to obtain any rational explanation of rites and customs, even when such explanation would seem to us to be obvious. The
people are content to follow without question their social customs, and
to practise the often highly elaborate rites of their religion, merely be-
cause
it
has been so ordained by their fathers.
If
explanations are
of the
forthcoming they are given
by
sophisticated
members
community
who
have usually been influenced by external
culture.
They
are
the wholly untrustworthy results of a recent process of rationalisation. Here, as in the case of condensation (see p. 398), we are not dealing
with a process peculiar to primitive culture. The meaning of our own is social customs quite unknown to most of us and the same is true of
the details of our religious
rites.
When
the meaning of these observances
becomes known,
is
it
is
not through any direct psychological insight, but
and scientific reasoning. The determination of social behaviour by the unconscious is not confined to
the product of historical research
culture, but
civilised
is
rude
only somewhat more obvious in

It
highly
peoples.
may be
noted,
among more however, that much the

it
than
408
same might be said of the dream as compared with the thoughts of the We have every reason to believe that our waking thoughts are day.
largely determined
by the unconscious.
It is
chiefly the greater obviousis
ness of
its
determination by the unconscious which
characteristic of
the dream.
It
is,
similarities
culture.
is
however, the special object of this lecture to demonstrate between the dream and the more primitive forms of human Before I leave the subject I may therefore ask whether there
of the relation of these
any aspect
two
topics to the unconscious
wherein they specially resemble one another. Such a resemblance apif we turn from the extent to which the dream and rude culture pears
are determined by the unconscious to the form in which the unconscious
is
expressed.
Among
the civilised, knowledge of the past rests on
two
foundations. One, direct tradition which, as civilisation has advanced, has come by means of writing to correspond more and more closely with the actual course of history. all know the possibilities of
We
transformation
even with our present means of recording events, but these have become far less than in the times when tradition
distortion
and
was handed down

which
of
solely
by word
of
mouth.
is
The
facts,
other
means by
is,
we
acquire a knowledge
of the past
science, that
a body
knowledge resting upon accurately recorded

canons of reasoning.
interpreted
by
strict
civilisation
History and science are two products of which furnish knowledge concerning the unconscious past by
means
of processes belonging to fully conscious levels of the mind.
The
more highly they are developed, the more widely do they differ from that mode of revealing the unconscious which is proper to the dream.
savage and barbarous peoples the place occupied by the The myth history and science of the civilised is taken by the myth. is a means of recording knowledge of the unconscious past, and, at
Among
the same time, the

this
past
is
the race just

vidual.
behaviour having its roots in The myth reveals the unconscious history of explained. as the dream reveals the unconscious history of the indisocial
means by which
Both show the same kind
and dramatic form.

displacements of
sive processes of
of expression in concrete image Both are highly condensed products in which Both have undergone exteninterest are very great.
secondary elaboration, which in the case of the myth have adapted knowledge so as to bring it into a form suited to a rude
grade of
intelligence.
The
similarity
between the dream and primitive

culture
is
409
comes out strongly
in the
form in which the unconscious past
consciousness. presented to will conclude by considering two I
objections
brought against the argument dealing with mere analogies.
of this paper.
It
One
is
which might be that I have been
may be
feature accepted that for every

in primitive culture,
and process of the dream and yet this, it may be

nature.
I
have found an analogy
said,
does not prove any real community of
must be content to point to two

met.
lines
I
on which
this
if
objection
may be
One
is
that the analogies
have considered,
they be
and apply to so many only analogies, are so close value is raised far above that which would accrue that their evidential
to
aspects of the subject
some two
or three resemblances taken at
random out
of
a large
range of
It
topics.
may be
said that the cultures of existing savage

if
and barbarous
peoples are so infinitely varied that
you
resemblances are sure to be found for

to
your net widely enough, This objection is one anything.

cast
left
which
am
I
so
much
alive that
have
no scope whatever
for its
application.
am
not one
of those students of anthropology

their instances.
who
I
range
from China to Peru to find
Every
illustration
have
used in this paper has been drawn from the Melanesian or Papuan cultures with which I am myself familiar. Nearly every example,
*certainly all the
miles in
for
more important, come from one tiny island only two The examples have diameter, Mota of the Banks group.
I
used comparison with the dream have been taken from as small and self-contained a social community as can be found anywhere on the earth.
The
other line on which the objection can be answered
is
that the
value of analogy as evidence of community of real nature differs greatly

according as the analogous objects belong to different departments of nature or to one department. In the case before us, the dream and
the savage
of the
rite
or custom are but different manifestations of the activity
human mind.
The
resemblances on which
have dwelt do not
occur between animate objects, on the one hand, and inanimate on the
other, or
between the physical and mental aspects
of
some department
realm of mind,
of biology, but the
phenomena compared
belong to the
the one individual and the other collective.

the
The
similarities
between
of
dream and
is
primitive culture occur in a sphere in
which community
nature
to
be expected. 27
410

The
other objection
I
foresee
is
that the
dream
as
have considered
take in sleep.
it is
only one out of
many
of
forms which consciousness

in
may
is
There are other kinds

complete
fidelity,
dream
which experience
is
reproduced with
others in
which there
but
little
difference
between
the latent and manifest contents, and others again which, in spite of a considerable
amount
of transformation, are yet transparent examples of

little if
wish-fulfilment with
to the objection
is
any displacement or
disguise.
The answer
of
that just as there are different kinds of dream, so are
there different kinds of savage rite

that
I
and custom.
Each kind
in
dream
have mentioned
finds
its
definite counterpart in
primitive culture.
Lowly
peoples often practise rites
and customs
of
acts differing in
no respect from those
which they perform some procedure which has
come within
shown by a
the range of their external experience, say,

visitor or learnt
some custom
by men
of influence
among them
who have
visited other countries.
It is only necessary that it shall be of a kind can appreciate in the form in which it reaches them. which their minds The amount of transformation of an introduced custom depends largely
upon the extent to which it is capable customs which become part of savage
of direct assimilation,
and many
cultures resemble closely the ex-
derived. Again, dreams of simple perience from which they have been and direct wishfulfilment find their counterpart in the prayer or in the which the savage may express simple offering of meat or drink by
desire.
The
special
aim
of this lecture
has been to find the social
structures of the sleeping life counterpart of those airy and phantastic which seem to us peculiarly mysterious and unique. If I have shown
that these appearances reveal the working of psychological laws identical
with those producing the perhaps equally mysterious and phantastic in by far the rites and customs of the savage, I shall have succeeded
most
difficult
portion of
my
task.
this, it
is
the only possible to deal with of the psychology of the Each feature outline. subject in the barest in the social to which I have endeavoured to find a counterpart dream
On
such an occasion as
behaviour of savage peoples needs has been to object of this lecture

essential similarity of
full
and
detailed consideration.
The
make
out a preliminary
case for the
two
manifestations of the early stages of
mental de-
velopment
the
;
dream
savage
the individual
as the expression of the infantile mentality of rite and custom as the expression of the primibVe
or infantile mentality of the race.
WAR AND
BY W.
of us
is
CIVILISATION.
J.
PERRY,
B.A.
endowed with
certain innate tendencies, termed
EACH
the lives of
;
instincts.
These
the evolution of
its
instincts, which have been acquired during the human race, play a fundamental part in
members.
In
addition, each
human
being
is
sus-
influence of his surroundings, and ceptible to the his actions are moulded according his fellows
in
especially to that of
to the circumstances
which he
lives,
into
manifold
forms.
Cruelty, kindness, pride,
deceit, honesty, diverse
modes
of
conduct and thought are possible,
depends upon the relative strength of inherited tendencies and educative influences whether this, that or the other form of behaviour
and
it
will result in
in
any given circumstances. The intricate form of society the midst of which we live produces a great variety of type and
Institutions already in existence exert their pressure
behaviour.
upon
the unsuspecting child from his earliest days, until, when arrived at maturity, he finds that, if he thinks at all about the matter, he has
unconsciously acquired most of his opinions and tendencies from his

surroundings.
There
is
a profound distinction between the innate tendencies and during

life.
those acquired
The
first
the instincts
are possessed
in those
by
the whole of mankind
while the second are only found
who have been subjected to the action of certain formative influences, who are living in the midst of particular forms of society. This is a We expect to find the institution of marriage wherever we truism. in some form or other, but we should be surprised to find a go savage of Central Africa behaving like a London clubman, or a working man
voicing the sentiments of a duke.
If,
therefore, a certain
form of be-
haviour
is
circumstances that
1
widespread among men, if it exists in all ages and in such its presence could not be due to purely social influ1
A Lecture delivered in the John Rylands Library on

411
5 February, 1918.
412
ences,

we
is
are entitled to say that this form of behaviour

characteristic of each
it
is
instinctive,
If,
that
it
member
thereby
of the
human
family.
on
the other hand,

circumstances,
is
only displayed by
is
certain people
and
in definite
its
social origin
made
I
probable.
With
in the
is
these general principles in mind,
will ask
you
this
evening
to consider the
problem
of determining the part that
It is development of civilisation. meant by a warlike people. This term can surely only apply
war has played first to define what necessary

to
those peoples
who
attack others, not to those
who
fight solely in self-
defence
Self-preservation will cause most
human
beings to defend
instinctive.
themselves
when
attacked, and thus the
act
may
be termed
otherwise in the case of acts of aggression. For a wide shows beyond doubt that aggressive warfare is not a common survey characteristic of all forms of human society. During the past half
it is
But
far
century our knowledge of the earliest stages of human society has increased enormously, and much of the handiwork of those times is known to us, so that it is possible to imagine with a certain degree of success
what manner
of
men
they were and
how
An examination
of the products of the earliest parts of the
they lived in those days. Stone Age
has revealed nothing in the shape of a weapon, but merely impleAll through the later stages ments designed for domestic purposes.
of the
Stone
Age
tools for scraping, cutting,
and
boring,
abound and
but few weapons are
made
(1).
in
Even
the arrow-heads of the last

of killing any-
stages of the Palaeolithic
Age
Europe are incapable
thing much bigger than a rabbit (2). would have been quite equal to the
Men
of the early
Stone
Age
for
task of designing
weapons
combat
jagged
masters of their
craft,
they could easily have
made
pieces of
The complete absence of into formidable weapons. on the early Stone Age thus constitutes strong evidence that weapons was fighting, even personal combat, was unknown at that period, or
flint
so rare
and innocuous
is
as to be negligible.
And
the domestic note
which
so prominent in the craft throughout the Stone
Age
is
in-
dicative of the
main preoccupations of those times. This evidence alone would be satisfactory enough
exist
for the purpose,
But fortunately there
peoples who, so far as
is
known, represent
pure
state,
the cultural stage of very early times.
They
lack, in their
any form of civilisation. They are hunters. They make no houses, wear no clothes, do not work metals, do not dispose of their dead, but
WAR AND
CIVILISATION
413
relatives withleave them where they die, and live in communities of
common. Such peoples North America, are to be found in South India and Ceylon, Siberia, South America, the East Indian Archipelago, Australia, and Africa, These peoples are, one and all, as well as in Northern Europe.
out social classes and holding their property in
when untouched by higher cultural influences, Wars between communities and combats between
happen
It is
entirely
peaceful.
individuals
do not
certain
(3).
The
existence of such peoples therefore

is
makes
it
that a warlike form of behaviour
not a universal feature of mankind.
not instinctive, and therefore must be due to certain causes, social That or otherwise, which act upon some peoples and not on others. if what these to determine, possible, being so, it is our task this evening causes are.
The
status
entire lack of
and the close which

is
weapons in the earliest stages of the Stone Age association between peaceful behaviour and cultural exhibited by the hunting peoples, suggest that all manand have somehow or other become warlike.
is
kind was once peaceful, and that certain peoples have emerged from
the
hunting
stage
Whether
the advance in culture
a sign of innate superiority, or
is
the result of a process of natural selection, or of diffusion of culture or migration of peoples, is a matter to be studied, as is the relationship
tire
between the advance
of culture
and a warlike temper.
The
en-
absence of any signs of warfare
among
did not
the earliest peoples of the
earth makes the problem
historical in the sense that

it
time when, so far as

venient to
originated.
we know,
to find out
exist,
can point to a and it will be con-
we
endeavour
how
the warlike nations of the earth
broad preliminary survey does not appear to offer much hope of disclosing the beginnings of warfare. For, from the earliest times
of
knowledge, there have been warlike states such as Egypt, Babylon, and others, whose origins cannot be discovered as yet. These states may for convenience be called the " Ancient Empires ". The warlike nature of these ancient empires be due to any of a number of causes, and to endeavour to dismay
historical
which
we
have
sect out
from a consideration of the
activities of these states
the effective
cause or causes would be a task of the greatest difficulty. I propose, therefore, to leave such states on one side for the present, and to ask
you
to consider those warlike peoples
whose
origins are
known with
414
some degree

of exactness.
When we
have watched the genesis
of
such peoples, it will then be possible once more to return to the examination of the ancient empires.
survey each continent in turn, beginning with Africa. Although the first Europeans found warlike peoples scattered practically all over Africa, there is ample evidence that formerly much
I
shall
inhabited by peaceful Bushmen and Negritos, whose hunting grounds covered the whole of the region south of the Sudan and the Great Lakes. During the past thousand or so
years
of this continent
was
These peoples may be negro races have migrated into this region. divided into two distinct groups. First there came tribes practising
agriculture,
who
settled in certain spots
and remained there
in isolation,
so that their languages
became
It
distinct.
These
first-comers were,
and
of
are
still,
quite peaceful.
therefore appears that warfare does not

stage
necessarily
culture.
accompany an advance beyond the hunting
The
second
wave was
of
of
a very
all
different
constitution.
The
languages of the various tribes were

their generic
akin
whence they derive
name
Bantu
which shows
that they are all intimately
connected
they are pastoral, except in the basin of the

;
Congo where
all
natural conditions prevent this occupation

(4).
and they are

'
warlike
of
The
similarity
which
is
exists
between the warlike organisations

Ratzel.
these Bantu peoples
emphasised by
The
distinction be-
tween the
settled agriculturalists in the
West and
in the interior
and the
restless cattle-breeders of
the south, are far
more sharply conspicuous

.
than the dissolving boundaries between the dialects of Africa or between the characteristics of their anatomical structure. Going
.
.
south from the sixth parallel of south latitude to the south-east point of Africa, we find members of the Bantu family maintaining the
sharply-defined connection between the pastoral and the warrior
life
;
and from the same

in
line to 5
North, three distinct groups of races live
comparatively narrow districts side by side, all keeping the same form of culture. ... It is a gradual and slow change from the Indian
Ocean through the Arab colouring to brown and deepest brown, from the Caucasic to the negroid type the languages are far apart, and yet all these races are shepherds of one and the same stamp, and
all alike
of
"
maintain a similar military organisation."

.
He
speaks further
a military organisation which
shows
striking points of agree-
SKETCH-MAP No.
i,
SHOWING THE AREAS OF AFRICA OCCUPIED BY WARLIKE PEOPLES
WAR AND
CIVILISATION
415
ment from the most northerly Gallas to the most southerly Kaffirs," " The development of a military aristocracy and goes on to say that from the point of out of a race, rude and vigorous in itself, has been,
view
most important occurrence for the It has not stopped with the race from which whole of East Africa. races from the Fish River to the it emanated, but has bound many, Blue Nile, more firmly together for protection, conquest and plunder.
of
politics
and
culture, the
We
meet with
"
(5).
it,
the essentially alike in character, throughout
whole
region
The
noted, is the region of the Great Lakes with a stereotyped form of culture which they have retained ever since. Traditions say that the great
states
source of this similarity of organisation, which Ratzel has known. The Bantu peoples are said to have spread from
round the Lakes were founded by light-skinned strangers

from the north
who
came
culturalists
whom
and imposed themselves upon the peaceful agriThese they found there as military aristocracies. and thus
it
strangers
were
cattle-breeders,
is
that the
Bantu peoples
culture received
who moved
out from this region carried with
them a
from elsewhere (6). The warfare of the Bantu peoples bears traces of its origin. For, " their wars were more cattle forays on an extensive as Stow tells us,
scale than determined invasions for the purpose of securing territorial
" the warlike renown of any particular aggrandisement," and that tribe seems almost in every case to have been derived more from the
personal daring and energy of the particular chief ruling over them " at the time than from any other causes (7). Quarrels between
chiefs or
members
of the aristocracy
caused frequent wars, and the
chiefs
added slave-raiding
to their activities (8).
warfare of the peoples of the southern part of Africa is thus apparently bound up with the existence of a military aristocracy or
foreign
origin.
is
The
aristocracy
between warfare and a military shown by Sketch- Map No. 1, from which it is evident
relationship
The
that
a similar relationship holds throughout the continent. In the Sudan, the Hausa, a peaceful agricultural and trading people, have
been dominated by the Fulah, a pastoral people from Senegal. And other parts of the Sudan have been ruled by military aristocracies
from North Africa and perhaps from Egypt (9). It is the essential problem of African warfare to discover the origin of these military
416
aristocracies
which have dominated the peaceful agricultural negroes. These aristocracies have come from three regions which are indicated on Sketch- Map No. 2 North-east Africa, Senegal, and the interior
:
of
Morocco and
Algiers.
The
consideration of any special features

until the
common
to these regions will
be deferred
survey of the earth
has been completed. Asia has been the scene of

greatest conquerors
of
many
struggles,
and some
of
the
have emerged from various parts to work havoc and destruction over wide areas. Before examining the
history
more warlike
peoples,
we
will consider
the peoples that inhabit the

these tribes are
is
northerly parts of
Siberia.
Although
over the inhospitable regions of the north, there
spread reason to believe
now
that they have migrated comparatively recently from the south.
The
peaceful Lapps, Samoyedes, and tribes allied to the Finns are thought to have come from the region round the headwaters of the Obi and
Yenisei.
Further to the east a series of movements have taken place.
The
Chukchi,
who now
live
on the coasts
of the
in
Behring
their
Straits,
have driven other
tribes before them,
and have
turn been
pushed on by Tunguse and

out by the Buryat
(who
in
Yakut, probably driven the thirteenth century moved from the
others.
The
Amur
to the Lake Baikal region), migrated up the Lena and introduced cattle-breeding there (10). The Siberian peoples have thus one round the headwaters of apparently spread from two regions
;
the Yenisei, and the other round the headwaters of the

It
is
Amur.
possible to divide the warlike peoples of Asia east of the

:
Oxus
region into three main groups
those of Manchuria, Mongolia,
Of the three groups, those of Monand the peoples of Turki stock. have undoubtedly played the most important part in history. golia
The
earliest
Chinese annals
of
tell
of centuries of struggle
with horse-
riding
arisen in Many Mongolia. The Turks this race, which has given several dynasties to China. have not always occupied the extended area over which they are
nomads
great conquerors have
now
spread.
They
the
headwaters of
supposed to have come either from the Yenisei, or from north-west Mongolia, or the
are
Baikal, in
region just east of
Lake
any case
in close proximity to the
Mongolians, to
whom
of
they are closely related.
The
accounts in the
Chinese annals
show
that the various struggles
wars with the peoples of Mongolia and Manchuria were purely dynastic. The Huns
SKETCH-MAP No.
2,
SHOWING THE CENTRES OF ORIGIN OF MILITARY

ARISTOCRACIES IN AFRICA
WAR AND
and
and
allied tribes
their rulers
CIVILISATION
417
were ruled over by hereditary military aristocracies, were constantly struggling with each other and with
The peoples themselves played an entirely the emperors of China. The boundaries of kingdoms were in contests. part in such
passive
a perpetual
state of
flux.
After a successful battle the conqueror
would kill the old men of the defeated side, appropriate the women and children, and enrol the young men under his banners. In this warrior would way the conquests of Asia were effected. An able would arise and would overcome his neighbours, who thenceforth
Other weaker peoples would attach themselves to him from motives of self- protection, and thus his empire would grow like a snowball until he died or was defeated, when it would break up
fight for him.
and
the process
would recommence with a
fresh grouping.
The
common
(ii).
of pawns in a game of dynastic people simply played the part of the contest chess, to be moved according to the changing fortunes
These
ranks.
great conquerors
were not men who had
risen
from the
says that, during the ten centuries that the Chinese struggled with the Huns, there is no mention of the succession ever having gone out of the direct line of descent in the royal
Professor E.
H. Parker
family.
Some
the
In
of the
Tartar emperors of China themselves recogif
nised the supreme importance of royal blood, for they extirpated,

possible,
whole
family of
a defeated
rival,
including collateral
results
branches.
some cases they did not succeed, with disastrous

1
to their descendants ( 2).
The
were
earliest
inhabitants of
India of
which we have knowledge

to the peaceful
tribes similar in
hill
of Ceylon and
like
physique and culture tribes of southern Madras.

built
is
The
first
Veddas known war-
kingdoms were
the Dravidians
of
up by Dravidians and Aryans. The origin not known. They founded kingdoms in the
Their three kingdoms
in
Deccan and
further
south.
the extreme
south, those of Chola,
Pandya and Chera,
are said to have been
the Gulf of founded by three brothers from Korkai, Manaar between India and Ceylon. These kingdoms are, so far as is known, the earliest in the south of India, and the introduction of
a place on
warfare cannot, so
far as is
known
at
present, be associated with

1
any
but the founders of these three kingdoms ( 3). The earliest warlike people of northern India of
whom we
have
418
positive

-.
knowledge are the Aryans.
They were
ruled over, in the
period
when
available,
by a
trustworthy historical knowledge concerning them is first Before their spread over the military aristocracy.
valley of the
to the
Ganges and
to places such as Java,
they were confined
Panjab (14).
important group of warlike peoples are those who have swarmed over Indo-China during the past two thousand years, the Tibeto-Burman group, who are said to have come from the region in
the headwaters of the Yang-tse-kiang (15). warlike or peaceful habits of Asiatic peoples correspond closely with the presence or absence of a military aristocracy. Sketch-
An
Yunnan about
The
No. 3 shows the general agreement the peaceful democratic hunting peoples, and the warlike peoples with a military aristocracy.
Map
In the warlike area the variations in behaviour correspond closely with the fates of dynasties. The early history of China is one of constant
struggles
others.
between
their ruling families
and those
of the Tartars
and
All the Chinese dynasties of

origin.
whom we
nature,
have certain knowpeoples are now,

for
ledge are, moreover, of alien
The Chinese
and must always have been, peaceful by

could a handful of
hate them
?
how
otherwise
Manchus have governed 300,000,000 people who

that they
And now
have
finally rid
themselves of this
incubus, the Chinese are entirely peaceful.
The
once so warlike, are to-day peaceful.

world,
The
people of Mongolia, former conquerors of the
now
that their aristocracies are extinct or emasculated, are de-
scribed as being
India,
cowardly
warlike
to a
who were
peaceful,
when
The Hindu people of degree (16). had a military aristocracy, are they
are extinct
now
and warrior
aristocracies
except
among
certain peoples such as the
Rajputs and some warlike hill tribes. There are some remarkable contrasts in behaviour between Asiatic
example between the peaceful Tunguse and their warlike Manchu kinsmen the Japanese with their warrior aristocracy and martial spirit, and the closely-related peaceful the warlike Turks of the west, people of the Lu Kiu islands (17)
peoples
are closely related
;
who
for
and
their peaceful relatives in the
Lake Baikal
is
region.
The problem
origin
of
of Asiatic
warfare
thus apparently to discover the

of
the Manchurian peoples sprang from the region indicated on Sketch- Map No. 4, those of the
military aristocracies.
Those
Turks and some
of the
Mongolian peoples from the region extending
SKETCH-MAP No.
3,
SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF WARLIKE AND PEACEFUL

PEOPLES IN ASIA
vx
SKETCH-MAP No.
4,
SHOWING THE CENTRES OF ORIGIN OF MILITARY

ARISTOCRACIES IN ASIA
(L
SKETCH-MAP No. 5, SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTIONS OF WARLIKE AND PEACEFUL PEOPLES IN NORTH AMERICA IN PRE-COLUMBIAN TIMES
WAR AND
from the headwaters
of
CIVILISATION
the
419
the
Yenisei to those of
Amur
the
Aryans
conquerors
the Panjab, and the Tibeto-Burman spread over India from came from Yunnan. The problem is therefore similar to
necessary to explain areas why warrior aristocracies have emerged from certain definite the Panjab, Korkai and Southern Siberia, in Manchuria,
that presented
by
the warfare of Africa.
It is
Yunnan
tribes
Mongolia, found kingdoms in various parts of the continent ( 8). In North America, just before the arrival of Columbus, warlike
to
1
the Mississippi occupied the region between the St. Lawrence, and the Atlantic Ocean, a strip of land in the north-west, and the
rest of
the vast area, with the exception of
Mexico (which may be

northern extension in the
included
among
the Ancient Empires) and
its
area of the Pueblo Indians,
was
either uninhabited or tenanted only
by
peaceful peoples. The warlike Indians of the first-named area differ profoundly from
the peaceful tribes in that they practised agriculture and made pottery, Their both of them crafts unknown among the peaceful peoples.
chief food
was maize.
it
Honduras,
rived
it,
indigenous in Mexico or follows that the North- American Indians must have de-
Since
this
plant
is
directly or indirectly,
its
from
toms associated with

pottery was always
cultivation,
Moreover, the custhe methods of cooking, for which

this region.
used,
and the
fact that
during
its
cultivation the
Indians lived, not in their usual

as are found in the south,
all
but in rectangular houses such suggest that they have learned their
tipis,
agriculture from one ultimate

in
common
source,
and that source must be
Mexico
or Central America.
of the horse
After the arrival of the Europeans several tribes adopted the use and went into the Plains west of the Mississippi, and
It is
there forgot their agriculture.
said that those tribes possessed
military organisations so similar in type that they
must have been de-
rived from one source.
Since these Plains Indians have come from
places east of the Mississippi, ranging
from
Illinois
to Louisiana,
it
is
therefore evident that the military organisations of
the peoples in-
habiting the regions
common
origin.
whence they came, must Little is known of the military
likewise have
had a
organisations of these
peoples, but the really warlike peoples had hereditary military aristoand it is cracies, or else their chiefs were chosen from certain clans
;
said that,
if
we knew
their history,
we
should probably find that the
420
clans.
were all members of these aristocratic warrior Certain warlike tribes of the South possessed organisations similar to that of the Mexicans in that were ruled over they
great Indian leaders
by
hereditary military aristocracies
and the culture
of the Iroquois, the

signs of
most warlike of the northerly Indians, showed more

influence than that of
Mexican
any other people of the North, for they were the best agriculturists and pottery makers. So, putting these facts
together
it
becomes probable that the North- American Indians derived

from Mexico (19).
their military organisations, directly or indirectly,
warlike people of America were the Aztecs, who, defrom some region in the north not yet identified, scending imposed
The most
themselves upon the
Maya
peoples of Mexico.
Their wars were
unique
in
America, and
far surpassed in
magnitude and ferocity those

further north.
it
of the comparatively peaceful peoples
still
The
South
great
Empire
of Peru, extending as
of the Equator,
dominated the whole
of
did from Quito South America.
to
30
The
Peruvians waged war to subjugate their neighbours and to extend their territory. They were ruled over by a military aristocracy.
Since the origin of the empires of Mexico and Peru are not known, I shall include them among the Ancient Empires.
Other warlike peoples exist in South America. They may be divided into four groups Caribs, Tupis, Awawak and Patagonians.
:
None of these peoples have occupied their The Caribs are said to have lived originally
present habitat for long.

at the
headwaters of the
;
Xingu, and the Paranatinga, a right tributary of the Amazon the Tupis originally came from the country round the northern affluents of
the
La
Plata
the
Arawak
seen
spread from Eastern Bolivia, and the Patain
gonians
probably formerly lived

it
Matto Grosso.
Matto Grosso
So combining
from eastern
(20).
these facts,
Bolivia
is
that
these peoples originated
and the region

I
of Brazil called
Three main groups your attention to Europe. of warlike peoples have contributed to its warrior aristocracies. The first consists of the termed Celtic. One of the centres whence peoples
Finally,
will call
these people probably spread
is
in
north-western Bohemia and south-
eastern Saxony, in the neighbourhood of the Erz- and Fichtelgebirge

(21).
Then
Baikal.
there are Asiatic peoples,

race, but
all
is
such as the Huns, Turks,
Magyars,
of diverse
originating from the region round
Lake
Finally,
there
the important group of
Teutonic
SKETCH-MAP No.
TUPI,
6, SHOWING THE AREA WHENCE THE CARIB, ARAWAK AND PATAGONIANS HAVE EMERGED
SKETCH-MAP No. 7, SHOWING THE CENTRES OF ORIGIN OF TEUTONIC AND CELTIC MILITARY ARISTOCRACIES IN EUROPE
WAR AND
peoples, the
CIVILISATION
421
which have originated from what may be Goths, Vandals, Normans, Saxons, termed the Scandinavian area Russ and others, who spread thence Danes, Lombards, Burgundians,
members
of
after the
fall
of
the
Roman Empire
influencing
to
dominate
for
many -centuries
of
vast
regions,
profoundly
thereby
the
development
civilisation in
Europe (22). revealed by this survey, the warlike peoples whose In Africa the features in common. origins are known have certain rulers of the warlike negro tribes are of a light-skinned stock which
So
far as is
has emerged
from the centres denoted
on the
map
in
India the
Aryans
differed profoundly in race

;
from the indigenous peoples
whom
they subjected
tinguished
the castes
which originated from the
fusion are dis-
by physical characteristics as well as by occupation, for the members of the higher castes are light-skinned and taller in stature In central Asia peoples of than the dark-skinned lower castes (23).
Iranian stock have been dominated
golian origin (24)
:
by conquering
is
dynasties of
Monthose
among
the Mongolian peoples the dynasties in
the various countries are, so far as

of
of
known,
of alien origin
China have always come from Indo-China from Yunnan, and
so forth.
Mongolia or Manchuria, those In Europe the Turks
and Magyars are examples
of v/arrior aristocracies
who have
subjuof the
gated peoples of entirely different races.
And
after the fall
Roman Empire
to themselves.
the Teutonic conquerors
who swarmed
over Europe
ruled over Latin and Slavonic races, as well as over stocks kindred
It
follows that warlike states are not, in those cases

is
where
precise
information
available,
the
result
of
a process of
growth, or of natural selection, but of superposition.

cracies are not,
Their
aristo-
as might
have proved
their
be expected, composed of families which superiority over the rest of the community, but are
the descendants of warlike strangers
who have imposed

are
themselves
of
upon peoples who,

peaceful habits.
in
several
cases,
known
to
have been
This survey has further shown that these warlike
aristocracies
have originated from certain regions, which are indicated on Sketch-
Map No. 8. Moreover, the movements of these warrior aristocracies have taken place in historical times that of the Bantu within the that of the Fulah a century or so ago past thousand years or so
:
those of
the
Teutonic peoples
at
dates subsequent to the
fall
of
422
the

Roman Empire
;
those of the
Magyars and Turks
into
Europe
at
at certain times within
our era
that from
Yunnan
within the past
two thousand years

China (25). broad survey
and those from Manchuria and Mongolia
periods subsequent to the beginnings of precise historical records in
of the
problem has thus revealed the existence
of three groups of peoples.
There
are the great empires of antiquity,
which are not known.

in
warlike and ruled over by military aristocracies, the precise origins of There are also warlike states whose origins
time and place are approximately established.

military aristocracies
in
by
These ruled over which have emerged from certain centres

the
have
some
cases, to our certain
by peaceful peoples forced thereby from their immemorial hunting grounds to occupy the of the earth. outlying parts
Sketch- Map No. 8 shows the relative distribution of these three
groups, a distribution which
is
tenanted
knowledge, occupied lands hitherto third who have been group
similar both in the land
mass
of
Europe,
Asia, and Africa, and in the continent of America.
knowledge of the origins of peoples is the form of a map it reveals an extraordinary degree of uniformity. The central regions have been the sites of Ancient Empires of the
past
:
Although our when shown in fragmentary, yet
then,
on the boundaries
of these empires, are the centres

:
whence
on
the historical migrations of warlike peoples have set out
finally,
the outskirts there are peaceful peoples.
survey of the warlike peoples showed that their aristocracies have emerged from the frontier kingdoms of the Ancient Empires to
The
found warlike
jacent in space
states
to,
further afield.
Since the origin centres are ad-
and
of later origin than, the of the
would seem from a consideration
map
that they
Ancient Empires, it have been
formed from the Ancient Empires in exactly the same way as other warlike states further afield have originated from them. There is
" Speke, in his Journal of Discovery of the Source of the Nile/' says that the pastoral military aristocracies of the Bantu races probably arose as follows "It may be presumed," " he says, that there once existed a foreign but compact government
conclusive evidence that this
is so.
:
in Abyssinia,
all sides of
it,
which becoming great and powerful, sent out armies on especially to the south, south-east and west, slave-huntin process of time be-
ing and devastating wherever they went, and
iCUPIBD BY PEACEFUL HUNTING PEOPLES
WAR AND
coming too great
for
CIVILISATION
423
one ruler. to control.

their fortunes,
Junior members of the
royal family then, pushing from the parent stock, created separate governments, and, for reasons " which cannot be traced, changed their names (26). This view has
dismembered themselves
gained
common
acceptance as the explanation of the origin of the
Bantu
military aristocracies.
The
foreign
government
had
King
polis.
close relationships with the ruling dynasties of

of Abyssinia,
Abyssinia Egypt, for the

as high priest
at
in
when he went
to Egypt, officiated
of the
in the temple of the sun
and therefore
Pharoahs
Helio-
The Bantu
aristocracies are consequently, in a sense, ultimately
of Egyptian origin (27).

of
Sir
H. Johnston indeed
in
claims that
many
them are obviously Egyptian
type, although they are entirely
a country (28). ignorant of the existence of such In the case of the regions adjoining China a precisely similar explanation
is
given by Professor E.
H.
Parker.
He
says that
"In
nearly every case the Chinese trace the political beginnings of their
frontier
kingdoms
to
some Chinese
exile or adventurer
.
who, accomin
modating himself to local circumstances series of homogeneous tribes into a nation.
succeeded
welding a
It is
quite certain that this
was
later the case in
Corea, Foochow, Canton, Yunnan, Kansuh, and
Formosa, and
this being so, there
seems no good reason
for rejecting
the traditions that the same thing took place with the nomadic races He says further that, " The of Tibet, Manchuria, and Mongolia." Huns have a tradition that about B.C. 1200 a royal personage, who
had most probably been misconducting himself, fled to the nomads of the north and founded among them a sort of dynasty (29)." The
kingdoms founded by the Aryan conquerors of India in the East Indian Archipelago were ruled over by members of the warrior caste, and from these kingdoms have gone out younger members of royal
houses to intermarry with the indigenous peoples and to found warlike dynasties
among
the less civilised peoples of that region.
In that
way
all
there has been produced a network of chiefs
and ruling houses
ultimately descended from the warriors
who
entered the
Pan jab
at
the
dawn
In
of history (30).
North America the
rulers of the
Natchez
of Louisiana
were
aliens speaking a language different from that of their subjects, claimed to have come from a place which, so far as can be told,
who
was
Mexico
(3
).
There
is
thus at least one direct connecting link be-
424

aristocracies of
tween the warrior
Mexico and those
of the
North
American
Indians.
is
Although there
be submitted
religion,
no
is
direct testimony with regard to certain of
the other regions, there

in
an immense mass
to students of
of indirect evidence, to
due course
ethnology and comparative

of the
which shows
that the ruling families of the warlike frontier
kingdoms are intimately connected with the dynasties

Empires.
Ancient
quoted shows that the historical process here concerned has been one of expansion. The military aristocracies of
just
The
evidence
the Ancient Empires, spreading out into regions beyond, have founded new states which in their turn have propagated others. The circumstances of this expansion present a problem of great importance.
The
boundaries between warlike peoples and the peaceful hunting tribes mark what is apparently the limit reached by the outward movement
The profound cultural distinctions between the warlike peoples with social classes on one side of the boundary, and the peaceful democratic hunters on the other side, as exemplified, for
of migrant warriors.
instance, in
stages of
North America, cannot, in the absence of intermediate culture, be explained except on the hypothesis of a cultural
movement which has stopped short at these borderlands. The conditions of this movement must now be examined.
earlier part of the lecture has
The
been devoted to the consideration of
the belt between the region of the Ancient Empires and those of the The warlike peoples of this region whose origins peaceful hunters.
known with any definiteness are ruled over by aristocracies which have originated from certain centres situated near the boundaries of It is now the Ancient Empires. necessary to inquire into the conare
dition of affairs in this vast region before the spread of the warrior
aristocracies.
Was
this area in
frontier
kingdoms which have spread
the days before the founding of the so widely in various directions
occupied solely by peaceful tribes, or have the warlike peoples exterminated or subjected pre-existing warlike tribes ?
One
noted.
pires
is
None
remarkable feature of the origin centres must particularly be of them are inside the boundary of the Ancient Embirth.
I
which gave them

to the fact that
at a date far
(The apparent exception

first
of the
Panjab
it
due
have drawn the boundary
in this region as
was
subsequent to that of the
settlement of the
WAR AND
Aryan
CIVILISATION
425
The royal founders of warrior aristocracy in this region.) could not establish domains of their these frontier kingdoms evidently
own
inside their ancestral empires, but
had
to seek their fortunes else-
where.
It is
also to be noted that, while in the region of the
Ancient
the Empires the origins of states are obscure and uncertain, directly
For example, boundary line is crossed comparative certainty obtains. no one can yet demonstrate exactly whence came the Aryan invaders of the Panjab, but it is well known that their descendants founded
kingdoms in other parts of India and in Java. The origin of the Chinese Empire is obscure, but, as has been seen, we have certain
knowledge
of the foundation of such

is
kingdoms as Corea.
How
this
profound
contrast
between the two
regions to be
explained It is well
known
that the region of the
while these
states flourished, the scene of countless
Ancient Empires was, wars and cam-
paigns, in the course of
which the destruction

nations
of life
and property was
simply tremendous.
Whole
were
annihilated, transported, or
incorporated among the subjects of their conquerors. Consequently the histories of peoples such as the Hittites are practically lost, and can
only partially be reconstructed from scattered fragments of evidence or from stray references in the literature of contemporaneous nations. can tell the beginnings of the Hebrews, the Medes, the Baby-
Who
lonians and
many
other peoples ?
And
what other cause can be
assigned for this widespread obscurity than the warlike nature of all these states which has led to their mutual destruction ?
Outside the boundary the conditions are vastly different. The origin centre of the Scandinavian peoples was directly contiguous to
by peaceful peoples. And in North America the area of warlike peoples at the time of Columbus was adjacent to that of peaceful In Africa the Bantu aristocracies hunting peoples.
regions occupied
founded
region of the
kingdoms among the peaceful agricultural negroes of *he Great Lakes, and the expansion of the Bantu
group
the peaceful
gradually forced
Bushmen and Negritos
out
of
their
former hunting grounds. The conditions in Siberia are such as to warrant the belief that the origin centres round Lake Baikal were
established in regions occupied
by peaceful peoples.
28
Indeed
in the
country round the headwaters of the Yenisei remnants of
this early
426
The gradual occupation of population are still to be found (32). India by warlike Dravidian and Aryan peoples can be assumed with And the existence in the East Indian Archipelago of confidence.
peaceful
representatives of
is
the earliest stocks which
are
known
to
have inhabited that region
conclusive evidence concerning the former
condition in that region (33).
Some
which
so
cases are doubtful.

little
Such
is
that
of
South America, of
conquerors from
origin '(34).
this region
It
is known outside Peru. The Tibeto-Burman Yunnan found in Indo-China a civilisation of Indian is
therefore difficult to say from the consideration of

its
alone whether
earliest inhabitants
were
peaceful.
It
must be remembered, however, that the wave of Indian culture which engulfed Indo-China also swept over the Archipelago, introducing
warfare
among many peoples

of the original
of
that
region,
but
leaving
certain
remnants
peaceful inhabitants stranded high
and dry
above
its
high-water mark.
So, in view of the close relationship
which the peoples of Indo-China bear to those of the East Indian Archipelago, on the one hand, and to the Chinese on the other, they
can be credited with the general peaceful disposition of these two In this case there is last-named branches of the Mongolian stock.
a direct analogy with the Ancient Empires, for the displacement of one ruling caste by another has obscured the manner of origin of the
earlier states.
I
do not propose
to discuss the
problem
of the Pacific,
is
and
shall
content myself with remarking that warfare
with a military aristocracy of immigrant

obtaining elsewhere (35).
everywhere associated origin, so that there is no
reason to believe that the conditions have been different from those
The
probable
peoples,
general trend
of
the evidence, therefore,
makes
it
highly
that the frontier
and
that
kingdoms were first founded among peaceful the initial outward expansion thence of military
into regions
aristocracies
was always
until
occupied by unwarlike
of
tribes,
part of
before
whom
them
were subjugated by them, and part
whom
retreated
Such a mode
facts.
It
they occupied the regions indicated on the map. of expansion is entirely consonant with the known
for
accounts
the
position
of
the
centres,
for
the royal
wanderers would have no

circumstances.
And
it
founding kingdoms in such affords an explanation of the comparative

difficulty in
WAR
precision of the
aristocracies in
AN.D CIVILISATION
It
427
of military
knowledge which we have of the origin the region outside the Ancient Empires.
remnants of the
must be
remembered,
are
too, that the existing
earliest stocks
which
known when untouched by

So,
in
is
to have inhabited these regions
are invariably peaceful
higher cultural influences.
reached
be regarded, the conclusion that the dynastic expansion proceeded uniformly outward
whatever
way
the matter
The subpeaceful peoples until certain limits were reached. traction of the origin centres thus brings the borderland^ of peaceful
among
peoples right up to the boundary of the Ancient Empires. If the process of reversing history be continued, it -follows that,
if
historical continuity be assumed, the states which gave rise to the frontier kingdoms must in their turn originally have been frontier king-
doms would
of
pre-existing
still
empires.
The
area of the Ancient Empires

contract,
therefore, as
earlier times
were reached,
and that
of the original peaceful peoples would expand. Finally, if this process be persisted in, there would remain a nucleus of one or more
states to contest the priority of
aristocratic government and warfare, world would be tenanted by peaceful peoples.
and the
rest of the
examination of the manner of growth of warlike peoples has thus led to a conclusion entirely consonant with that already formulated
as the result of the consideration of the earliest
culture.
The
known forms
of
human
ended
of
In both cases the evidence unhesitatingly points to a former entirely peaceful.
time
when men were
The
is
investigation just
has shown that the ultimate problem

the introduction of warfare into
its
to discover the
manner
due
origin of the aristocracies of the primordial warlike state or states.

If
all
parts of the earth be
to a
dynastic expansion which has

it
focus in one or
more
original states,
follows that all the dynasties of the earth
would
really
be descended
ultimately from one or
men and women
of all races
more parent stocks, though intermarriage with would produce physical diversity. In
This is a matter which,
side.
spite of ramifications there will persist links of kinship connecting the
dynasties of the different stages of the expansion.
although of crucial importance, must be

similar customs
is
left
on one
But
all
over
the earth the ruling classes are exclusively associated with so
many
and
beliefs that the
assumption that they are
all related
open
to far less objections than
any
other.
continuity of that
sort affords
an entirely
satisfactory explanation of the
known
facts.
428

prominent part played by warfare and by aristocracies since have been, made has necessarily attracted the atten-
The
historical records
tion of students to the comparative exclusion of other less obtrusive
features of the
growth of
civilisation, so that aristocratic institutions
and
warfare have come to be looked upon as the necessary concomitants

of progress.
That
this is false will
be apparent
later.
One
feature of the distribution of the origin centres
must
in
now be
an ap-
explained.
They
are
few
in
number and are
scattered
This apparent parently haphazard manner along the boundary. is the result of a definite cause, which is revealed capriciousness by Sketch- Map No. 9. The shading shows the gold-fields situated
near the boundary.
The
small squares
mark the area
in the Baltic
where amber
(36).
is
found, and the small
The
migration centres
or in places
where
circles denote pearl fisheries are therefore situated on gold-fields there existed pearls and amber, both of them
highly prized
and much sought
after in antiquity.
The
for
founders of
the military aristocracies, therefore,
had a reason
settling in
such
evidently appreciated the same forms of wealth as ourselves, and the extent of their appreciation
It
is
places that will appeal to each one of us.
They
manifest.
must not be imagined that the founders of these warlike states were pioneers of civilisation who set out on a journey of discovery
and
settled with a
treasures.
in the
few followers
in
places
and other
in
In the Yenisei region,
where they found gold in Mongolia and perhaps

and
Manchuria,
Sudan and Northern

is
Africa, in the Scandinavian
region and Bohemia, there
the clearest evidence that the gold
were being exploited long before the arrival of any warrior aristocracies (37). In some cases the extent of the workings show that many centuries must have passed before the arrival of
amber
of these regions
aristocratic strangers.
The
expansion of
for
the
it
Bantus was not into
has already been said only by Bushmen, In North that a peaceful agricultural people had preceded them. America there are many signs of the presence of a population prior a region tenanted
to the warlike Indians
who
lived
there at
the time of Columbus.
These people built mounds which are strangely like those of Mexico. These mounds are grouped near streams, occurring but rarely in the
open country, according to the map of Cyrus Thomas. They contain many pearls and are mainly concentrated in the valleys of the
WAR AND
Mississippi
CIVILISATION
429
and Ohio, and on the gold-field of West Virginia, CaroTheir northernmost extension colina, Georgia, and Tennessee. incides with the distribution of old copper mines in Michigan and
round
Lake
Superior.
In short
their
their distribution
is
precisely that
which would be expected if from Mexico seeking pearls,

gold-work
is
makers had wandered northwards
gold, copper,
and other
(38).
things.
Their
very similar to that
made
in
Mexico
The
just
presence of gold and other forms of wealth in certain places outside their boundaries seems to have attracted the peoples of
the Ancient Empires.
This point does not need labouring,

is
for
once
tells
gold
is
accepted as a standard of wealth, our

inevitable.
modern experience
us that such an expansion

clusive feature of the last
Gold
rushes are not an ex-
few
centuries, for the
men
of
a few thousand
years ago were endowed with the same fatal greed for wealth that many of us possess. Once gold is accepted as a standard of value,
nothing can prevent a world- wide movement in search of it. The existence of earlier inhabitants in such regions suggests that
the settlement of royal strangers from the Ancient Empires has not
been influenced simply by the presence of gold and other forms of wealth. They appear to have sought not merely the wealth itself,
but,
what
is
much more
important, a wealth-producing population

to support
which could be dominated and made
them and supply

such
places, in
them with what they

gold mines.
desired.
The
dynasties in
addition to controlling those
who work
the mines, always control the
The
their
further
movements
of these military aristocracies
show
that the
desire for domination over other
people
is
the great factor determining
movements.
In Africa the warlike Bantus have

still
moved on
south-
wards, and were
subjugating the peaceful agricultural peoples that
they had pushed in front of them when the Europeans arrived on the scene and caused the tide to reverse its direction. The Tibeto-Burman
conquerors from Yunnan have moved southwards to dominate the the peoples of the settled wealthy and fertile regions of Indo-China
:
conquerors have spread over much of India and even into the East Indian Archipelago, to dominate the populations the Fulahs have spread out to dominate the peaceful Hausas. The steppes of
Aryan
Russia and the mountains of

military aristocracies from the
Norway have had no attraction for the Scandinavian region, who overrun those
430
parts of

Europe which were occupied by wealthy
settled populations.
And
the warrior aristocracies of the Turks, Mongols, and
Manchus
no
to
did not conquer the icy wastes where there
was much
gold, but
one working dominate the

Asia.
it,
but
left
them
to the hunters
and turned south
settled gold- producing agricultural populations of Central
The
localisation of the empires of
Mexico and Peru on the
sites of
the richest gold
and silver mines of that continent, and contiguous to the most important pearl fisheries, suggests that they were founded by
peoples
who
appreciated these forms of wealth.
This
at
once opens
up the question of outside influence in America, which cannot be considered here.
wealth, and a population to produce it, military adventurers will sooner or later arrive, bent on securing for themselves ease and luxury, and using their docile subjects
all
is
This
shows that where there
means whereby to gain their ends. If the wealth be very great, the competition will be correspondingly keen, and war will succeed
as the
war
until some ruling house is triumphant, or the rival dynasties so emasculate one another that they bring ruin and desolation upon the
region for the possession of

their
which they are
struggling,
and thus defeat
apparent why many military adventurers have struggled for the wealth of Bactria, which region they have in the end nearly depopulated, bringing ruin on themselves in the
ends.
it is
own
Thus
so
process.
Warfare thus appears to owe its origin to migrant military aristocracies. These have settled in places where there is an established
population producing tangible and desired forms of wealth, and live the lives of social parasites. They force their subjects to feed, clothe,
house, and amuse them, and
to form armies to aid
them
in their
quarrels with their rivals or in their plundering expeditions to secure
the wealth of and to dominate surrounding peoples. Their subjects are looked upon by them as mere ciphers, creatures who do their will
and serve
of
without questioning, passing, as the fortunes war decide, from one ruler to another. The essence of warfare
their pleasure
lie in
thus appears to
the fact that peoples will usually submit to such

:
treatment without resistance.

is
the
In short it can be said that Warfare means whereby the members of a parasitic ruling class of
alien origin endeavour^ while exploiting their
own
subjects,
to
WAR AND
tangible
CIVILISATION
431
dominate those surrounding peoples who produce wealth in a
and
desired form.
of exploitation
This process
and domination
people of
of the
many by
the
few
will last until the
common
the earth recognise their
condition
and become aware

which
of their
power.
The
spread of educa-
tion has caused the masses in every civilised country to develop a class
consciousness
is
destined eventually to produce the greatest

history.
revolution in the world's
The day when

"
the peoples of
We will no longer Europe say to their rulers and dominant classes, for your quarrels and rework to maintain you we care not one jot
:
fuse to be parties to
them
the
we
will not
be your instruments to enable
you
to plunder our neighbours," will see the
end
of war.
The
very
peoples domination, and their resignation under the most unjust and cruel treatment, constitute powerful evidence of the innate peacefulness of mankind.
patience with which
of
this
earth have
submitted to
And now
that the democracies of civilised countries are uniting
and voicing
their sentiments,
who
can deny that they are on the side
of peace, that they alone proclaim the brotherhood of

solidarity of interest
which
unites all branches of the
man and human family
the
?
REFERENCES.
The Peaceable Habits of J. Perry, (1) Cf. munities," Hibbert Journal, October, 1917, p. 33.
(2) L. Siret,
W.
"
Primitive
Com-
"
Questions de Chronologic
of), tit.,
et d' Ethnographic Iberiques,"
1913, chap.
(3)
i.
See Perry,
pp. 34 et seq.
Survey of the Ethnography of Africa," Jourl. Roy. Anth. Inst., xliii., 1913, p. 391; ibid., "British Central H. Schurtz in Helmolt's " History of the World," vol. iii., Africa," p. 62 434-35 ; J. A. Phillipson, " Notes on the Gallas," Man, 1916, p. 107. pp. " (5) Ratzel, History of Mankind," vol. ii., p. 407.
Johnston,
;
(4) Sir
H. H.
"
(6) Sir H. H. Johnston, "The Opening-up of Africa," 132 et seq. ; Speke, "Journal of Discovery of the Source of the Nile," 1906, pp. 206
et seq.
(7)
A. C. Haddon, " The Wanderings of Peoples," Cambridge, 191 1, pp. 59, 70; A. H. Keane, "Man: Past and Present," 1900, p. 64; " Handbook to the Ethnographical Collections in the British Museum "
(9)
G. W. Stow, " The Native Races of South Africa," 1905, (8) See Sir H. H. Johnston's, "The Uganda Protectorate".
p.
534.
1910, p. 237.
(10) D.
Carruthers,
"Unknown
Mongolia,"
1913,
pp.
8,
52;
Haddon,
op. cit. t p. 18.
432
1895, (11) H. Schurtz in Helmolt, ii., pp. Carruthers, op. cit., p. 8 pp. 15, 127-28 157, 170; H. Lansdell, "Through Siberia," 1882, p. 547 et seq. ; C. de " Les Aryens au nord et au sud de 1'Hindou Kouch," 1896, p. Ujfalvy, 25; H. Vambery, "Das Turkenvolk," 1885; Sir H. Ho worth, Jourl.
; ;
THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY " A Thousand Years of the Tartars," Prof. E. H. Parker,
Roy. Asiatic. Soc., 1875, pp. 222

1881, 121 etseq. (12) E. H. Parker, op.
(13)
et seq. ;
305
et seq. ;
1877,
243
et seq. ;
tit., p.
103.
V. A.
Smith,
"The
ii.,
E. Schmidt in Helmolt, Serpent," 1905, p. 151.

(14)
(15)
p.
Early History of India," 1904, p. 333; 386; C. F. Oldham, "The Sun and the
Schmidt, op. tit., pp. 368, 372. H. R. Davies, " Yunnan," Cam-
V. A. Smith, op. at., p. 333 A. C. Haddon, op. tit., p. 31

at.,
bridge, 1909, pp. 363, etseq., 378.
p.
(16) Carruthers, op. 361.
306,
308, 312; Prjevalsky, "Mongolia,"
(18)
(17) Letourneau, "Sociology," p. 199. Haddon, op. tit., chap, ii., and the accompanying map. (19) Clark Wissler, "Material Cultures of the North American
t
J.
American Anthropologist, N.S., xvi, 1914, pp. 449 et seq.; " " " in the Handbook of Mooney, Article on Military Organisation " " " in the same American Indians Maize Thomas, Article on Cyrus
Indians,"
;
work.
(20) Haddon, pp. \W> etseq. " Vorgeschichte (21) Siret, op. tit., pp. 138*tf seq., quoting Buchtela Bohmens ". (It is unfortunate that the Britjsh Museum does not possess a
copy
(22)
of this important work.) Haddon, pp. 41 et seq.,

tit.,
and European map.
(23) E. Schmidt, op.

(24) See the works
pp. 350 et seq. of Ratzel, Ujfalvy, and others

of the
who
treat of Central
Asia.
"
(25) Johnston,
et seq.
Survey
Ethnography
of Africa," loc.
tit.,
391
Haddon,
Oldham,
op. tit., pp. 31, 59.

tit., p. 202. op. cit., p. 198.
(26) Speke, op.

(27)
(28) Johnston, op. cit., p. 385. (29) E. H. Parker, op. tit., p. 3. (30) The Indian origin of the earliest civilisations of Java, Sumatra, and elsewhere in the East Indian Archipelago is well known. (See G. A. " Wilken, Handleiding voor de Vergelijkende Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie," 1898, for an account of the spread of Indian dynasties; " and D. De Rum-Serams op Nieuw-Guinea," 1893, for Horst, evidence concerning the influence of Indian religions upon those of the " The See also W. J. Perry, peoples of the East Indian Archipelago. Culture of Indonesia," 1918, for the evidence concerning the Megalithic
W.
immigrant origin of the ruling classes of the

region.)
I
less
advanced people
of that
region
at
hope to discuss the whole question some time in the future.
of Indian influence in this
WAR AND
(31)
J.
CIVILISATION
Lower
et seq.
433
A. Swanton, "
Indian Tribes of the
Mississippi Valley,"
Smithsonian Contributions; 1911, pp. 182

(32) Carruthers, pp. 157, 167.
(33) Perry, Hibbert Journal, loc. cit. (34) See, for example, Ch. Lemire,
"
Les anciens monuments des

iii.,
Kiams en Annam
Memoirs,
et
(35) See Perry,

(36) This
au Tonkin," "
L Anthropologie,
of
1892, p. 135.
An
Ethnological Study
Warfare," Manchester
vol. Ixi., 1917, pp. 6-7.
map is compiled mainly from the information given by A. G. Lock, "Gold"; J. Calvert, "Gold Rocks of Great Britain and Ireland," 1853; and, especially, the "Oxford Economic Atlas," by
Bartholomew and Lyde. " Survey (37) See H. H. Johnston," The Opening-up of Africa and " Stone of the Ethnography of Africa J. L. Todd and G. B. Wolback, " The Dolmens of Circles in the Gambia," Man. 191 1, 96; W. Borlase, Ireland," pp. 713, 716, 718, 719; Gsell, "Hist. Anc. de L'Afrique du Nord,"pp. 164, 215,287, 303, 357; Playfair, "Travels," pp.32, 34, D. Carruthers, op. cit., p. 60 H. Leder, Mitt. 38, 39, 42, 44, 82, 92 Anth. Ges., Wien, xxv., 1895, pp. 9 et seq. ; Mitt. Geogr. Ges., Wien, " Aus Sibirien," ii., 68 et seq., 91 et 1895, pp. 88 et seq. ; W. Radloff, " C. de Sabir, Le Fleuve Amour," 1861, pp. 155, 157 P. McD. seq. ; Collins, "Voyage down the Amur," 1866, pp. 126, 186, 293 Desplanges, L!Anthropologie, xvii., 1906, pp. 532 et seq. ; E. F. Gautier, ibid., xviii., " The Pre-History of the North," 1917, pp. 37 et seq. ; J. J. A. Worsae, L. Siret, op. cit., pp. 150 et seq. 1886; W. H. (38) 12/// Annual Report Bureau of Ethnology, Plate " Handbook of American Indians," i., p. 848. Holmes,
XX
A PURITAN
IDYLL, OR,
THE
REV.
1
RICHARD
BAXTER'S LOVE STORY.

BY FREDERICK
J.
POWICKE,
tell
M.A., Ph.D.
be found
;
THE
grapher.
story
am
going to "
called
will not
in
Baxter's
Autobiography
Reliquiae Baxterianae"
;
nor in Cal-
amy's abridgment of that amorphous folio nor in any of Baxter's contemporaries nor at all fully in Orme, his modern bio;
Most
the
assume, then, that the story is not a familiar one. are aware that Baxter was a great and vivid figure in people
We
may
the greatest of all English centuries, the seventeenth. They know " titles of one or two of his books, such as The Saints* Everlast" " " and The Call to the Unconverted ; and, perhaps, that ing Rest
he was the most voluminous writer
of his age.
They have
heard,
too, of his extraordinary success as a parish minister in Kidderminster,
and
have
with
of
his
seen,
its
immense popularity as a Puritan preacher. no doubt, what is called his true portrait (vera
its
And
they
effigies)
high Roman nose, its firm thin lips, its full ample brow partly concealed by a close-fitting velvet skull-cap from which the hair hangs down upon his ministerial white band and black
lean cheeks,
silk
robe.
But
face
it
2
may be news
married
at
to
them
that the
owner
and
of that grave
and severe
the age of forty- seven a lady, Margaret

;
Charlton, twenty-five years younger than himself

1
that, after
An
on March
2
elaboration of the Lecture delivered in the John Rylands Library 14, 1917.
is
There
another portrait
earlier date
It
was
in possession of painted for his ancestor
now
similar in outline but evidently taken at an Mr. John Standerwick, of Ilminster.
W.
Wm.
Standerwick by an unknown
:
artist
and
is
milder as well as younger in expression. Baxter's friend and biographer " Matt. Sylvester supplements the portrait when he says His Person was
tall
and slender, and stooped much His Countenance composed and grave, " somewhat inclining to smile, and, he had a piercing eye Funeral Sermon, p. 16 (at end of R.B.).
;
434
A PURITAN IDYLL
wedded
life
435
for ten years
of nearly nineteen years,
he survived her
her age at death being forty-two and his seventy- seven. But such is the fact and the story forms a human document
;
of
no small
interest.
within the next six
and Mrs. Baxter died on June 14th, 1681 weeks her husband showed what it is to have the
;
pen of a ready writer.

graphies, not very brief,
For during that time he wrote four biothough he calls them Breviates '.
* ;
The
mother
fourth,
l
;
first
was one
of his wife
the second
was one
of his step"
;
the third, one of his old friend and housekeeper
and the
one of Mrs. Baxter's mother
who had been dead twenty
years.
his wife's
Acting on the advice of friends he cast them all aside except and this alas he greatly curtailed. He speaks of his
; !
friends as wise,
and perhaps
in
in general
they were
but one
left
is
sorry
he
listened to
them
this particular case.
For what he
out inits
cluded "the occasions and inducements of" his marriage
or just
most piquant passages. One would give up much of the rest to recover these and I had hopes of recovering them from the Baxter MSS. in Dr. Williams's Library. But neither there nor among those
;
of the British
Museum
has been found any trace of them.

the best of the narrative as
it
We
are
obliged, therefore, to
make
stands.
Baxter
tells
us that he wrote the memorial to his wife
"
under the
power
sant.
of melting grief ".
He
was a
great, or, to say the least,
an
erudite Theologian.
His study
of theological
questions
was
inces-
There might seem to be no room in his mind or heart for anyBut after all he was no dry-as-dust '. However arid thing else. and abstract the terms or topics of his theology they did not lessen his
'
humanity.
feeling'.
remained always what he was naturally, a man of His popular appeal as a preacher an appeal of such
all classes
He
wonderful attractiveness to
of hearers
was due
far less to
the intellectual than to the emotional elements of his sermons.

1
In the
*
daughter of Sir
Thomas Hunks.
;
his wife
aged ninety-six or ninety- se ven " R. Baxter) that she long survived her stepson is incorrect. She " " was Baxter one of the most humble, mortified, holy persons that says
(sub.
the same year as and so the statement in N.D.B.
She died
'
ever
2
knew."
Baxter* s
Jane Matthews
virgin of minster.
aged seventy-six or seventy- seven, of mere decay ". pious, humble eminent worth ". She must have attended him from Kidder-
own mother was an Adeney. died about a month or six weeks before Mrs. Baxter, " "
436

'
firm restraint, vibrated through pulpit passion, though usually under
every sentence.
When
1
might find
his very Spirit
he spoke of Weighty Soul-Concerns you Drench'd therein "says his editor and
And he defends the exercise of passion. colleague Sylvester. '* Reason is a sleepy half-useless thing till some passion excite
and
learning to a
I
it
...
confess,
man asleep is no better for that time than ignorance. when God awakeneth in me those passions which I
account rational and holy, I am so far from condemning them, that I think I was half a fool before, and have small comfort in sleepy reason.
Lay by
to
all
the passionate parts of love and joy, and

of
it
will
be hard
this in
have any pleasant thoughts

if
Heaven."
of
We
must bear
mind
need
we
are inclined to
wonder how
a face like that of Baxter's
traditional portrait could

to
be the face
an ardent lover.
is
There
is
no
wonder.
The
traditional portrait
I
a mask.
The
real
man
and
was
the most sensitive of personalities.

*
cannot say whether he had

to any,
any heart-affairs' in he soon passed into a

upon them
to
his youth.
He
makes no reference
state of
as a sin in his
mind which would pronounce judgment But I should not be surprised case.
certain
learn that he had.
Margaret Charlton.
is
At any rate, it is He may not have done

is,
that he
;
loved
so at once
and there
clear evidence that he did not yield to the sweet attraction without
a struggle.
The
point
however, that he yielded
and that
his
love took possession of him,

1
and swept away
all
the obstacles erected
"Elijah's cry after Elijah's God," p. 14 (at end of the "Reliquiae " Baxterianae "). He had a moving 7ra#o? and useful Acrimony in his words,
neither did his Expressions
want
their
Emphatical Accent, as the Matter
did require."
At
deep,
the same time there

fixed
was no
of
'
gush
'.
He was
"
Man
of clear,
Reading ". " " Rational Learning he most valued and was an extraordinary Master of
thoughts
;
Man
copious and well-digested
17). * " Poetical Fragments Epistle to the Reader. Of these Fragments " " As dated London, at the door of Eternity, August 7th, 1 681 ," he says were mostly written in various passions, so passion hath now thrust they
-
(id., p.
"
'
them out
into the world.
God
having taken
away
the dear companion of
the last nineteen years of my life, as her sorrows and sufferings long ago gave being to some of these Poems (for reasons which the world is not concerned to know) so my grief for her removal, and the revived sense of
all."
former things, have prevailed with me to be passionate in the open sight of " In the original title they are described as The concordant discord " of a broken-healed heart
A PURITAN IDYLL
by
his scrupulous conscience,
life,
437
and brought him
into the happiest period

it
of his
notwithstanding the fact that
outwardly
was
the most
troubled.
He
ster.
met her
first
as a girl of seventeen or eighteen at
Kiddermin-
This was
in
1637 or 8 when
his great
ministry
was
of
for
at
its
height.
She had come from Oxford

sister,
the residence at that time of

Christ
her elder
wife of
Mr. Ambrose Upton, a Canon

living at
for her
Church.
time
;
Her mother had been

to
Kidderminster
some
and seems
have chosen
it
home on purpose
Church
of Shropshire
;
to enjoy
the benefit of Baxter's preaching at the Parish
of St. Mary's."
She and Baxter belonged

of a different social rank
in the
to the
same county
"
but were
her family being
one
of the chief Families
County," while
his
was
that of
"a mean
Freeholder (called a
suffi-
Gentleman
_\
for his Ancestors' sake, but of
a small estate, though
cient)
" did not marry till he husband, Francis Charlton, Esq., was aged and gray, and so dyed while his children were very young ".
Her
two daughters, of whom Margaret was the younger, and one son. His death took place in the opening of the Civil War and the reality of the war was brought years
There were
three of
them
home
to the
bereaved family
in
sort of small castle" (B., p. p.
2) named
for the
a strange way. "
Their home was

"
nr.
3
"
Apley,
Wellington
(B.,
King not that Mrs. Charlton was a strong Royalist, but because she needed the King's protection against her husband's brother, Robert, who was bent upon getting the
44)
;
and was garrisoned
children, particularly the son

this she, in the first place,
and
heir, into his
own
hands.
To
avert
;
and
in the second,
It
;
besought relief from the King at Oxford 4 married one Mr. Hanmer, a Royalist and a man
his direction that
of influence.
may have been under
Apley
Castle
was
garrisoned
1
and so might be legally attacked by a Parliamentary
B.,
P .3.
lived in a "great house" near the Church "in the Church" " within sight of all the Burials" (B., pp. 44, 45). yard side " Within a mile of Wellington on the right of the road leading to Hodnet is Apley Castle eminent as the seat of the ancient family of the " " Charltons Halbert's History of Salop," vol. ii., 156 (1837). 4 He appears to have died before the end of the war and nothing
further
is
She
known
of him.
438
force.

"
This the uncle was strong enough to bring about. In Baxter's words "he procured it to be besieged by the Parliament's soldiers,
and stormed and taken
(B., p. 2).
killed.
A part of
were
the house
was
burnt.
Some
and
of
the
men were
All the inmates were "threatened

fain to
stript of their cloathing, so that they
borrow clothes
"
(B., p. 44).
So Robert got possession of the children (B., p. 2). By dint of "great wisdom and diligence," however, they were at length " snatched away from him and secretly conveyed to one Mr. Bernards
"
in
"
"
Essex
to
;
"
;
and, with the close of the
war her
troubles on that score
came
estate
an end.
Then, as her
and
"
son's guardian, she took charge of his
managed
things faithfully, according to her best dishis
cretion, until her son
marrying took the estate into
own hands ".

is
Why
Here
before
she did not continue to live with him or near him
not said.
But there was something which rendered it undesirable z and decided 4 her to follow her inclination and make a home in Kidderminster.
she lived (says Baxter)
strangers to her
"
as a blessing
among
the honest poor
weavers
all
the vanities of
whose company the world '*.
for their piety she
chose "
for
Margaret joined her mere love of her mother 'V

1
When
probably in 1658
she did so
Baxter mentions this experience as one of the nerve-shocks which afterwards rendered Margaret so fearful '. He appears to be the same as Sir John Bernards who afterwards boarded and educated Baxter's nephew, William Baxter (see Baxter Correspondence, Dr. Williams's Library). " " " 3 fault in him Baxter hints at (B., p. 3). passion in her," or some " 4 to take a House for her alone ". First of all she desired Baxter
'
He declined on the ground that he would do nothing to separate mother " She went home, but shortly came and son and advised her to go back. and took a house without my knowledge." Baxter seems careful again, to note this fact because at a later time it was made a charge against him See a letter of his dated by her son that he had unduly influenced her. July, 1658, "to Mr. Charlton, Esq., at Appley in Shropshire," justifying " himself and Mr. Charlton' s own mother against his hard speeches," Baxter MSS., vol. iv., ff. 130 a, b, 131 /;, Williams's Library. 5 " She was the greatest honourer of her mother, and most sincerely " loved her, that ever I knew a Child do to a Parent (B., p. 81). " On the other hand, her mother loved her least of her three children"
;
before the time of her conversion.
Then
she
"
began
to
esteem her as her
Darling "(B., p.
5).
A PURITAN IDYLL
Baxter himself did not
interest her
439
nor did she care for the people.
Indeed she "had great aversion to" their "poverty and strictness," and put on a very unpuritan appearance of worldliness "glittering But this herself in costly Apparel and delighting in her Romances ".
the surface and did not last long. Already she was " She knew she was not what she a sort of divine discontent. feeling should be" and that "something better (she knew not what) must be
was only on
Oxford the change had begun. ser" mon "of Mr. H. Hickman's," which she heard there, had much moved her ". She had tried to throw off its influence and her
attained 'V
Even while
at
efforts to
do
is
so
would account
saints.
for the levity

*
which rather shocked the

'.
Kidderminster
She was,
in
fact,
kicking against the pricks
And
her. seal
so
it
His doctrine
on the
its
not surprising that Baxter's preaching soon laid hold of of conversion "was received on her heart as the
wax ".
From
being careless of religion (as
became
most earnest devotee.
She
*
tested herself
'
seemed) she the marks by

it
all
of conversion set forth in Baxter's

into a morbid state of
Treatise
on the subject and
fell
mind because
of her failure to stand the test.
Some who chanced

mother's house
"
to overhear her praying in a
remote room of her
said they never heard so fervent prayers from
any
Casting aside her romances she read none but serious books, " and entertained none but serious thoughts, and kept a death's head
person
".
(or skull) in her closet" (B., p. 44) to remind her continually of her
mortality.
All
this
was
quite according to the Puritan scheme,
and
"
her religious Friends and Neighbours " were glad of so sudden and great a change
all
"
as well as her
".
mother
proved
calls
But the
of
strain
almost
"
the more so as she " a concealing temper and said nothing.

fatal
to
her
was
what Baxter
Her
health broke down.
She seemed to be wasting away. The doctors spoke of consumption and despaired of her life. Then an experiment was tried which to
Baxter and
his
people was a most natural outcome of their

fast
faith.
They
in his
"resolved to
:
and pray
for her".
The
result is best told
own words "Compassion made us all extraordinary fervent and God heard us, and speedily delivered her as it were by nothing, or by an altogether undesigned means. She drank of her own in1
As
a girl she had been put by her mother

".
for a time
under
"
an
imprudent rigid Governess

cessive restraint.
Her
levity
was a
reaction against this ex-
The
circumstance points to a Puritan
home
(B., p. 4).
440

large quantity of syrup of Violets
it
clination, not being directed, a
and
the next morning her nose bled (which
scarce ever did before or
since) and the Lungs seemed cleared, and her pulse suddenly amended, " 1 her cough abated, and her strength returned in short time (B., p. 9). She was at her worst on December 30th, 659," and this would
1
recovery was sure but not There is no suggestion of miracle about it. It was not till rapid. 1 Oth that she seemed well enough to justify her mother in callApril " those that had fasted and prayed for her to keep a day of ing upon
be the date
of the prayer meeting.
Her
Thanksgiving
for
her Deliverance
of
".
Margaret wrote
forgotten.
the day
a Thursday
as
one never
to
be
it.
She
sat late
into the night recording her thoughts of
She thoroughly agreed with the others that her recovery was due to a direct act of God and emphasized God's claim upon her. So, in
Puritan fashion, she solemnly renewed her covenant with God a covenant which Baxter, about the same time, rendered into verse.
We sing
a part of
it
in the
well-known
it
Hymn
my
"
care
Lord,
Whether
though
in the original
belongs not to I die or live,
care," while the line

teration for the line
1
the "
first line
runs
Now
"
is
it
belongs not to
my
to soar to endless
day
an unwarranted al-
"that shall have the same pay" ?

was one
;
This, in Baxter's view,
of
many
' *
similar
'
instances.
His
who ("after some years* people had lately prayed for 'a Demoniack violent Epileptic who remisery ") was suddenly cured and for a " " never had a fit since and often for covered on the second day and Once eg. he himself "in dangerous illness" with "speedy" success. " had swallowed a Gold bullet for a Medicine, and it lodged in me long, and no means would bring it away, till they met to fast and pray, and it " he adds "did not deny their came away that morning". " God prayers, though they were without Book, and such as some deride as exOne rather wonders why Baxter was always so inveterate a temporate."
;
dealer in medicine
2
She afterwards kept it secretly as an anniversary Remembrance of " the Sentence of Death from which she had been delivered (B., Preface*
"
P.O.
The whole Hymn consists common metre and was meant
of eight stanzas to
of eight lines
each
in
She made her covenant in " This day I have, under my Hand and Seal in the presence of public. devoted my all to Thee. Witnesses, nay in Thine own presence
be sung.
.
.
A PURITAN IDYLL
On
London
he had
T
441
Baxter went up to the measures then on
April
13th,
1660
three days later
eager to watch and have a part in Unknown to himself, or them, foot to bring about the Restoration.
said
goodbye
to his
beloved Kidderminster
flock.
On
at St.
April
30th he preached before the 2 On May 10th garet's, Westminster.
new House
at
of
Commons
Mar-
their desire
he preached
On before the Lord Mayor and Aldermen in St. Paul's (id., 219). June 25th he was sworn the King's Chaplain in Ordinary (R.B., On November 1st he refused an offer of the Bishopric of p. 229).
Hereford (R.B., pp. 282, 283).
Later
"
in the
Lord Chancellor "to restore" him
" and his people supported Kidderminster again (R.B., p. 298) a day's time the signatures of 1 600 communicants him by gathering in
out of a possible 1800.
3
to preach
year he petitioned the " to" his people at
He
terms"
was
willing to go
and do the work on the

;
"
lowest lawful
story of the
or even for nothing
but
it
was
not to be.
The
in
calculated deceits
which were practised upon him

to
(as
1
this
connection
does not belong here.
he exerted himself
policy.
All through the year 1661 and part of 1662 the uttermost in the interest of a reconciling
is
His
efforts
Hence on May
a certainty,
25th,
known) and every other effort failed. 662, by which time the Uniformity Act was
well
he pointed the way to his fellow- Nonconformists by 4 his last sermon as a minister of the Anglican Church. preaching He was far and away the most active spirit on the Nonconformist
side
;
but the currents against him were too strong (She was writing
"
in her
and he was
'
not,
/.
." (B., pp.

'
16, 17).
room
at
twelve of the
"
clock "
and Baxter says she subscribed it with a cheerful will a.m.). " " Poetic Fragments," p. 70. of it never lost sight 1 Oth (as Margaret says) was Thursday, then the 3th would If April be Sunday. But this is Baxter's own date (R.B., p. 215) and was Monmeant Friday (about the Probably day. Margaret meant Friday. dawn of which she wrote in her diary). " 2 " The next morning " did the Parliament unanimously vote Home " the King (R.B., Pt. ii., PP 218, 219). " 3 The rest were such as were from home.'* R.B., Pt. ii., p. 299.
1
was about 4000 (R.B., Pt. ii., p. 286). had preached here once a Sunday for some He months and previously at St. Bride's and St. Dunstan's, Fleet Street. also lectured for a year at Milk Street on week days, i.e. (probably) once
population of the Parish
Blackfryars."
The whole 4 " At
He
a week (R.B., Pt.
ii.,
pp. 302, 303).
29
442
if

it,
he had known
the best of
pilots.
His very
?
simplicity
and
sin-
cerity betrayed him.
Meanwhile, where was Margaret Charlton London and her mother with her. She had, in
and had taken the resolution
his going.
She
also
was
in
;
fact,
followed him
to
do
so almost as soon as she

:
heard of
" she writes on April 10th pastor ... is by " l Providence called away and going a long journey and about the " same time, she adds I if Providence concur, to resolve, to
Thus
My
go
London
as
soon as
can
after
the day of Thanksgiving
for
the
another place **.~ What other place meant, or what were the Reasons, even Baxter did not know.
Reasons mentioned
in
was
But
he quotes a passage from her Diary of April Oth which more than hints at one of them "It may grieve me now he is gone that there is so little that came from him left let this quicken upon my soul.
1
:
and
stir
me up
to
and means.
And
be more diligent in the use of all remaining helps if ever I should let me enjoy this mercy again,
O
;
make it appear that ... I was sensible Here it is her need of Baxter as a
feels
of
my
neglect of
it."
teacher and guide that she
no doubt sincerely and

to explain
after his
acutely.
of
But was
does
this
all ?
Was
it
enough upon her

I
the
mood
4
deep despondency which returned
departure?
Above
him
?
all,
it
suffice to
account
for her precipitate resolve to follow
think not.
is
There
a pathetic
little
sentence in the secret paper she wrote
near midnight on April 10th which tells its to wing her soul toward Heaven alone and
sires.
own
tale.
She
is
trying
Why?
away from mundane deBecause there "shall friends meet and never part
and weary nights and days no more.
and remember
their sad
Then
Then may we love freely does not this lift love freely'." a corner of the veil and show what she hardly confessed even to her-
may we
self, viz.
that love for the
"wise and good" pastor had grown

it
into
love for the
man
and that she found

and
hard, nay at last impossible,

?
to endure the prospect of living far
away from him
That
is
my
and
own
impression
imagine that her mother, while listening
yielding to her other pleas for going to
London, may have divined

Baxter
her secret and been glad. there can be no question.

1
For
of the mother's devotion to
B.,
9.
Ibid.
P 29.
.
Ibid. p. 20.
Ibid. pp. 29, 30.
A PURITAN IDYLL
At any
.
. .
443
rate to
London they came

is
notwithstanding Baxter's
Remonstrance.
"It
to go
not lawful (he said) to speak an idle
word
What if you fall sick by the an idle journey. take you there, will not conscience ask you way, or some weakness
much
less
who
"
called you hither ?

to
and did he wish
ward
off
too fascinating temptation
Did the good man also suspect the truth from himself what he feared might be a and when she actually apPossibly
; ;
peared on the scene he

pastoral
gravity.
may have addressed her again with the

such cases nature has a
like
But, in
way
of her
own
which usually prevails. Margaret could not be in and no meeting take place. She easy distance
London within knew where he
preached, and (we may be sure) was as often as possible one of his hearers at St. Dunstan's or St. Bride's or Blackfriars ; while he was
not an infrequent guest at her mother's lodgings in Sweeting's Alley or Nor could the fact of their acquaintAldersgate Street (B., p. 76).
It went on through ance be long hid, even if they tried to hide it. more than two years and was not interrupted by Mrs. Charlton's Rather this event an unspeakably sad one for death in 1661.
chief
" " mother's death and her consequent as contributory friendless state " causes of a "diseased fearfulness to which she became liable.
Margaret who was only twenty-one (B., p. 3) was perhaps the means in bringing matters to a head. Baxter links together her
How
and in doing so was it could he help doing his best to comfort her not more than likely that their mutual attachment should declare
;
itself ?
Anyhow, known by the end

some
circles
the attachment did

of
1
come
to a
head and was widely
66
1 .
Such a love
story excited
more
interest
in
vulsing the Church.
than even the burning questions which were then conIt reached the Court in the form of a definite
report that Baxter, the hypocritical
was
himself married
of
it
made
ley,
there
is
impugner of all clerical marriages, and what the refined entourage of Charles II no need to say. The Bishop of Worcester, Mor;
'
who
;
'
hated Baxter, seems to have been the

so
first
to
divulge
the
report
and he did
"with
all
it
the odium he could possibly put
upon
"
"
ter,
1
it ".
Outside the Court
was "everywhere rung about""

I
partly as a
wonder and
partly as a crime".
think," says
Bax-
the King's marriage
was
scarce
more talked
of than
little
mine
"
and
Baxter is not B., p. 42. that the remonstrance was his.
named, but there
is
room
for
doubt
444
this

"near a year before
for the
it
came
to pass".
There were
plausible
grounds
widespread gossip, malicious and otherwise.

suggestive of
There
was, e.g. the disparity of age

;
a merely amorous fancy there was the disparity of rank on Baxter's part suggestive of misused pastoral influence over a guileless girl then there was her
;
wealth
suggestive of
covetousness
and especially there was
his
avowed and acknowledged disapproval

ters
of the married state for ministruth,
suggestive of
hypocrisy.
But the
known
to the few,
really
made
was
the story a romantic and beautiful
idyll.
For the simple

spirit-
truth
that they loved each other
with a love of that high
ual character
which
unites soul to soul,
and
transfigures
life,
and
is
immortal.
of
the malignant could
course,
Hence, neither the scoffs of the frivolous nor the sneers have any weight with them and in due when at last the way was clear, they were married. " On
;
September 10th we were married Church by Mr. Samuel Clark

.
"
says Baxter
. .
"in Bennet Fink
having been before contracted
by Mr. Simeon Ash, both in the presence of Mr. Henry Ashurst " 2 " when we were married her and Mrs. Ash and, he goes on,
;
sadness and melancholy vanished
counsel did something to
it,
and
contentment
affairs,
something
did somewhat.
And we
and being taken up with our household lived in in violated love and mutual
These near complacency, sensible of the benefit of mutual help. nineteen years I know not that ever we had any breach in point of
love, or point of interest, save only that she
somewhat grudged
that
had persuaded her

desired."
for
my
quietness
to surrender so
much
of
her
estate, to a disabling her
from helping others so much as she earnestly

to
The
her
reference in these last words
is
one
of the conditions of
their marriage
affairs as to
which he had exacted,

to
;
viz.
that she should so alter

suits.
prevent his being entangled in any law
Her
to
brother, in fact,
appears
she had inherited from her mother
have made claims upon what and Baxter had induced her
concede
them, although
legally disputable.
He
would rather
she suffered unjust loss

1
f
.
which evidently she did
than gratify the
lomew Day
24th, so that the contract of marriage must have taken place before that date (R.B., Pt. ii., p. 430).
i.e.
R.B., Pt. i. P 384. " Good old Mr. Simeon "
Ash was
buried the very Even of Bartho-
August
A PURITAN IDYLL
scandalmongers by a law
suit.
445
was not
;
Her
bad
fortune as thus reduced

is
by any means
the remnant,
1
large.
How
to
much
5000
she had given up

debts,
not clear
but
after crossing off
amounted
to
no more than
1650,
left
equal perhaps this entirely at her
at the present time.

:
own
that
disposal
for
Her marriage a second condition, insisted
upon by Baxter,
hers, so that, as
was
he
says,
he should have nothing that before was " I (who wanted no outward supplies) might
2
refute the charge of covetousness ".
However
she
may have
it.
re-
belled against
this
condition in after days, he held her to
Of
course he could not hinder her from using some of her
money
in house-
keeping and had no wish

her
it
*
to
do
so.
money
himself nor inquire

;
how
after
But he would not handle any of she spent it. He let her do with
she
as
she pleased
and
so,
was
gone,
he could
say
so
Through God's mercy and her prudent care, I lived in plenty and do still, though not without being greatly beholden to divers friends
;
and
am
not poorer than
when
married
3
but
it
is
not by marriage
nor by anything that
Their
first
was hers before ". home was in Moorfields (B.,
p.
),
where they
lived for
ten months.
Then on
for
4
Middlesex
country
life.
July 14th, 1663, they removed to Acton in the sake of Baxter's health and studies and a quiet
Here they
"
forced
lived for nearly six years
when
1
"
new
sharper law against
the Nonconformists
Five mile
Act
them away. 5
known as the Oxford or Towards the end of 669, they
took lodgings with a farmer at Totteridge near Barnet ten miles from these for a separate house the next year. Their London, exchanging
last
'remove' was back

calls
to
what Baxter
a most pleasant and convenient House" at South" where she died ". This marks the ampton Square, Bloomsbury
life
;
"
London on February 20th,
1673, into
outline of their married
and
its
contents,
from more than one

just
point of view, are full of interest.
But our concern
now
is
chiefly
with Mrs. Baxter and the sort of

1 .
woman
she proved herself to be.
She turned out an excellent housewife. Probably she had been " well trained by her mother. Anyhow her household-affairs (says Baxter) she ordered with so great skill and decency as that others
1
B., p. 48.
Ibid. p. 47.
Ibid. p. 101
4
.
R.B., p. 440.
to
For the circumstances which permitted Baxter for some years escape the force of this Act, see R.B., Pt. iii., pp. 46 ff.
B.,
P 51
.
R.B., Pt.
iii.,
PP 60,
.
103.
446
much

praised that
:
which I was no fit Judge of I had been bred mean people, and I thought that so much washing of among plain Stairs and Rooms to keep them as clean as their Trenchers and Dishes, and so much ado about cleanliness and trifles, was a sinful curiosity,
and expence of servants' time who might, that while, have been readBut she that had been otherwise bred had ing some good book. " It will be noticed that she somewhat other thoughts (B., p. 80).
and Baxter testifies that she was a lenient mistress. kept servants " When her servants did any fault unwillingly she scarce ever told
;
them
of
it.
When
at
one
lost
Ten Pounds worth

of
If
of
Linnen
in carriage
carelessly,
and another Ten Pounds worth

any such thing.
it,
Plate by negligence she
shewed no anger
servants
it,
had done
she
amiss,
and
she could not prove
or
knew
not which did

lest it
would never ask

it
them
herself,
nor suffer others,

it
should tempt them to hide
by
'*
a lye (unless
(B., p. 74).
were a servant that feared God, and
would not
lye)
thing
for
which she
Evidently the moral welfare of her servants was somefelt a responsibility. Baxter felt it, too and his
;
part
at
was
to catechize
them weekly
besides expounding the Scriptures
But now and then, absorbed in his morning and evening prayers. and his wife never failed to remind him studies, he was apt to forget " " " " " in her face at his "of trouble remissness with an expression
;
(B., p. 70).
She kept him up

required
it
to the
mark,
too, in other
this
ways.
Her
ideal of a
home
his
to
be bright.
at
conference and cheerful discourse.
end, she encouraged She did not like her husband to
To
come from
even
if
study and
sit
table
and say
"
little
or nothing
not
he seemed to have good reason
body".
And
this
was rather apt to was no less good for him that she tried to curtail his hours of study and to make him see that by spending more time in religious exercise
'
in his weak pained state of was good for him there being no doubt that he It dwell somewhat morbidly upon his ailments.
;
with her and his Family and his neighbours, he would be furthering
his ministerial
work
he
"
just
as
much
".
as
by writing books.
"
others
Indeed, she
told him, that to
had done
better to have written fewer books
and
have done those few better

*
"
Some
thought the same,
while he thought that writing was the chief of in very truth his sanctum sanctorum '.
his duties
and the study
All the same, there is no doubt that he sometimes yielded to her and went back to his books none the worse for having persuasion
;
A PURITAN IDYLL
wasted (as he might fancy) some precious
room.
In a
half hours in her
447
drawing-
word
it is
plain that his home-life, under her gentle reign,
was
in
as
wholesome
for
him
as
it
was
delightful.
If
she
was
exacting
some ways, she was as exacting with she seemed to make light of his physical
herself as with him.

sufferings, she also
Nay,
if
made
was
light
of her
own
"
which were often no
less acute.
He
found her utterly

If
unselfish.
She had, moreover, the

little
angry she
in
made
it
known
;
anger or in an angry tone
She rarely ever spoke (he says). nor could she well bear to hear another
Best of
all,
"
best of tempers.
she
ever
speak angrily or even loud.

be,
its
experience proved them to

its
what they hoped to ideals and its hopes.

;
be, as regards religion
beliefs, its duties,
one
Here, at the centre of their life, they were and here she remained to the end his grateful pupil though to
a greater extent his teacher than she things there was never a jarring note.
was aware.
Thus
in the
deepest
One
illustration
may
be quoted.
both fond of singing Psalms to sacred music. And (says " it was not the least comfort that I had in the converse of Baxter) my late dear wife that our first in the morning and last in bed at night
They were
was a Psalm
of Praise
till
the hearing of others interrupted
it
*V
A
*
husband and wife

*
who began and ended

heartily as
to
each day with a
evoke a protest from the neighbours need no further testimony to their mutual content 2. Baxter dilates upon her charm outside as well as inside the
of
Psalm
Praise
sung so
I know not (he says) that ever she came to any place where she did not extraordinarily win the love of the inhabitants (unless in any street where she staid so short a time as not to be known to " This he admits was due partly to her liberality. But her them)."
home.
"
She (i.e. her behaviour) won more love than her liberality. could not endure to hear one give another any sour, rough, or hasty " word. Her speech and countenance was always kind and civil
carriage
"
whether she had anything to give or not." She was the same to rich and poor or, if she made a difference, more considerate of the poor
;
than the
rich.
Among
the poor were her chief friends.
"And
all
her kindness tended to some better end than barely to relieve peoples
bodily wants
of their souls or to
good
even to oblige them to some duty that tended to the deliver them from some straits which fill'd
"
Fragments of Poetry
Address
to
Reader,
p. 3.
448
them with

hurtful care,
and became a matter
of temptation to
them
".
Nor was
there anything sectarian in her kindness.
"
If
she could hire
the poor to hear God's
word from Conformist
or Nonconformist, or to
read good Serious practical Books, whether written by Conformists or and many an hunNonconformists, it answered her end and desire
:
dred books hath she given to those ends/'

to her influence over the people of
Baxter
refers in particular
Acton,
moved for Not a few
all greatly esteemed and loved her ". " accounted worldly ignorant persons but to please her they came to hear her husband preach in her house ; " " and what he calls her winning conversation drew them to goodness even more than his powerful sermons. He gladly notes this when " " how on one occasion the people hearing that he " again telling wanted a house they unanimously subscribed a request to'*
six years.
"
among whom
she lived and
They
"
of
them were
him "to
his
return to" his
"old house with them and

most,
offered to
says,
"
pay"
their
house-rent ".
What moved them
he
was
love for her (B., pp. 50, 51).
Something has already been said as to her liberality. This and it was from Baxter that she learnt played a great part in her life how to use her money. She had been in the habit of giving, he says,
3.
;
"but a tenth
that
for
God
but I quickly convinced her incomes to the poor must not be stinted, but as all was his so all must be used
of her
;
him by
his stewards,
and
of all
it
appointed order
necessities
;
we
must use
must give account which is For our

1 ,
;
we
only in his
natural
own
4,
2, For public necessary good our children and such Relations as are part
3,
For the
necessities of
;
of our charge
Then,
for the
godly poor
5,
Then
for the
common
it
poor's necessities, and,
"
6,
lastly, for
conveniences, but nothing for unuseful things

;
(B., p. 53).
This was
give
his lesson
and she
learnt
almost too well.

far
In order to
diet for her
"
away
she used
mean
own
"
clothing
and a
meaner
person with her rank.
than was consistent with her health, or (as some thought)

In fact, she gave
away
so
much
that there
were times
she had nothing to give. Then she begged. She did not " she at length refused not to acdream of begging for herself but
when
cept with thanks the liberality of others, and to live partly on charity that she might exercise charity to them that could not so easily get it
1
B., pp. 49, 50.

i.,
In this she
14.
was an
imitator of her husband.
See
R.B., Pt.
p.
89,
A PURITAN IDYLL
from others as
449
of
we
could 'V
Failing to get
;
what she had need
by
and, as she could always begging she had recourse to borrowing " " But the net she found borrowing easy. sufficient security offer
result
was, that
when
her affairs were
wound up
;
at her
death most of
This led
and Baxter came off badly. her property turned out to be mortgaged " that she was wasteful and imprudent in to the accusation " " him so much in debt ". leaving To which he replied that there were no debts, since all obligations
were covered by her securities. Nor was there any sense of grievance on his part that nothing was left for him, since that was what he deOne was sired. Nevertheless, we differed (he says) on two points.
this
that he disliked her borrowing
"
unless in
some public
or extra-
that, while she could give security, ordinary case," whereas she thought 2 she ougkt to boiTow to relieve the poor, especially the most worthy ". " The other point was this that while He was for exercising pru" that dence in discerning the degrees of need and worth," she held
"
we
ought to give more or less to everyone that asketh, if we have it ". Thus she gave more Still she did discriminate in her own way.
to
readily
{" Alas
poor widows and orphans than to the poor generally. " " of these who think they have (says Baxter) I know many now lost a mother".) And she was specially compassionate of any " One of her last acts " a Fortworthy person in Prison for debt ".
!
night or
of
Month
"
before she died
was
to promise
20
for the release
one
of these
hoping to
beg the
amount and having

chief objects of
herself (B., p. 63).
But the
" "
pay all but her bounty were reto
ligious enterprises,
and her poor kindred.

to
As
to the latter, her poor
kindred were really Baxter's

1
many of" whom
"
(says he)
she
B.,
"
liberal
"
There were p. 60. in this respect that Baxter
faithful
had
"
" " so kind and pious friends much ado to forbear naming them ".
There is a sentence here which seems to imply that BaxB., p. 65. " ter's means as well as his wife's went in charity. It is I thought I was to give but all my Income and not to borrow to give. . . .** But this must
in the light of his own scheme (p. 53). Except her sister Mrs. Upton and her brother, with their families she " had no near relations of her own, so far as we know. Her sister's chil" dren she loved as if they were her own, especially three daughters (B., Baxter mentions a strange story how she compelled him (first p. 64). " " a motioner of a Wife to her brother's son who satisfying his reason) to be him 20,000. He mentions it to illustrate her wish, next to saving brought their souls, to settle her kindred well in the world
be read
*
450

"
liberal
was much more

Trade, or help
of these
than
;
himself
"
though
straits".
her
way was
them
to
not to
maintain them in idleness
but to take children and
set
some
them out
of
some
special
The
most notable
nephew, William Baxter, afterwards well known as a Classical scholar and antiquary. The letters between Distinguished him and Mrs. Baxter which have been preserved in the Baxter Cor-
was
his
respondence of Dr. Williams's Library show the unfailing interest she took in his career as long as she lived, and his grateful admiration.
1
As
to religious
work, her
gifts
were incessant
When,
e.g.
they
came
"
ig-
to live in
Bloomsbury and she found

of
St.
herself surrounded
by the
James's poor" had "set up a school there to teach some poor children to read and the Catechism," free of charge. She engaged for the puruntil she
norant untaught
Parish, she
could not rest
" " " a poor honest man who had a wife and many (Mr. Bruce) pose children" and no other maintenance paying him 'six pounds a year
'
till
This surely was one of mostly out of her own purse. " " and the first free schools of the kind established in London (says " she would fain have set up more, had she had the money ". Baxter)
her death
;
His posthumous works were published

as
his uncle's,
viz.
in
726
in a
book
of the
same
title
aged seventy-three. The name Baxter family which makes it very ancient and respectable. He himself was Baxter he derives from a Saxon word meaning Baker '. born at Lanlugan vicus admodum obscurus in a house belonging to his his father's name being John and his mother's great-grandfather William
'
He died in 1723 "Reliquiae Baxterianae ". One of his included works contains a pedigree of the
The family circumstances were poor (in tenui re). was married by the time of Mrs. Baxter's death and his eldest child was born in the same year, 1681. There were three others two and one son all born in Tottenham High Cross, Middlesex, daughters where he lived and kept a boarding house or school. Then (after 700) he was for more than twenty years Master of Mercer's School, London. He ought to be an authority on the number of his own children. But and Nicholls ("Literary Anecdotes," vol. i., 165) makes the number six calls the eldest Rose instead of Richard.
Catherine.
He
He
'
B., p. 58.
speaks of Baxter as "
"
For
'
this
Richardus majoris patrii mei Richardi filius ". she beg'd a while of her good friends but they
'
quickly gave over."

charitable people to extend the movement, for the pleads with sake of the multitude of poor children, " in the many great out-parishes of " London," who spend their time in idleness and play, and are never " to read ". There " are many good poor women who would be taught " *' a small stipend and results might be attained glad to do the work for
3
'
He
A PURITAN IDYLL
But chapels, or rooms
they came to London which Baxter could
for preaching,
451
were her main concern.
When
in
call
February, 1673, there

his
was no meeting house

the available places of
;
own.
Most
of
worship had been taken up by ministers on the spot. He wished this " " I and had delayed his return expressly for this. thought it not just
he says
"
to
come and
had
fully settled theirs
up a congregation there till the Ministers who had borne the burden there in the times of
set
lest
I
the raging Plague and Fire, and other Calamities
should draw
away any
But
of their
Auditors and hinder their Maintenance."
his wife thought
was
not content for
Turner's Church in
not reach
She from preaching too long. " him merely to deliver a Friday Lecture at Mr. New St. near Fetter Lane ". Such a Lecture did
he held
off
the people
and
it
was
"
the people she
thought
of.
She
did,
wanted
to see
them
flocking again to his preaching as they
always
so she contrived a
in
little
scheme.
She
first fisht
out of
me (says
Baxter)
what place I most desired more Preaching. I told her in St. Martin's Parish where are said to be 40,000 more than can come into the
Church, especially among
all
Neighbours many
live
like
new Buildings at St. Jameses where Americans and have heard no Sermon of
the
set
many
years."
find
She
"
at
once
to
work, and,
after
more than one
failure to
some capacious Room," hired one over the market"divers
place consisting of
Rooms"
to
"laid together
"and
"
one big central beam.

ing the
Here he agreed
service
to preach every
in
upheld by Sunday mornablest

'
afternoon
be
taken
turns
*
by the
"
Ministers they could procure in
London ".
To
supply
for these
Minister out of charge
"
miles off
at a stipend
was brought up from some place a hundred " of 40 a year ". And the point is that she
to
paid
this herself
besides most of
pare the room, and

look to the Seats ".
tions
;
"
what was required to hire and pre" pay a Clerk," and to engage a woman to
people indeed raised something by collecbut she detested collections for fear they might suggest a device
;
The
to turn godliness into gain
and soon dropped them

"
(B., pp. 54, 59).
parallel to those of
set
"
honest
"
Mr. Gouge's work

etc.
in
Wales.
Mr. Gouge
iii.,
up
about 30d or 400 schools in Wales,"
(see R.B., Pt.
pp.
190, 148).
^.B., Pt. iii., p. 102. The licence to preach which he had taken out (or had been taken out for him in October) seems to have been a
Licence
at large, i.e. for
no particular place.
452

One day when
;
the
room was crowded the supporting beam gave

*
There was a resounding way. " then another, which a fear

the
crack* which
set
them
"
"put all the people running and crying out
in
at
windows
for
Ladders".
fears ".
sharply
for their
wife's presence of mind.
Baxter from the pulpit "reproved them But what averted a catastrophe was his For somehow she managed to get out of the
room, and lay hold of a carpenter, and induce him to strengthen the all in a few minutes. But the sagging beam with a tough prop shock unnerved her and the room was abandoned (B., p. 55). 1
;
Then, however, she built a chapel in Oxenden Street upon land only and at a ground rent of 30. She begged procurable on a short lease ~ the money to defray the cost of the building but herself bore the
;
burden
venture
of
the ground rent

to grief
this
and other expenses.
But once more her
came
to
3
happened
Coventry.
be a
time through the malice of a neighbour who considerable personage, Mr. Secretary Henry
consequence (it was thought) of Mr. Secretary's information, there came out a warrant, after Baxter had preached just
For
in
once, to apprehend the preacher.
but the preacher turned out to " to preach twenty miles off ".
his
Next Lord's day this was done be someone else Baxter having gone
;
So
the arrest with

is
its
penalties
fell
on
unfortunate substitute.
And
here the point
that
Mrs. Baxter,
to discharge
because she had been the means of his coming,

his lawyer's fees, etc.,
felt
bound
amounting
to
20
(B., p. 57).
useless
In addition, the
new
first
chapel was
to last, of
;
left
entailed a loss,
from
more than
all
on her hands, and She had now 400.
come
to the
end
of her resources
and
she could
do was
to
hire a
chapel in Swallow Street, which she did until Baxter was again turned This was her last effort for him, but not her last in the way of out. " she got from her friends money to help to For chapel-building.
build another very usefull
Chappel
is
for another,
among a numerous poor

she promoted two or
people where still much good three such more" (B., p. 59).
tional
done.
this
And
All
critical
public activity
It
was unconventhey said
and
of
out
1
set going not a few her proper sphere.
tongues.
took her
Why
1
was The
she "not content to live

date of the accident
is
See also R.B., Pt. iii., mentioned July 5th, 1674.

2 3
p.
52.
here
Baxter gives a
R.B., Pt.
iii.,
list
of the contributions in R.B., Pt.
iii.,
p.
72.
PP
171, 174.
A PURITAN IDYLL
privately
453
? (B., p.
and
"
quietly
like other
Puritan
women
64).
And
no doubt her notion

seventeenth century.
of
woman's work was something strange in the One does not need to ask what she would have
But her husband,
at
least,
been had she lived

not disturbed.
she
in the twentieth.
was
All he found
best
;
to say
was
that she did
deemed
that
her zeal in doing good
good way from a keen sprang

;
in the
sense of a stewardship for which she must give account
and
that
it
was a
4.
pity she
had so few
in
imitators.
The
quality
her
character
which,
according
to
Baxter,
outshone every other, was her cheerful courage. been no great scope for this had she married him
popularity, or
his
if
There would have

in the
heyday
of his
when he had
But she linked her lot to he had been a Bishop. and so was declared himself a Nonconformist just
;
stepping out into the dark

Bishopric.
his
way
of
trial.
She knew
of his refusal of
Did she wish him
to accept the glittering bribe ?
Nay,
heightened her esteem and love which would Nor was she incapotherwise have been much alienated (B., p. 48). " the scorn and the jealousies and wrath and persecuable of forecasting
refusal (he tells us)
For she had heard what Bishop Morley had said and done against him in Kidderminster and of the like, or She expected suffering, worse, treatment already meted out to others.
tions
"
which awaited him.
but her
spirit
rose at the prospect
and, having once
made
her choice
she never flinched.
On
the contrary her husband bears abundant

all
witness that she was, under

the bravest of his
circumstances, the brightest as well as

1
human
helpers.
Her
away
he
to
says,
first
serious trial
happened
2
at
Acton when Baxter was earned

a conventicle.
cheerfully
;
the*
"
common
gaol'
for holding
it.
perceived her troubled at
She
"I never," went with me

to re-
into prison.
She brought her

life
best
bed
thither
I
and did much
move
the removable inconveniences.
...
think she
had
scarce ever a
pleasanter time in her
than while she
was with me
first
"
there
(B.,
p.
51).
1
So
She
it
was on
other occasions.
The
winter at Totteridge
'
said at the outset of her Christian career "that,

'
if she
was but
in
which God's service was her know whether she were sincere or not
condition, in
costly to her, it
;
would make
so "
she had her wish, and
proved her
2
sincerity
by her
in
costliest
obedience
(B., p. 73).
The new Prison pp.49; <:/ 50, 51,58.
Clerkenwell, June 3rd,
1669 (R.B.,
Pt.
iii.,
454
was a

dreadful time.
" are put to poor people," he says, we could have no house but part of the hardness that she was put to
"
Few
a poor Farmer's, where the chimneys so extreamly smoak't, as greatly annoyed her health for it was a very hard Winter and the Coal
:
smoak
so filled the
Room
that
we
all
sate in, that

stink.
it
was
as a Cloud,
and we were even suffocated with the

great straitness of the
And
;
she had ever a
Lungs
that could not bear
Her own
this,
bodily condition, therefore,
was
the anxiety of nursing

all
smoak or closeness." was wretched and, added to " Baxter who was in continual pain 'V
peace" (B.,
p.
Yet amidst
"she
lived in
great
52).
We
have
seen some of the troubles which
followed their removal to London.
Of
course compared with those of

off
many
other Nonconformists the
Baxters came
lightly.
But
their troubles
were
quite
all
bad enough.
annoy-
The
ance.
very eminence
of
Baxter marked him out for
sorts of
He
was a
favourite object of slander

rest of
And,
although during the
her
life
and was dogged by spies. he was not again in prison,

fines.
he escaped he was liable

goods.
only at the cost of repeated

to a penalty of
fine
heavy
For every sermon
Sometimes the
40 which could be distrained upon his was paid in money, sometimes in goods.
;
But Mrs. Baxter was always for paying it in one form or the other and then for his going on to preach as before. Many a wife might have thought it right to urge that 40 was too big a price for a sermon.
Not
so
Mrs. Baxter.
"
If,"
he
"
says,
she did but think

in shrinking
had the
under-
least fear, or self-saving
by
fleshly
wisdom,
from
my
taken Office work,
it
was
so great a trouble to her that she could not
hide
it
(who
could too
In this connection
much hide many others)" (B., p. 61). " he says She was exceeding impatient with any
:
Nonconformist Ministers that shrunk
for fear of suffering, or that

;
were
over-querulous and sensible of their wants or dangers
and would have
no man be a Minister
all at
that
had not
so
much
self-denial as to lay
down
the feet of Christ

(B., p. 61).
and
him
"
"
count no cost or suffering too dear to serve

so far as to blame Baxter himself
She even went
for
naming
in print his Losses,
Imprisonment, and other Sufferings by
the Bishops, as being over selfish querulousness,

1
when" he "should
Earl of Lauderdale
It
was from Totteridge
that
he wrote
to
the
(June 24th, 1670) stating reasons for a refusal of the Earl's offer to secure him a place in Scotland. One of these is, that he " hardly expects to live another year" (R.B., Pt. iii., p. 75).
A PURITAN IDYLL
rather with
455
wonder be thankful
fair
for
in
the great
Baxter thought her hardly
this point
mercey we enjoyed ". because he had never
mentioned
his privations by way of personal grievance, but in order to But he underon record instances of a great public injustice. place Her principle was that the stood, and sympathised with, her attitude.
should forbear railing for railing persecuted should suffer in silence and should leave the should be proud to suffer in a righteous cause
; ;
;
vindication of their cause to
its
own
intrinsic merits.
For
this
reason
talKt
she deprecated sectarian strife. " against as a Party
She did not

she wanted
;
"
like
to hear
Conformists
is
it
to
be realized that conof peace

for
science belongs to both sides

side to recognize this
and
that the
way
each
May we
spirit
respect the other (B., p. 75). not say that Baxter had good reason to admire her brave
and
and
clear
mind
last
5.
These
words
"
a clear
mind
"
point
to another
of
the
precious qualities
which her husband discovered.

from speculative "
:
He
discovered that
easily
in matters practical, as distinct

first
where he was
she
was
the safest of guides
Her
apprehension, he
says,
I
was was
so
much
quicker and
more
discerning than
mine, that, though
naturally
somewhat
tenacious of
my own
that she
first
conceptions, her reasons, and
my
experience, usually told

I.
I
me
was
in
the right
and knew
more than
better than
lating to
She would
could do by
at the
hearing understand the matter
many and
"
long thoughts." "

civil
So
he
in things re-
the Family, Estate or any
business
left
her to her
own
judgment.
In particular he found her possessed of an extraordin-
ary insight where cases of conscience came up for decision. " I often put cases to her which she suddenly so resolved as to convince me of some degree of oversight in my own resolution. Inso-
much
that of
late years,
confess that
used to put
all,
save secret
cases, to her,
and hear what she could
say.
Abundance
of difficulties
were brought me, some about Restitution, some about Injuries, some about References, some about Vows, some about promises, and many such like and she would lay all the circumstances presently together,
;
compare them, and give

(B., pp. 67, 68).
It
me
a more exact resolution than
could do
"
speaks well for
Baxter's humility as well as
common
a
sense that he put himself so readily under her guidance where she was best qualified to lead and no doubt she saved him from many
;
mistake.
Here
is
a fine passage of appreciation and self-confession
456
"
rashly

She was
and
so
much
;
for calmness,
deliberation,
and doing nothing

temper
in haste
and
my
condition
and
business, as well as
do, and speak much, so suddenly that she principally differed from me, and blamed me in this. Every considerable case and business she would have time to think much of before I did it, or speak,
made me
or resolved of anything.
knew
the counsel
was good
:
for
one that
I
could stay, but not for one that must ride Post
but a
little
:
thought
still still
had
time to live
1
thought some considerable work
called
for haste
time
have these Forty years been sensible of the sin of losing could not spare an hour I thought I could understand the
:
matters in question as well at a few thoughts as in

yet she (that
many days
and
and
had
less
work and more

all
leisure,
but) a far quicker appreagainst haste
hension than mine,
was
for
staying to consider,
;
and eagerness in almost every thing and notwithstanding her overquick, and feeling temper, was all for mildness, calmness, gentleness,
pleasingness
and serenity"
?
(B., p. 78).
Had
do not
she no faults
Baxter mentions two or three.
But they
strike the
reader as very serious.
One, strange to say, was her tendency to be righteous overmuch by which he seems to mean that she lacked a due sense of moral perIn other words, she was apt to fasten on one spective or proportion.
duty and pursue it to the exclusion of other duties no less important. " " so intensely upon she set her Head and Heart," he says, Thus, " (B., p. 72). doing good that her head and body would hardly bear it
She
ness
forgot that in her case
it
was a duty
in
to think of her physical
weak-
and not spend her strength and
doing good
to the extent of ruining

it
her health.
Again, she overlooked the fact that

time for due attention to another.
is
a mistake to be
so sedulous about the exact
perfect performance of
one duty as to
are limited in
leave too
little
We
our capacity and time.
No man
can afford to concentrate all his time

perfection.
upon one thing until it is done to all duties and neglect none but
most
to the highest.
We
must take note
of
so aportion our attention as to give
necessity sometimes
in
thought his wife not regardful enough of this perhaps, when he saw her like Martha too busy
He
keeping everything clean and neat about the house. Another of her faults was her slowness to speak about religious He means in public for " she would talk privately to the things.
:
servants
and read good books
to
them
".
Of
course,
he did not ex-
A PURITAN IDYLL
pect her to preach
;
457
but
like
every good Puritan he thought a Christian

;
bound
to bear
his
witness in
seldom spoke of religion. could herself have said much to the point.
Baxter) with a person that good language, without repetitions."
that
if
company and in company Margaret She loved to listen while others talked and
"
I
scarce ever
was
abler
to speak long, for matter
met (says and

of a fear
But she was possessed
she talked of religion, or of her
own
knew
religious experience,
might fancy she
was
better than she
herself to be, or might
people be
made
"
to stumble
by her
of
inconsistencies.
In Baxter's words, she
had
"
the
a diseased enmity to ostentation and hypocrisie".
So she
this
left
"
open speaking part

phase
of the
first
Religion
that
is
to others.
Evidently
was but a
fault
to say, her over-righteousness in the
direction of sincerity led her to neglect the duty of
"
profitable speech ".
Baxter remarked a similar fault in his friend Sir
Matthew Hale,
who "would make no great shew of zeal in Rethe eminent judge ligion lest if he did anything amiss, Religion should be reproached for " and he quotes approvingly a saying attributed his sake (B., p. 100) " he hated no Counsellor more than those to Cardinal Richelieu that
;
that
were always saying
Let us do
it
better
by that hindering the
much at all ". And certainly, if we never spoke or acted we could be quite sure of not doing harm to anybody or to our cause we should hardly dare to speak or act at all. To these two venial faults Baxter adds a third which is best described simply in his own words. It sprang out of her eager, trustdoing of
until
ful,
sanguine temperament " She was apt when she

:
set
which she counted great,
as the welfare of
her mind or heart upon some good work some dear Friend, to be too
;
much
"
pleased in her expectations and self-made promises of the success

trouble
and then almost overturned with
And
Her
they disappointed her. she too impatiently bore unkindnesses from the friends that
to her, or
when
were most dear

"
will
whom
she had
much
obliged.
the crossing
upon good, but her weakness could not bear " or frustration of it Poor human Margaret (B., p. 76).
set
!
was
Baxter does not print any letters of Margaret to himself and only one of his own to her. They were so seldom away from each
6.
other that, in
fact,
there
were few
to print (B., p.
85).
But
in the
Baxter correspondence
we come
across several of
hers to
William
30
458
Baxter, the

nephew who became a
scholar.
distinguished Classic,
and one
of
these brings to light a fact

that she
was a
'
*
which her husband does not mention, She congratulates him on his studious
*
viz.
for-
wardness
and sends him advice about

*
his studies at the request (she

*
worthy and greatly valued father and mother who have She then goes on to give a list of laid upon her great obligations '. in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew Grammar, and does so in the best helps
says) of his
way
that indicates close personal acquaintance with them.
Lastly,
she
offers
him two
first
bits of
wise counsel.
to your
;
In the
authors and well observe them

it
well.
And
'
of
Erasmus's
Latin style you must read good and use yourself to speak and write herein you may much improve yourself by being Master and when Colloquies/ Quintilian, Bandius his Epistles
place,
;
"as
you have a mind
to read
something
in
I
Divinity in Latin no style will
you
find
beyond Calvin's, and were

you
translate
worthy
to advise
it)
you
should
offer this, viz. that
your authors (some of
into English,
then throw your author by, and translate your English into Latin, and In the second then compare your own Latin with the Author's/' " " "be not too severe in studying (she says), but give nature its place,
needfull recreations, sustenances
and reposes
you may
easily spoil
a force. But if you jade it yourself by putting nature upon too great your work will prove too tedious to reach, or forward, that proficiency
which
letter
is
desirable
tells
is
she
and which you are aiming at." him that due attention to school
'
At
the outset of the

'
affairs
in his present
" in retirement for a nearer duty than spending more time situation His work must stand sacred reading, contemplating or devotions". " His parents and master expect this of him and expect no more first.
nor otherwise than what
God
approves of 'V
The whole
letter
is
model
of
good
sense.
a ab (Williams's Library). Correspondence, vi., ]72 , 173 Other letters express a motherly interest in all his affairs while his to her breathe warm gratitude for varied benefits. He was located with Sir John The Bernard in Essex (cf. B., p. 2) who seems to have kept a school. Baxters proposed to make a Doctor of him, and for this, to put him with He was prepared to submit but, as a Dr. Ridgley for seven years. Before this there was some thought of his is clear, found a way of escape. entering the ministry, but Baxter did not encourage it unless he could show " that zeal and self denyall which would could not) that he had (as he " '* him " to serve Christ upon the hardest terms incline (Letter from
Baxter
'
'
'
'
'
'
A PURITAN IDYLL
7.
459
How
came
and
it
that
tion
is
not far to seek.
Mrs. Baxter died so young ? Baxter supplies it in the words

'
The explanaHer knife

'
was
and
too keen
cut the sheath

;
(B., p. 73).
She was highly

strain.
strung
she lived intensely
her
body broke under the
Once
a month,
often once a fortnight, for

p.
ache (B.,
45).
About
'
many years she had an agonizing headthree years before the end this abated, but
'
was succeeded by
threaten
cancer.
a pain in one of her breasts

effect
it
which seemed
to
it reacted of all this was doubly bad with depressions which sometimes bordered on distraction and indeed caused her to apprehend that she might lose
The
upon her mind, clouding

her reason
it
also induced
her partially to starve herself under the
impression that this
"
was a way of warding off the dreaded cancer. She kept down her body so in her diet that about five ounces of Milk, or Milk and Water, with a little chocolate in it morning and
and about one or two
p. 91).
bits
night,
at
Dinner was her
diet
for
many
years" (B.,
as they did medicines she took did but aggravate the evil " a spoonful of powdered Ginger also in Baxter's case. She took e.g. near a quarter of a year together" ; she took "the every morning, " and during the ten weeks immediately Waters for Physick often " she divers days drunk Barnet Waters along with before her death
;
What
tincture of
Amber"
"
(B., pp. 91, 92).
This
finished her.
The two
cast her
together worked
too powerfully on her brain,

delirations in
and suddenly
into strong disturbance and which, though the Physicians, with great kindness and care, did omit nothing in their power she died she fell sick on Friday, June 3rd, 1681, and died the 12th day These last days were extremely sad. "She oft cried June 14th". " out" (complaining of her Head) Lord, make me know what I have
:
done, for which

Baxter of date
of
undergo
1
all
this".
'The
last
words that she

only the day and are adin
1 st, 67f). Generally the letters have but two or three letters have the year 679 dressed (strange to say) to Mr. or Mrs. Baxter at their house I find no other hint of a residence in Highgate. William
March 2
the
month
Highgate.
still
was
his
uncle's trusted friend in June, 1688, and so continued to his death. 1 She was buried on the 1 7th " in Christ's Church in the Ruines, in " her own mother's grave "next the old Altar or Table in the Chancel ".
Here Mrs. Baxter

laid ".
But
it
" had caused a very fair, rich, large marble- stone to be " was broken " all to pieces " in the doleful flames of Lon-
don, 1666".
460
spake were,

my God
It was help me, Lord, have mercey upon me." the character of a life from the manner the fashion in those days to infer
of
its
close.
vice versa.
If its close was happy and peaceful it had been good, and " But Baxter scouted so shallow a notion. There is no
judging of a man's sincerity
... by
his
Disease, or
by
his
Diseased
Death-bed words
of
hand God, though a Fever or Deliration hinder him from knowing this " till experience and sudden possession of Heaven convince him
:
He
that liveth to
God
shall die safely into the
(B., p. 106).
It
Him
and
he says
but he
was
thinking of his wife.

in point of
is
may
have occurred to some of you that

spirit
temperament
and
intellect
and nervous
that
suffering there
a singular likeness
between Margaret Baxter and Jane Welsh

parallel
fails
Carlyle.
Perhaps the
more
or less
Margaret, although constantly in and subject to nameless Fears even worse than pain, pain
respect
it
in
this
strove to keep
all to herself
and
to appear habitually cheerful.
Cer-
tainly the parallels does not extend with any closeness to the husbands.
There was no reason on Baxter's part as on Carlyle's for on the score of harshness or misunderstanding or neglect.
bitter regrets
But Baxter
had two regrets, and they only show how intimate must have been the One regret was union which had been affected by nothing worse. " too apt to be Impatient of her impatiency and with that he had been trouble of her Mind, not enough considering how great tenderevery
ness in
all
I
our discourse she needed
though "
remember nothing
else
that ever
shewed impatience
to
to her in
(B., p. 80).
In plain words,
he had been apt

did not
"
pooh-pooh her
"
too great fears of the overthrow of
her understanding
as merely fanciful.
to her expectations.
The
other regret
was
that
he
come up
She had always a
passion for
;
the ideal, for the morally perfect
and hoped to find it in him but did " not. My dear wife did look for more good in me, and more help from me than she found, especially lately in my weakness and decay.
We are all
87).
1
"
like
Pictures that must not be looked at too near
(B., p.
:
For
this regret,
however, he had
at least
one consolation
that
At Baxter's request her funeral sermon was preached by John Howe Minister of the Presbyterian congregation in Silver Street, where she often attended. The text was 2 Cor. v. 8. Howe refers to his having " " several years before some days under the same roof with her spent " " her marriage. He observed then her strangely vivid and great wit
;
and he
insists that
by her marriage she
'
gave proof
of
her unworldliness.
A PURITAN IDYLL
461
through his inevitable shortcomings she had acquired a needed lesson. " This use she made of my too cold and careless converse, and of all
my hasty words, that she that had long thought she had no grace because she reach't not higher than almost any reach on earth, and because she had
many
passions
and
infirmities
perceived by me,
all
and
and
many
that,
other esteemed Teachers, that

therefore, grace
;
we were
much
as
bad
as she
doth stand with more faultiness than she had

all
imagined
souls
and that
lives,
our teaching
excelled the frame of our

to
and
and was much more worthy

also
be followed
and
(B.,
therefore, that
p. 56).
God would
pardon such failings as her
own
"
His
last
reflection, as
he
sat writing in
his lonely study at
South'
ampton Square and thought

I
of the lovely soul
which had been the

chord.
light
of his eyes' for nineteen years, strikes a
deeply human
this
!
"Had
how
shall
I
short
live
been to possess the company of my Friends in would our comfortable converse have been
with them in the Heavenly city of
of the
Life only
But
now
God
for ever.
And
they,
being here
forgive all
same mind
as
my
and
forgiving
Injuries,
my
Failings, Neglects
God and Saviour, will as God forgiveth them

:
and he gave and the Lord hath taken away hath taken away but that upon my Desert which he had given me un-
and me.
The Lord
deservedly near nineteen years.
Blessed be the
is
name
of the
Lord.
am
waiting to
be next.
the Veil, and
make
us see
and did not
(sufficiently)
The Door open. Death will quickly draw how near we were to God and one another, know it. Farewell vain world and welcome
true Everlasting Life" (B., p. 107).

'
Strange to say, one of the

his experience of
Uses
that,
or lessons
which he draws from
married
life
is
ministers, in regular charge, not to marry.
on the whole, it were better for It had never been forgotten
that he said this to
one
his
of his
Reverend brethren before
and many a time

Well, he
inconsistency
:
had been
;
cast
now
;
answers
yea,
my
I
judgment
my
"I did say so to him wife lived and died in the same mind.
marriage up against him. and I never changed
his
And
here freely advise all Ministers that have not some kind of necessity, " to think of these few reasons among many :
*
The work
if
of
the sacred ministry
is
whole man,
he had the strength and parts
of
enough to take up the many men." Baxter's
462

"
conception of a minister's work, we must bear in mind, involved the ' And as things are this depastoral care of every soul in his parish.
4
mands
all his
time.
;
In the primitive
many
and
will
Ministers
but covetousness of
I
Church every Congregation had Clergy and people will now scarce
did not marry
till
I
allow two to very great Parishes.

ejected
was
it,
silenced
and had no
flock or Pastoral
Cure.
Believe
he that
have a wife must spend much of his time in conference, prayer, and other family-duties, with her. And if he have children, how
much
care, time
have none.
and labour they will require I know it though I And he that hath servants, must spend time in teaching
!
them, and in other duties for them.
And
his
then
it
will disquiet
man's mind to think that he must neglect hath undertaken more than he can do.
family or his Flock,
and
My
my
conscience hath forced
me many
2.
if
times to omit secret prayer with
wife
when
she desired
it,
not daring to omit far greater work."
"
And
man
a Minister can scarce look to win much on

to oblige
his
Flock,
he be not able
them by
gifts of charity
and
liberality.
if
And
them.
a married
hath seldom anything to spare especially

for, all
he have
for
children that must be provided
will
seem too
little
Or
if
may
he hath none, Housekeeping is chargeable, when a single man have entertainment at easy rates and most women are weak, and
;
apt to live in fear of want,
if
not in covetousness
and have many
many wants
"
3.
real or fancied of their
own
to
be supplied."
are plain to others, but con1
In a
word,
St.
Paul's
own words
other men,
cern Ministers
that
is
much more than

Lord
Cor.
vii.
7, etc.
He
unmarried careth for the things that belong to the Lord,

;
how he
it,
may
please the
but he that
is
married careth for the things of the
world
how he may
please
his wife.
This
is
true.
And
;
believe
both caring for the things of the world, and caring to please one care for house another, are businesses, and troublesome businesses
rent, for children, for servants'
wages, all for debts, are very troublesome things, and

that should
for
food and rayment, but above

if
cares choak the
word
in hearers,
"
they will be very unfit for the mind of a Student, and a still dwell on holy things.
man
And the pleasing of a

in the best,
Wife
and
an unsuitableness
usually noeasietask: there is Faces are not so wisest, and likest.

is
unlike as the apprehensions of the mind.

in
They
that agree in Religion,
Love, and
Interest, yet
may
have daily
different apprehensions
about
A PURITAN IDYLL
occasional occurrences,
best persons,
things,
463
That
will
words.
seem the
way
to
to
one that seems worst to the other.
And
passions are apt
to succeed,
and serve these
hard
be pleased.
My
I
own
and speaking do better.

.
better than
."
Very good people are very dear wife had high desires of my doing did, but my badness made it hard to me to
differences.
And
"
there are too many that will not be pleased un-
less
you
will contribute to their sin, their pride, their wastefulness, their
superfluities
and
childish fancies, their covetousness
and passions
and
too
many who have
them than almost any, the

displeasures of one that
such passion that it requireth greater skill to please And the discontents and wisest, can attain.
is
so near
you
will
be as Thorns or Nettles
in
your bed "(B., pp. 101-104).
These are
their
plausible reasons for his plea
force
is
less
than
it
seems.
though taken one by one " But he allows that some kind of
necessity" may justify a Minister as well as any other man in disreIt did so in his own case. Love stept in and decreed garding them.
the necessity.
that the
logic,
Love
of
is
always stepping
in
and experience bears witness

all
Reasons
Love
are wiser than
the reasons of abstract
even
when
they emanate from so great a divine as St. Paul.

* *
In
the collection of
Library (vol. (autograph) will as follows

*
Williams's
Baxter Treatises and other Papers of the No. 2) is to be found Mrs. Baxter's v.,
:
To my
worthy and beloved

Esq.,
friends,
Richard Hampden,
1
Esq.,
of
John Swinfen,
Trustees
'
Thomas
Ffoley,
Esq.,
and the
rest
my
my marriage chosen you as my Trustees for the securing and disposall of my estate, 800 desiring you to lay out on an annuity for my life, and the rest after my death to lay out for charitable uses Except signified under my hand and scale that it should be otherwise disposed of, do hereby, under my hand and scale accordingly, notifie to you that it is my desire and will that the remainder of my moneyes being 85 shall be disposed of otherwise
I
I I 2 3
1
Whereas
have before
For Mr. Thomas Foley (Junr.) see R.B., Pt. iii., 150. p. 71, For Mr. Richard Hampden, see R.B., Pt. ii., 448, '445. p. Crossed through in the original.
From
B., p. 65,
it
is
to
be feared
that
was
by 1681 nothing
of the
85
left for
Baxter's use.
464
than
as
I

is
appointed
signified
I
in the
deed
of
Trust in such maner and to such uses
have
"
to
my
dear husband Richard Baxter, to

it
whom
for
the said uses
would have
all
delivered.
Given under
my hand and
dated
this
Tenth day
of
February,
1670.
MARGARET BAXTER.
"
In the presence of
WlLLIAM BAXTER. ROBERT PRICHART, LYDAE WOODS

(= Lydia?)."
A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE SHEWING WHAT IS PROVED AND WHAT IS NOT PROVED ABOUT SHAKESPEARE'S LIFE AND WORK
BY
WILLIAM POEL
FOUNDER AND DIRECTOR OF THE ELIZABETHAN STAGE SOCIETY
IT
is
hoped
that
the accompanying
of
literature
Table
to
will
prove useful not only to

it
students of
the
period
which
refers,
but also to the
general reader.
The
all
*'
incidents
given in
the
column headed
"
"
Traditions
appear
as
this
in
writings on
Shakespeare's
it
life,
where they are

that
usually referred to as
probable,"
and
be
is
possible
the
current
opinion
to
their
probability will
to
some extent corrected or modified by
method
of presenting the material.
The
the
first
Table, for sake of convenience, has been arranged in two sheets, covering the Elizabethan period, 1564-1603; the second the
Jacobean period,
1603-1616.
465
ork
AND
S.
(a)
UNPROVED.
That Shakespeare was the actor attacked by Robert Green and defended by
1592: that Shakespeare " "Talbot Scenes (Hen. VI. Part wrote the which attracted crowds of spectators I.),
STRATF
May
;
une
ist.
1564 BAPTISM, April ON
praise
Shake-
Father,
visit
and called "
and head ot DEN, Kingof Arms. Lord Lciccste\ ught by Burbage visits Kenilwc makes a sketch of
town*
larshal
Henry
Chettle,
of Leicester's escription given by

her estate, " playhouses." Snitter field i nivers i t graduate y deem her and
,
money
troublt
JAMES BURBAGE,
" (Nash) 1592: that the Errors play acted Dec. 28, was Shakespeare's at Gray's Inn,
of Errors," 1594: that Shakewas the "W. S." mentioned on the speare title-page of "Locrine," a tragedy: and " W. S." alluded to in an also the anony-
"
"Comedy
propel Faistlft's,
'
dramatic art e s 1582 MARRIAGE. Bi he best ^r comedy marry Willian
Two Stratford m)
Anne
WhateleyofTe 1 had ?been

that
68
comedies
acted
'
leave to marry 'tites
Shakefolk,
mous poem,
" Willobie His Advisa," 1595
Hathwey.jights young of'' Ham1583 DAUGHTER'S ba jtragedy

1585 TWINS' Baptismnatist, says that Father's debts was acted at the but no goods U applauded there. feits his Aldcft, writes that trais sued for hi: ted in London beHe is held in arly every day. Third visit of 16.
1
that Shakespeare's Sonnets,

:
1598
c.,
were
that they are printed autobiographical in the order in which they were written that "The Passionate Pilgrim," by "W.
:
Shakespeare,"
and
of
"The
Phcenix
and
were
the Turtle," by the work

that the
"William Shakespeare,"
Shakespeare,
1599:
1587 (About
this
tim
an
interval
of
left Stratford).
ng
to plays every
play
Queen alluded to Shakespeare's when she said, " I am Richard II.

ye
Father, fearit Ri c h. H." acted going to chur on Saturday, Feb. 1595 Anne bor
know
not that?" (Aug. ^th,
1601)
a shepherd,
directs
and that 5 outhampton Globe Feb. 25). Father in deb ath of Cromwell,
1595
;
that Shakespeare is to be identified with " the silver-tongued Melicert," who ac-
sells
his
cording to Chettle, "did not drop from " honied Muse one sable tear for the
1596
ary, Mar. 13th, dies; bunet Burbage, Shakesto Her plication
street, 1^96.
SON
death of Elizabeth, who "to his lays opened her Royal Ear," 1603 that Rat:
fe
of the "Black-
sey, a
1597 Buys
for
NEW
60. J
PLAN'S and players of " Poet[Jonson's

to
,
highwayman, alluded to Shakespeare when he told actors to save money in Lonto
don
lawsuit
buy
"
some
place in the country
The family d Shakespeare puts wealth and ver\ Ben Jonson too."
bs Play, Part$). 1598 Third largest owfeth, Mar. 2 4 th.
where
their
money may
bring them dignity

before
and reputation/'
1605.)
(Undated Tract,
Now called GENT

in
town docume
30.+
>3
Forty Writers
Shakespeare's to sell him tithes ionally giving his to borrow
~om
UNKNOWN.
Date of birth
:
:
Coat of A rms Mother^ lege.
what he did before he
Arden of Par
Father
1601.
dies in
ayers visited the
was eighteen whether he saw the Queen at Kenilworth date and place of marriage
:
1602 Buys one hundr LAND near Strati rough. COTTAGE and a back of New Pla borough, Bristol,
*
when he left Stratford which year he reached London when he 'first joined a company of players when he returned to Stratford.
where he lived afterwards
:
For so
Life
1
and Work.
6.
CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AND

ALLUSIONS.
1603
1 60
UNPROVED.
That he was loved by Ben
during his lifetime, Discoveries" printed 1641: that he wrote plays without
WILLIAM CAMDEN names Shakespeare, " among others, as one of the most pregnant
witts of these our times,
whom
succeeding
1 60
160
may justly admire." Queen Elizabeth buried, Apr. 28. JOHN DAVIES of Hereford writes that Shake" speare and Burbage have wit, courage, good " elsewhere shape, good partes, and all good he mentions Shakespeare personally " Some say (good Will) which I, in sport, do sing, Had'st thou not plaid some kingly parts in sport, Thou hadst bin a companion for a King, And beene a king among the meaner
ages
;
Jonson
"
blotting a line,
Condell^ "
"
Heminge and
that he wrote
1623
The London Prodigal," The Yorkshire Tragedy, "and

all
sort."
161 161
161
Hampton Court Conference. The King's threat to the Puritans, Jan. 1604 ANTHONY SCOLOKER writes that an Epistle to
the Reader should resemble one of "friendly " " it should Shakespeare's tragedies please Elsewhere he deall, like Prince Hamlet." the stage antics of the Prince, " Puts scribes
;
"Pericles," "
acted at
the
Globe," and printed with his

that he wrote the
in
name on
9
:
the title-pages, 1605" the
Henry
First
joint
VIII." printed
Folio,
off his cloathes, his shirt he only weares, Much like mad Hamlet ; thus a passion tears."
1623
that
he was
author with Fletcher of "
The
Peace with Spain, followed by the Gunpowder Plot, Nov. 5. 1605 BURBAGE says the Queen has seen all the NEW PLAYS, and that the revival of " Love's 161 Labour's Lost" at Southampton's House should "please her exceedingly." Owing to the Act of Uniformity, fifteen hundred ministers surrender their livings. 1606 DRUMMOND, the poet, has read this year "Venus and Adonis," " Lucrece," "A Mid161 summer Night's Dream," and " Romeo &
Juliet."
Two
Noble Kinsmen," the title-page of which gives both

their
that he names, 1634 " was the " Mr. Shakespeare

:
who, with Burbage, was paid for an herald's device designed

for the Earl of
Rutland, 1613.
Many
1609
Nonconformists take refuge in Hol-
land, 1608.
UNKNOWN.
Whether
published
written
all
notes in his Diary that he " Sonnets." The paid 6d.J for a copy of the author of the PREFACE to " Troilus and Cres" sida asserts that even those who dislike the theatre are pleased with Shakepeare's comedies. 1611 DAVIES reproves Shakespeare for his choice of the Venus legend as a subject for his "eternal lines." Dr. FORMAN notes that he saw " Cymbeline," " " A Winter's Tale," at the Macbeth," and
EDWARD ALLEYN
the "Sonnets,"
1609,
in
were
the
before
1598:
of
the chronological date of his final retireplays
order
ment
he
to
Stratford
all
whether
three
survived
:
his
"Globe."
Authorized version of the BIBLE published. theatrical manager, 1615 PHILIP HENSLOWE, buried in the CHANCEL of S. Saviour's " afternoon knell of the Great Church, with
Bell." First Congregational Church in formed 1616.
brothers
on what terms he
:
lived with his wife

for his
who paid monument in Stratford Church, and who wrote the

whether he inscription for it wrote the verses inscribed on
:
England
During
this period some seventy or mote writers quote or parody lines from Shakespeare's poems and plays, occasionally giving his name.
Burbage's Company lowing provincial towns : 1605 Oxford, Batnstaple. 1606 Marlborough, Oxford, Leicester, Saffron Walden, Dover, Maidstone. 1607 Barnstaple, Oxford, Cambridge. 1608 Marlborough, Coventry. 1609 Ipswich, Hythe, New Romney. 1610 Oxford, Dover, Shrewsbury.
of Players visited the fol-
his grave-stone (1616) whether any of his books and

:
MSS. were
session
at
in his family's pos-
the time of
his
death.
CLASSIFIED LIST OF RECENT ACCESSIONS THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY.

The
classification of the items in
this
list is
TO
in
accordance with
the main divisions of the

interest of those readers,
Dewey Decimal System," and in the who may not be familiar with the system, it
"
may be
method
advisable briefly to point out the advantages claimed for this

of arrangement.
The principal advantage of a classified catalogue, as distinguished from an alphabetical one, is that it preserves the unity of the subject, and by so doing enables a student to follow its various ramifications
Related matter is thus brought together, and with ease and certainty. the reader turns to one sub-division and round it he finds grouped
others
which are intimately connected with

of the great merits of the system
it.
In this
way new
that
it is
lines
of research are often suggested.
One
Its
employed
is
easily
it.
capable of comprehension by persons previously unacquainted with

distinctive
feature
is
the employment of the ten

all
digits,
in their
ordinary significance, to the exclusion of
other symbols
hence the
name, decimal system.
The sum
Dr.
of
human knowledge and

main
classes
activity has
been divided by
Dewey
into ten
0,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
These
1
ten classes are each separated in a similar manner,

divisions.
thus making
sections,
00
An
extension of the process provides
000
which and
can be
still
further sub- divided in accordance with the nature
requirements of the subject.

at
Places for
new
subjects
may
be provided
any point of the scheme by the introduction of new decimal points. For the purpose of this list we have not thought it necessary to carry
the classification beyond the hundred main divisions, the arrangement " " of which will be found in the Order of Classification which
follows
:
467
468

ORDER OF CLASSIFICATION.
500 Natural Science.
510 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590
ooo General Works.

oio 020
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
LIBRARY ECONOMY.
MATHEMATICS. ASTRONOMY.
PHYSICS.
030 040 050 060

070 080
GENERAL CYCLOPEDIAS. GENERAL COLLECTIONS. GENERAL PERIODICALS. GENERAL SOCIETIES.

NEWSPAPERS.
SPECIAL LIBRARIES.
POLYGRAPHY.
090
BOOK
RARITIES.
100 Philosophy. 600 610 1 10 METAPHYSICS. 120 SPECIAL METAPHYSICAL TOPICS. 620 MIND AND BODY. 130 630 PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS. 140 640 1 MENTAL FACULTIES. PSYCHOLOGY. 650 50
1
CHEMISTRY. GEOLOGY. PALEONTOLOGY. BIOLOGY. BOTANY. ZOOLOGY. Useful Arts. MEDICINE. ENGINEERING. AGRICULTURE.
60
170 1 80
190
LOGIC. ETHICS.
660
ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS.
670 680
DOMESTIC ECONOMY. COMMUNICATION AND COMMERCE. CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. MANUFACTURES. MECHANIC TRADES.
BUILDING.
MODERN PHILOSOPHERS.
690
710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 810 820 830 840 850 860 870 880
200 Religion. 210 NATURAL THEOLOGY.

220 230 240 250 260
BIBLE.
700 Fine Arts.

LANDSCAPE GARDENING. ARCHITECTURE. SCULPTURE. DRAWING, DESIGN, DECORATION.
PAINTING.
DOCTRINAL THEOL. DOGMATICS. DEVOTIONAL AND PRACTICAL.

HOMILETIC. PASTORAL. PAROCHIAL.
CHURCH.
INSTITUTIONS.
WORK.
270 280
290
RELIGIOUS HISTORY. CHRISTIAN CHURCHES AND SECTS. NON-CHRISTIAN RELIGIONS.

STATISTICS.
ENGRAVING. PHOTOGRAPHY.
Music.
AMUSEMENTS.
AMERICAN.
ENGLISH.
300 Sociology.
310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490
800 Literature.
POLITICAL SCIENCE. POLITICAL ECONOMY.
LAW. ADMINISTRATION.
ASSOCIATIONS AND INSTITUTIONS.
GERMAN. FRENCH.
ITALIAN.
SPANISH.
LATIN.
EDUCATION.
COMMERCE AND COMMUNICATION.

CUSTOMS.
GREEK.
COSTUMES. FOLK-LORE.
400 Philology.
COMPARATIVE. ENGLISH. GERMAN. FRENCH.
ITALIAN. SPANISH. LATIN.
MINOR LANGUAGES. 890 900 History. GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION. 910

920 930 940 950 960 970 980 990
BIOGRAPHY. ANCIENT HISTORY.

.EUROPE.
.
ASIA.
AFRICA.
'g
NORTH AMERICA.
AMERICA. ÔCEANICA AND POLAR REGIONS.
GREEK.
^ SOUTH
MINOR LANGUAGES.
CLASSIFIED LIST OF
oio
RECENT ACCESSIONS
469
BIBLIOGRAPHY: GENERAL.
solutions.
COLE
(George Watson) Bibliographical problems with a few

for private
Preprinted Society of America. 142
distribution from
Papers
Vol. X.
No.
3.
the Bibliographical Chicago, 1916. 8vo, pp. 119of
41499
%*
150 copies printed.
oio
BIBLIOGRAPHY: SPECIAL TOPICS.
BAPTISTS.
WHITLEY (William Thomas) Baptist bibliography: being a register of the chief materials for Baptist history, whether in manuscript or in print, preserved in Great Britain, Ireland, and the
colonies.
Compiled London, 1916. 4to.

1.
for the Baptist
Union
of
Great Britain and Ireland.
In progress.
R 41 678
(Jacques) Manuel de 1'amateur pour 1'ornement des livres francais
viii,
1526-1776.
BOOK ILLUSTRATION.
d'illustrations.
SlEURIN
et portraits
Gravures
et
Grangers.
Paris, 1875. *8vo, pp.
242.
22,
R
illustrated
42086
CRUIKSHANK.
Cruikshankiana
:
DODD
a
(Robert H.)
collection
choice
Cruikshank, together with original

ings, etchings,
December, 1916. by George water-colours, pen and pencil drawof
Number
books
With introductory recaricatures, and original proofs. marks on the life and works of George Cruikshank by Arthur Bartlett New York, Maurice. Offered by R. H. Dodd [With plates.] R 41 482 8vo, pp. 40. [1916].
.
.
CUBA.
lero.
Bibliografia de edicion, corregida y aumentada. ffa6ana,-\9\5, [1916]. 8vo, pp. xix, 272. ** 300 This copy is No. 147. copies printed.
.
.
FlGAROLA-CANEDA (Domingo)
.
Segunda
Luz y Cabal[With plates.] R 42171
TRELLES Tomo primero,

1.
(Carlos
M.)
1900-1916.
Bibliografia Cubana del Matanzas, 1916. 8vo.
siglo
XX.
In progress.
42329
1900-1916.
%*
200
copies printed.
DRAMA.
Verzeichnis einer (C.) Zur Geschichte des Theaters. reichhaltigen und wertvollen Sammlung von alten Komodien und Tragodien, seltenen Werken iiber Theatergeschichte und Theaterarchitektur>
:
LANG
von festlichen Einziigen, Feierlichkeiten u. a. m. Mit einer Einleitung Theater, Novelle & Bild in der italienischen Kunst des 15, 16, und 17 Paul Schubring. Jahrhunderts von Zurich, Katalog xxvi.
.
[1916].
8vo, pp.
viii,
141.
R
R
41483
of
ENGLISH POETRY.
Oxford, 1916.
1 .
middle English religious

4to.
List of manuscripts.
BROWN (Carleton & didactic verse.
Fairchild)
register
[Bibliographical Society.]
In progress.
4 44 1
1
470

oio
de
. .
BIBLIOGRAPHY: SPECIAL TOPICS. FRENCH LITERATURE. LORENZ (Otto) Catalogue general

librairie
fran<;aise.
la
.
Continuation
de 1'ouvrage
1910-12.
d'
O.
Lorenz.
Paris, \9\6.
8vo.
25. Table des matieres
In progress. du tome XXIV,
R
Redige par D.
Jordell.
5504
1916.
GERMAN LITERATURE.
von) Geschichte der Literatur des romisch-kanonischen Rechts in Deutschland am popularen Ende des fiinfzehnten und im Anfang des sechszehnten Jahrhunderts. 8vo, pp. Hi, 563. 40826 Leipzig, 1827.
STINTZING (Roderich
HARDY.
Webb
1865-1915.
(A. P.) [With plates.]
bibliography of the
works
of
Thomas Hardy,
xiii,
London, 1916.
8vo, pp.
127.
R
INDIA.
40965
LUARD (Charles Eckford) bibliography of the literature dealing with the Central India Agency, to which is added a series of Published by order of His Majesty's Secrechronological tables. London, 1908. 8vo, pp. 118. tary of State for India in Council.
. . .
41 726
IRISH LITERATURE.
collection of Irish
CAMBRIDGE.
catalogue
of the
Bradshaw
bridge, 1916.
books in the University Library, Cambridge. Cam3vols. 8vo. R 41 350
ITALIAN LITERATURE.
de'novellieri italiani
BORROMEO (Antonio Maria)
Conte.
.
Notizia
.
con posseduti dal conte A. M. Borromeo alcune novelle inedite [of Luigi Alamanni, Giovanni Battista Amalteo, Giulia Bigolina, Pietro Fortini, Girolamo Morlini, Vincenzio Rota,
.
Gentile Sermini].
Bassano, 1794.
8vo, pp. xxi, 243.
41953
LAW.
(E.) Droit, jurisprudence, economic science financiere, sociologie. Theses de docpolitique, Catalogue. 1908 [-191 1.]) Paris, 1900toral en droit. ( Supplement
.
. . . . .
GlARD
(V.) and BRIERE
[11].
%*
7 P ts. in The title is
vol.
8vo.
41
044
taken from the wrappers and captions.
MUSIC.
tacio
BARCELONA.
de Barcelona.
Catalech de
la
biblioteca musical
de
la
Dipu-
transcripcions en facsimils dels documents
notes historiques, biografiques y critiques, notacio moderna dels principals motius musicals y
Ab
mes importants pera

Barcelona,
la bibliografia
espanyola
1.
per
...
%*
Felip Pedrell.
printed.
1908-09.
vols.
in
4to.
R
[Publications.]
41
859
500 copies
ROXBURGH E CLUB.
4to.
[With
plates.]
London,
91 6.
In progress.
47 6
1
Melvill (D.) The Melvill book of roundels. tock and H. O. Anderton.
Edited, with an introduction, by G. Ban-
PETRARCH.
.
CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY. Catalogue of the Petrarch collection bequeathed by Willard Fiske. Compiled by Mary Fowler. 4to, pp. xviii, 547 Oxford, 1916. [With plates.]
.
42221

oio
471
PRINTING.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: SPECIAL TOPICS. ARCO Y MOLINERO (Angel del) La imprenta

bibliografia.
en Tarra-
gona apuntes para su historia y 8vo, pp. 459. Tarragona, 1916.
[With
of.
illustrations.]
42391
[to
SANSKRIT LITERATURE.
BOMBAY,
Presidency
Report
the
Director of Public Instruction, Poona] of a second tour in search of Sanskrit manuscripts made in Rajputana and Central India in 1904-5 and 1905-6. Bombay, 1907. 8vo, By ... R. Bhandarkar.
. . .
pp.100.
-
41
250
ment
Published by order of the GovernPresidency of. Reports on Sanskrit manuscripts in southern India. 41235 Madras, 1895-96. 2 vols. 8vo. By E. Hultzsch.
MADRAS,
of
Madras.
MADRAS, Presidency of. Report on a search for Sanskrit and Tamil manuscripts for the years 1896-97 (1893-94). By M. Seshagiri Sastri. Prepared under the orders of the Govt. of Madras.
. . .
Madras, 1898-99.
vols.
8vo.
41236
SCIENCE.
the history of science.
The John Crerar Library. list of books on December, 1916. Prepared by Supplement. 8vo. 26671 Aksel G. S. Josephson. Chicago, 1917.
CHICAGO.
. . .
SPANISH LITERATURE.
URIARTE (Jose Eugenio de) Catalogo razonado de obras anonimas y seudonimas de autores de la Compania de Jesus pertenecientes a la antigua asistencia espariola. Con un apendice de otras de los mismos, dignas de especial estudio bibliografico, Tomo tercero (-quinto). [Vol. 4-5. 28 sept. 1540-16 ag. 1773. Edited by M. Lecina.] R 1032 Madrid, 1906-16. 3 vols. 4to.
.
TOPOGRAPHY.
Baker] 1916.
.
. .
BALLINGER
Reprinted from
(John) "
The
An artist topographer Library," April, 1916.
[i.e.
8vo, pp. 30.
James London, R 40722
HUMPHREYS (Arthur Lee). handbook to county bibliography, being a bibliography of bibliographies relating to the counties and towns of Great Britain and Ireland. London, 1917. 4to, pp. x, 501.
R 421 43
VICENZA.
RUMOR
Welsh
vincia di Vicenza.
(Sebastiano) Bibliografia storica della Vicenza, 1916. 8vo, pp. 813.

Society.
citta
e pro-
41478
WALES.
Bibliographical
The
journal of the
Welsh
Bibliographical Society.
Carmarthen, [1910-15].
Society
:
8vo.
In progress.
R33113
Welsh
1916.
8vo.
(J.)
Bibliographical
[Publications].
Caerfyrddin,
In progress.
Rhestr o lyfrau argraffedig yng Nghaerfyrddin gan
I.
40800
Davies
Ross rhwng y blyny
ddoedd 1763 a 1807.
[With facsimile.]- 191 6
WAR.
war
LANGE (F. W. T.) and BERRY (W. T.) Books on the great an annotated bibliography of literature issued during the European conflict. Preface by R. A. Peddie. Vol. IV. London, 1916. 8vo. In progress. 3Q22 1
: . . .
472

oio
BIBLIOGRAPHY: SPECIAL TOPICS.

(Henri) Collection Henri Leblanc destinee
:
WAR.
LEBLANC
1'etat.
. .
iconographie, bibliographic, documents divers. Preface de Georges Cain. Paris, 1916. Illustrations hors texte.
La grande guerre
8vo.
In progress.
1.
41653
Catalogue raisonne* des estampes, originaux, affiches illustrees, imageries, vignettes, cartes postales, medailles, bons de monnaies, timbres, etc., du ler Aout 1914 au 31 De'cembre, 1915. (Edited by C. Callet.]
WOMEN.
MANUEL. Manuel de bibliographic biographique et d'iconopar un vieux bibliophile [Aglauro graphie des femmes celebres Second et dernier supplement.) Turin, (Supplement. Ungherini]. 8vo. 423 8 Pans, 892- 1 905. 3 vols. in
. . .
1 .
WORDSWORTH.
WISE
(T.
J.)
and verse of W. Wordsworth. [With plates.] [Ashley Library.] London : printedfor private circulation, 1916. 4to, pp. xv, 268.
A bibliography of the writings in prose

R
41
434
100 copies printed.
CATALOGUES.
Library, 1916.
ABERYSTWYTH
NATIONAL LIBRARY OF WALES.

Aberystwyth, 1916.
8vo, pp.
Catalogue of manuscripts
&
rare books exhibited in the great hall of the
[With
facsimiles.]
84 39228
ABERYSTWYTH: PUBLIC LIBRARY. Under revision.

Centenary
Aberyst-
wyth, A.D. 1909.
Exhibition of books, 16th June to 15th September.

1909.]
of the introduction of printing in 1809. relics, &c., in the Public Library, from portraits,
.
[With
portrait.]
\Aberystwvth,
8vo,
PP
7.
R4143&
Greek
.
** The
-
title is
BRITISH
MUSEUM.
texts.
. .
papyri
in
the
British
Museum
Catalogue, with
5.
London, 1917.
4to.
In progress.
R9860
Edited by H.
I.
Bell.
hand-list, arranged alphabetically under the and other printed and lithographed books presented by Mrs. E. J. W. Gibb to the Cambridge University Library, compiled Cambridge, 1906. 8vo, pp. viii, 87. by Edward G. Browne. R 41 700
titles of
CAMBRIDGE.
the Turkish
COLLEGE OF ARMS.
:
the library of the College With a preface subscribed
of
Catalogue of the Arundel manuscripts in Arms. [Compiled by W. H. Black. C. G. Y., i.e. C. G. Young.] \London\ ;
xiii,
not published, 1829.
8vo, pp.
136.
41610
INDIA OFFICE. Catalogue of two collections of Persian and Arabic manuscripts preserved in the India Office Library. By E. Denison Ross and Edward G. Browne. London, 1902. R 41 193 8vo, pp. vii, 189.
.

oio
473
BIBLIOGRAPHY: CATALOGUES.
INSTITUT D'ESTUDIS CATALANS. Isidro Bonsoms formada per
.
.
CATALOGUES.
per
ell
Cataleg
i
de
i
la
collecio cervantica
Sicart
cedida
r>arcclona
I.
Redactat per Joan Givanel a la Biblioteca de Catalunya. In progress. 1916. 4to.

t
Mas. 41858
1590-1800.
Oriental
Alphabetical index of manuscripts in the Government Library, Madras, Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil, Kanarese, Malayalam, Mahrathi, Uriya, Arabic, Persian, and Hindustani. Madras, 41225 1893. Fol.
-
MADRAS. MSS.
MADRAS.
8vo.
descriptive catalogue of
the Sanskrit manuscripts
in the
Government Oriental Manuscripts Library.

In progress.
. . .
Madras, 1906-13.
14 vols.
3-15.
16.
-
R
.
.
41234
By M. Rangacharya. By M. Rangacharya
.
1906-13.
Sastri.
.
and S. Kuppuswami
1913.
triennial catalogue of manuscripts collected during MADRAS. the triennium 1910-11 to 1912-13 for the Government Oriental Manu-
A
.
scripts Library,
Madras.
.
swami
-
Sastri.
Part 3.
and S. KuppuBy M. Rangacharya R 41226 Telugu. Madras, 1913. 8vo.

.
. .
MADRID
8vo.
I.
1
Escurial.
Biblioteca del Escorial.
Por
Catalogo de los codices latinos de la Real Guillermo Antolin. Madrid,

.
1916.
4. S.
-
In progress.
Z. IV. 22.
Vitrinas. -Indice
R
de materias.
Indice de miniaturas.
24435
1916.
MANDALAY.
scripts belonging to the library of the in the palace at Mandalay in 1886.
Catalogue of Pali and Burmese books and manu... King of Burma and found
. .
.
Rangoon, 1910.
4to,
(113).
R
:
pp. 41 743
OXFORD
Steinschneider.
[error for c.].
-
in Bibliotheca Bodleiana.
Bodleian Library. Catalogus librorum Hebraeorum Jussu curatorum digessit et notis instruxit M. Berolini, 1852-60. 4to, coll. cxxxii, 3104, pp. li 4 1692 'I
OXFORD
Bodleian Library.
orum
et
in Bibliotheca Bodleiana.
Conspectus codd. mss. HebraeAppendicis instar ad catall. librorum

digessit
mss.
Hebr., sub
Berolini, 1857.
-
4to, pp.
:
auspiciis curatorum, viii, 32.
M.
Steinschneider.
41692*2
samKungl.
plates.]
Kongliga 8vo. Stockholm, 1915. lingar. Magnus Gabriel De La Cardie's samling

biblioteket.
STOCKHOLM
Biblioteket.
Kungl.
bibliotekets
In progress.
of aldre stadsvyer
R
Collijn.
39768
i
och historiska planscher

1 .
Forteckning upprattad och forsedd

:
med
inledning af
[With
Surgeon General's Office. Index-catalogue of General's Office, United States Army. Surgeon Authors and subjects. Second series. Washington, 1916. 8vo. In progress. R 1101 2
the library
of
WASHINGTON
the
21. Waterworth-Zysman.
31
474

oio
CATALOGUES.
niet
BIBLIOGRAPHY: CATALOGUES. UTRECHT Rijks-Universiteit Bibliotheek.

:
Pamfletten
voorkomende
in afzonderlijk gedrukte catalogi der verzamelingen in
andere openbare Nederlandsche bibliotheken. Beschreven door J. F. In progress. van Someren. 8vo. R 40949 Utrecht, 1915.
-
WILLING
Philadelphia, Pa.
(Charles) Catalogue of chess library of C. Willing 4 1 332 8vo, pp. 25. \Philadelphia\ ,1916.
. .
CATALOGUES
(SALE).
AMERICAN ART ASSOCIATION.
Illus-
trated catalogue of
...
comprising Americana,
libraries
books, manuscripts, broadsides and autographs Association items and standard sets and an
. .
.
extensive collection of colored-plate books (from
collections
and
To be sold Henry Osborne .). ... on Wednesday, Thursday and Friday, December 13th, 14th and The sale to be conducted by ... Thomas E. Kirby 15, 1916. and his assistants, of the American Art Association, managers. New York City, [1916]. 8vo. R 4 48
including that of John
.
. .
the
...
.
BROADLEY (Alexander Meyrick) A catalogue of the first portion of library of ... A. M. Broadley comprising a selection
.
. . .
. .
of the grangerised or extra-illustrated books books of portraits and works on art ...
.
coloured-plate books
relating to
books
.
London.
... collection of Napoleonic books, autographs (Catalogue & engravings formed by ... A. M. Broadley. Which will .) be sold by auction by ... Hodgson & Co. ... on Friday, July 21st, 1916 ... (on Thursday and Friday, December 7th and 8th, 1916.
.
.
of the
...) [With
-
frontispiece.]
[London, 1916.]
vols.
4to.
41380
ENO (Henry C.) Illustrated catalogue of the ... collection of H. C. Eno. To be American and foreign book plates formed by sold without reserve or restriction Thursday evening, November The sale to be conand Friday, November 17th. 16th ducted by ... Thomas E. Kirby and his assistants, of the American R 41373 Art Association, managers. New York, [1916]. 8vo.
.
(John Meyrick) Catalogue of family portraits, books, autographs, manuscripts, etc., relating to William Penn and his descendants, and the early history of Pennsylvania, the property of J. M. Head and also books and autographs, the property of E. F. J. Deprez
.
HEAD
from various private sources.

Christie,
Which
Manson
& Woods ...

8vo, pp. 35.
London, [1916].
-
will be sold by auction by ... on Monday, July 10, 1916. ... R 40616
HUTH, Family of. Catalogue of the ... library of printed books, illuminated manuscripts, autograph letters, and engravings collected by Henry Huth, and since maintained and augmented by his son
Alfred H. Huth.
Fifth
portion.
Wilkinson
three
ised.]
&
The printed books and illuminated manuscripts. Which will be sold by auction by ... Sotheby, Hodge ... on Tuesday, the 4th of July, 1916, and
.
following
days.
[With
plates.]
[With purchasers' names and prices realR 30994 4to. {London, 1916.]
.

020
475
LIBRARY ECONOMY.
BOYD
Rome.
(Clarence Eugene) Public libraries and literary culture 8vo, pp. vii, 77. Chicago, [1915].
:
in
ancient
R42149
BROWN
UNIVERSITY. The John Carter Brown Library a history. By George Parker Winship. Providence, 1914. 8vo, pp. 96. R 421 10
University
Library.
1
CAMBRIDGE:
rary
of
1
Annals
of
Cambridge University
Library, 1278-1900. "

91 5.]
By Charles Sayle. [Reprinted from Cambridge, 91 6. 8vo, pp. vii, 155.
"The
lib-
R
R
4091 3
CARNEGIE UNITED KINGDOM TRUST. & policy by W. G. S. Adams to

.
Trustees.
Edinburgh, 1915.
report on library provision the Carnegie United Kingdom 41431 8vo, pp. 104.
CHICAGO
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The John Crerar Library cataloguing John Crerar Library. " Supplementary to the Cataloguing rules, author and title entries, compiled by committees of the American Library Association and the British Library Association, American edition, Boston, 1908," and to the supplementary cataloguing rules, issued on cards, of the R 41606 8vo, ff. 7. Library of Congress. Chicago, 1916.
:
HETHERINGTON "The Library

'
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Reprinted from Aberdeen, 1916.
8vo, pp. 17.
R
.
.
41
430
%* The
title is
RAWLINGS
frontispiece.]
(Gertrude Burford) London, 1916.
The
British
Museum
library.
8vo, pp. 231.
[With 41619
STEPHEN (George A.) Three
centuries of a city library: an historical
and descriptive account of the Norwich public library established in 1608 and the present public library opened in 1857. [With plates.] R 41856 Norwich, 1857. 8vo, pp. iv, 86.
040
GENERAL: COLLECTED ESSAYS.

. . .
RACCOLTA.
by A.
-
Raccolta d'opuscoli scientifici, e filologici. 51 vols. in 26. Venezia, 1728-57. Calogiera.]

raccolta
[Edited
12mo.
R
.
41
848
Nuova
edited
by A. Calogiera. 1755-87. 42 vols. in 21.
d'opuscoli scientifici e filologici. [Vol. 1-14 Vol. 15-42 by F. Mandelli.] Venezia,

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41849
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SOCIETIES.
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The
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476

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1'Institut
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41690
les
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auspices de
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in
In progress.
R 9100
41677
MILAN
PARIS
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8vo.
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. .
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An intimate
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With
xx,
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London, 1917.
8vo, pp.
372.
R
ioo
42091
PHILOSOPHY: GENERAL.
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. .
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CLASSIFIED LIST OF
ioo
RECENT ACCESSIONS
SERIES.
8vo.
edition.
477
PHILOSOPHY: GENERAL.
Stonyhurst
1915.
STONYHURST PHILOSOPHICAL
series.
philosophical
London, 1911-16.
(B.).
. . .
5 vols.
. . .
Boedder
Natural theology.
Third
Clarke (R. F.) Logic.
New
impression.
.
. .
1916.
edition.
. .
.
Devas (C. S.)
Political
economy.
:
Third
1913.
.
.
R 42420 R 42418 R 42421

1916.
Maher (M.) Psychology

Rickaby Q.) The Rickaby
first
empirical and
rational.
Eighth icdition.
principles of knowledge.
New
.
impression.
K.
(J.)
General metaphysics.
Third
edition,
898.
Reissue.
1912.
edition.
Walker (L. [Witha
J.)
Theories of
knowledge, absolutism,
1.
pragmatism, realism.
Second
preface by
M. Maher.J-191
4241 7
10
PHILOSOPHY: METAPHYSICS.
George)
219.
as
COLLINGWOOD
1916.
8vo,
(Robin
.
Religion -and
philosophy.
London,
PP
xviii,
R R
41
566
I.
FAWCETT (Edward
London, 1916.
8vo.
Douglas) The world In progress.

spiritual ascent of
.
. .
imagination.
Series
41935
JONES (W. Tudor) The

tion
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man. With an introducLondon, 1916. 8vo, pp. xii, 241. R 41 443

. . .
SMYTH (Newman) The

8vo, pp.
ix,
meaning
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363.
:
London, 1916. R 41 943
STEINER
life
a modern philosophy of (Rudolf) The philosophy of freedom Authorized translation by developed by scientific methods. Mr. & Mrs. R. F. Alfred Hoernle. [Edited by H. Collison.] London and New York, 1916. 8vo, pp. viii, 301. R 41 102
.
VlVES
(Juan Luis) Joannis Lodovici Vivis Valentini De Anima Et Vita denuo quam diligentissime excusum. Libri Tres, Opus insigne, nuncq
;
Accesserunt
eiusdem argumenti
de Anima,
Philippi
Melanchthonis
Magni Avrelii Cassiodori Senatoris Liber unus. Rerum & Verborum in ijsdem memorabilium copiosissimus Index. Basileae, Apvd Robertvm Winter, Anno MDXLIII. 8vo, pp. R 41 426 768, [32].
.
Commentarius
.
.
&
130
PHILOSOPHY: MIND AND BODY.
BoGUET
Ensemble leur (Henri) Discovrs Execrable Des Sorciers. fails depuis 2. ans en ca, en diuers endroicts de la France, Auec vne instruction pour vn luge, en faict de Sorcelerie. Roven, Chez Romain de Beavvais. [Printer's device beneath title.]
Procez,
.
pres
le
grand portaU
nostre
Dame,
1603.
8vo, pp.
[24],
306, [42].
41
648
478

130
PHILOSOPHY: MIND AND BODY.

La
stigmatisee
BOIS-D'HAINE.
Lateau].
de Bois-cTHaine
edition
suivie
[i.e.
Anne
Louise
Par Mgr***.
Palma].
Deuxieme
de La stigmatisee
d'Oria
[i.e.
Paris, 1872.
8vo, pp. 63.
41829
HAFED,
.
Prince of Persia.
earth-life
. .
and spirit-life, David Duguid.

.
Hafed, Prince of Persia: his experiences in being spirit communications received through With an appendix containing communications
.
from the
.
. .
Illustrated by facsimiles of drawings and writings, the direct work of the spirits. [Edited Second edition. London, 1876. 8vo, pp. xi, 580. by H. Nisbet.]
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R
HlLL
:
34444
some personally-observed (J. Arthur) Psychical investigations of survival. R 42083 London, 1917. 8vo, pp. viii, 288. proofs L'ANCRE (Pierre de) Tableav De L'Inconstance Des Mavvais Anges Et Demons. Ov II Est Amplement traicte des Sorciers, & de la Auec vn Discours contenant la Procedure faite par Sorcellerie. les Inquisiteurs d'Espagne & de Nauarre, a 53. Magiciens, Apostats, luifs & Sorciers, en la ville de Logrogne en Castille, le 9. Nouembre, En laquelle on voit combien 1'exercice de la lustice en France, 1610. Par Pierre De Lancre. est plus iuridiquement traicte. Reueu, corrige, & augmente de plusieurs nouuelles obseruations, Arrests, & autres choses notables. [Ornament beneath title.] A Paris, Chez Nicolas Bvon, rue sainct lacques, a Censeigne de sainct Claude, de
. .
. .
&
rHomme
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M.DCXIII
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649
MlLLER (Hugh
.
a plea for rational Crichton) Hypnotism and disease With an introduction by Charles Lloyd Tuckey. psychotherapy. R 41572 London, 1912. 8vo, pp. 252.
: . .
THOMPSON
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The
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opinions as to a future
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140
PHILOSOPHY: PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS.

. . .
ALIOTTA
lated
Trans(Antonio) The idealistic reaction against science. McCaskill. London, 1914. 8vo, pp. xxii, 483. by Agnes
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150
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PHILOSOPHY: MENTAL FACULTIES.
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. .
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R
Miner)
42432
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An
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R 36564

160
479
PHILOSOPHY: LOGIC.
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DeWEY
vii,
(]o\\n)
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444.
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170
PHILOSOPHY: ETHICS.
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. .
lidnibiirgli
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How
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\
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The
There
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lated
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480

170
PHILOSOPHY: ETHICS.
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there
Edin41628
MORAL
ESSAY.
all
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A moral
. .
ment, and
conversation.
essay, preferring solitude to publick employappanages such as fame, command, riches, pleasures, Edinburh, 1665. 8vo, [By Sir G. Mackenzie.]
;
pp.8, 111 [error
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MORE
(Henry) Enchiridion ethicum, praecipua moralis philosophies rudimenta complectens, illustrata ut plurimum veterum monumentis & ad Editio nova cui accessit probitatem vitae perpetuo accommodata. auctoris epistola ad V.C. (quae apologiam complectitur pro Cartesio, quaeque introductionis loco esse poterit ad universam philosophiam Cartesianam. 41864 12mo, pp. 264. Amstelodami, 1679. )
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WHITTAKER
8vo, pp.
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126.
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Cambridge, 1916.
viii,
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190
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.
.
BRENGER
ment a
1789.
la
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.
2vols.
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:
41
844
BOULTING
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London, [1916].
315.
R 41313
DUCROS
1.]
(Louis) Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

1'
Paris, 1908-1
7.
vols.
R
1917.
8vo. 421 34
2.}
De Geneve a Hermitage, 171 2-57. -1908. De Montmorency au Val de Travers, 1757-65.

J. J.
MASSON
1
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3.
Rousseau.
Pans, 1916.
41 538.
Rousseau
et la restauration religieuse.
PERRONET
(Vincent)
vindication of
...
Locke, from the charge of
giving encouragement to scepticism and infidelity, and from several other mistakes and objections of the ... author of The procedure, extent, and
limits of
dialogues.
opinion
human understanding [i.e. P. Browne, Bishop of Cork]. In six Wherein is likewise enquired, whether Locke's true of the soul's immateriality was not mistaken by ... Leibnitz.
.
London, 1736.
8vo, pp. 124.
R 40122

190
481
PHILOSOPHY: MODERN.
PERRON ET
of
(Vincent)
second vindication
dissertation
of
...
Locke, wherein
his
sentiments relating to personal identity are clear'd up from
some mistakes
the various
...
Butler, in his
on
that
subject.
And
...
objections rais'd against . . . Locke, by the into the nature of the human soul [i.e.
...
Andrew
enquiry Baxter] are consider'd.
author of
An
To which
sophical essays.
are added reflections on some passages of London, 1738. 8vo, pp. 132.
Watts' s philo-
40989
SANTAYANA
(George) Egotism
8vo, pp. 171.
in
German
philosophy.
Toronto, [1916].
London and R 41503

. . .
SCHOPENHAUER
(Arthur) The art of literature a series of essays. Selected and translated, with a preface, by T. Bailey Saunders. 42343 London, 1891. 8vo, pp. xiv, 149.
:
.
nature essays, partly posthumous, in ethics, and politics. Selected and translated by Thomas Bailey Saunders. [Fourth 42345 London, 1910. 8vo, pp. 132. edition.]
:
On human
Religion
lated
a dialogue
and other
. . .
essays.
[Fifth
Selected and trans-
by T.
Bailey
Saunders.
edition.]
London, 1910.
8vo, pp. 140.

:
.
42342
Studies in pessimism a series of essays. Selected and transSecond edition. London, 1891. lated by T. Bailey Saunders.
.
.
8vo, pp. 142.
42346
The wisdom
"
of
life
being
the
first
part of
A. Schopenhauer's
". (Counsels and maxims: being the " second part of A. Schopenhauer's Aphorismen zur Lebensweisheit ".) Translated by T. Bailey Saunders. London, 1890-91. 2 vols.
Aphorismen zur Lebensweisheit
8vo.
'\* Vol.
1
42344
is
of the
second edition.
,SETH (Andrew) afterwards PATTISON (Andrew Seth Pringle-) Scottish philosophy. comparison of the Scottish and German answers to
Hume.
Fourth edition.
of Edinburgh.]
Edinburgh and London,
[Balfour Philosophical Lectures, University \ 907. 8vo, pp. xvi, 222.
R
200 RELIGION: GENERAL.
CHRISTIAN REFORMER.
and review.
. . .
42378
The
London, 1834-44.
.
. .
Christian reformer, or Unitarian magazine 11 vols. 38563 8vo.
New series. London, 1845-63. CULVERWELL (Nathaniel) An elegant and

of nature, with several other treatises.
. . .
19
vols.
8vo.
R R
38563
learned discourse of the light [Edited by W. Dillingham.]
London, 1652.
. .
pts. in
vol, 4to.
:
R
.
.
41860
[With 41861
Of the light of With a critical
nature
a discourse.
Edited by John Brown.

. . .
facsimile.]
Edinburgh, 1857.
essay on the discourse by John Cairns. 8vo, pp. Iv, 298.
482

200 RELIGION
Boston, [1913]-14.
P.)
:
GENERAL.
Edited by
HANDBOOKS ON THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS.

Jastrow.
4.
5.
.
.
Morris
4]
2 vols.
1914.
8vo.
[1913].
Toy
(C. H.) Introduction te the history of religions.

(J.
Peters
The
religion of the
Hebrews.
R R
41
528 529
HARRIS
(James Rendel) Picus,
who
is
also
Zeus.
Cambridge, 1916.
8vo, pp. x, 76.
R
The Harvard
theological
41
524
HARVARD
VII.
progress.
UNIVERSITY.
review.
Volume
(Issued quarterly
Cambridge, Mass.)
by the Faculty of Divinity in Harvard University, In 8vo. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1914, etc.
36800
JOHN, CHRYSOSTOM, Saint, Patriarch of Constantinople. Codex Coxianus of the homilies of Chrysostom on Ephesians and his comment[Now preserved in the Ridgway branch of the Library ary on Galatians.
. Company of Philadelphia.] (Introductory remarks. Complete list of variant readings.) Thesis presented to the By Hemphill. faculty of the graduate school of the University of Pennsylvania in partial
. .
W. L
fulfilment of the requirements for the
degree of Ph. D.
74.
of
:
[With
facsimile.]
Norwood, Mass., 1916.
8vo, pp.
iii,
41015
MORE
(Henry), the Platonist.

of
collection
several
philosophical
writings atheism.
his Antidote against namely Appendix to the said antidote. Enthusiasmus triumphatus. Letters to Des-Cartes, &c. Conjectura cabImmortality of the soul. balistica. The second edition London, 1662. enlarged.
.
... H. More. ... As
Fol.
41
865
The
theological works
of
... H. More.
planation of the grand mystery of godliness. In two parts. of iniquity. prophetical exposition of the epistles to the seven churches in Asia. discourse of the grounds of faith in
An
Containing an exenquiry into the mystery

. .
antidote against idolatry. appendix to the Antidote against idolatry. To which are adjoin' d some divine hymns. [With According to the author's improvements in his Latin edition.
points of religion.
portrait.]
An
An
London, 1708.
Publiee sous
Fol. pp. xiv, 856.
41866
PARIS
Bibliotheque de 1'Iicole des hautes auspices du Ministere de 1'instruction publique. In pro8vo. Sciences philologiques et historiques. Paris, 1916. 6658 gress. 220. Havet (P. A. L.) Notes critiques sur Properce. 1916.
:
Ecole des Hautes Etudes.

les
etudes.
Sciences religieuses.
30.
Paris, 1916.
\ 1'e'tude
8vo.
In progress.
R7245
Amelineau (E.) Prole'gomenes
de
la religion
egyptienne.
Deuxieme
partie.
1916.
REN AN
intimes
(Joseph
Ernest)
Ernest
1842-1845; precedees de
Paris, 1896.
Sixieme edition.
Lettres Henriette Renan. soeur Henriette par E. Renan. 41002 8vo, pp. 408.
Renan
Ma

200 RELIGION:
483
GENERAL.
of the
.
SAUNDERS
chapters in the
(Kenneth James) Adventures psychology of religion.

.
.
Christian
soul
being
With
a preface by
1916.
...
W.
xii,
R. Inge
145.
Dean
of
St.
Paul's.
Cambridge,
8vo, pp. 41 523
SERTILLANGES (Antonin D. Gilbert) La philosophic morale de saint Thomas d'Aquin. [Collection Historique des Grands Philosophes.]
Paris, 1916.
8vo, PP
:
.
ii,
592.
41651
TEXTS AND STUDIES

Edited by In progress.
8,
ii.
J.
Contributions to Biblical and patristic literature. Cambridge, 1911-16. 8vo, Armitage Robinson.
. .
8 8
1
Mishnah [Nezikin.
Bible.
Abodah
Zarah].
of
Edited with
8,
iii.
translation, vocabulary
and notes
lodes
The Mishna on by W. A. L. Elmslie.

Solomon.
idolatry,
.
'Abodah Zara.
1911.
Apocrypha.
The
. . Edited, with introduction and notes by J. 1912. Ferns and Leighlin. 8, iv. Connolly (R. H.) The so-called Egyptian church order, and derived documents. 1916.
Harris.]
[The English version of J. R. H. Bernard. . Bishop of Ossory,
TEXT AND TRANSLATION

8vo.
SOCIETY.
[Publications.]
In progress.
The chronicle H. Charles.
.
London, 1916. R 80 5
1
John, Bishop of Nikiou. Zotenberg's Ethiopic text by R.
of John,
.
Bishop of Nikiu.
Translated from
TRANSLATIONS OF EARLY DOCUMENTS

the
a series of texts important for
study
of
.
Christian origins, by various authors.

. .
editorship of
Series
W.
London, 1916.
1 .
8vo.
Under the joint O. E. Oesterley ... and ... G. H. Box ... In progress. R 4 944
1
Palestinian Jewish texts, pre-rabbinic. 2. Bible Apocrypha. The wisdom of Ben-Sira (Ecclesiasticus).
. .
By
W.
O. E.
Oesterley.
VATICAN
4to.
Library.
Studi e
testi.
[With
facsimiles.]
Roma,
1911-15.
In progress.
1
R 9655
23. Bible. Greek. Codex Zuqninensis rescriptus Veteris Testamenti. Texte grec des manuscrits Vatican syriaque 162 et Mus. Brit, additionel 4,665 edite avec introduction et notes
1911. par E. Tisserant. Fascicolo 4 (5). 1912-15. 24. 27. Franchi de' Cavalieri (P.) Note agiografiche. M. Kpirov rov Uar^T) TiirouKfiros sive librorum 25. Tipucitus. Basilicorum summarium. Libros I-XII Graece et Latine ediderunt C. Ferrini, J. Mercati. Documenti e ricerche per la storia dell' antica Basilica Vati26. Vatican. Basilica. cana. I. T. Alpharaai de Basilicae Vaticanae Pubblicato antiquissima et nova structura. M. Cerrati. 1914. per la prima volta con introduzione e note dal
LX
220 BIBLE:
BlBLE [Chuana].
Yeserelen.
TEXTS AND VERSIONS.

tsa
Buka ea lipesalem
e hetolecoen
mo
puofi ea
Davida, khosi Secuana.
le
moperofeti
mo
[Translated by
Robert Moffat.]
-
London, 1841.
12mo, pp. 132.
41973*2
Kholagano enca ea Yesu Keresete, eo e len morena oa rona le morebuluki e e hetolecoen mo puofi ea Secuana. [Translated by Robert Moffat.] 41973'! London, 1840. 12mo, pp. 497.
:
There
is
an autograph note by Robert Moffat on
the. fly-leaf at
the beginning of the
484

220 BIBLE:
TEXTS AND VERSIONS.

; ;
BlBLE
The logia or sayings of the Master as spoken by Him [English]. recovered in these days, as was foretold by Him. J. Todd Ferrier. for the Order of the Cross, Paignton.) Bradford and (Published 41371 London, [1916]. 8vo, pp. xiii, 402.
BlBLE
La Sainte Bible. Vigouroux. une commission d'examen nommee par Nouvelle edition, avec introduction, notes par le souverain pontife. concordances et variantes par F. Vigouroux. complementaires Illustrations archeologiques d'apres les monuments de 1'antiquite, par Faucher-Gudin et Saint- Elme Gautier. 5 vols. Paris, 1917. 8vo. R 41 475
[French].
Abbes
Glaire
&
Traduction approuvee a
.
Rome
BlBLE
[Irish].
An
t)iobU\ tu\onitA
1
50 5 x3kO1 $
^/1
5'
A nejun. UilUAtn O"OotnntnU,, Aijvo 6x\t\p5 Uu.Airn.) 2mo, pp. 574. [Dublin], 830. O'Reilly.]
. .
.
.. ^n ... tJiltiAtn t)et)el An Uiomn.A tluxyft XMJ\

\ 1
1
[Edited by
Edward
40454
BlBLE
I Sette Salmi Delia Penitentia Di David. [Para[Portrait beneath title.] ([Colophon :] by Pietro Aretino.] i KQ\<JL co di <P\o pcvr ia per Antonio Mazochi Cremonenese, & di Guccio da Cortona compagni, M.D. XXXVII.) 8vo, ff. Ilierpa) R 41 429 [47].
[Italian].
phrased
BlBLE
The gospel acJoanis rebiaba hamba gyrau-zyma. [Kachari]. Translated by ... J. to Saint John in the Cachari language. cording 41753 G. Williams. 8vo, pp. 66. Shillong, 1905.
.
BlBLE [Kond].
Kuvi-Kond.
Luka
suvarta.
[Translated by F.
The V. P.
gospel according to St. Luke in Madras, 1916. 8vo, Schulze.]
pp.98.
41 787
The gospel according to BlBLE [Naga]. Mathi kethu die kevi. Matthew in Angami Naga. Translated from the Greek with the and native assistants. revisers' readings by ... S. W. Rivenburg R 41750 Second edition. Kohima, 1904. 8vo, pp. 75.
.
.
Ao
Mati ziluba otzv tazung. The gospel according to Matthew in from the Greek, Westcott and Hort's Translated Naga. and revised text compared with the English revised version by E. W. Clarke ... and assistants. (3rd ed.) Shillong, 1906.
. .
8vo, pp. 75.
41 751
ziluba otzv tazung. The gospel according to John in Ao Translated from the Greek, Westcott and Hort's text Naga. and revised ... by compared with the English revised version E. W. Clarke and assistants. (2nd ed.) Shillong, 906. 8vo,
Yohane
pp.61.
R 41 752

220 BIBLE:
485
TEXTS AND VERSIONS.

thiang
tho, Tiddim kam. Rangoon, 1915. 8vo, pp.
BIBLE
[Tiddim].
***
Mate
lai
The
78.
gospel of
Matthew, Tiddim
The
title is
dialect.
41786
BlBLE
[Apocrypha].
... by Rendel
reproductions.
The odes and psalms of Solomon. Re-edited With facsimile Harris and Alphonse Mingana. 4to. Manchester, 1916. [John Rylands Library.]
.
In progress
Vol.
1
:
41 172
The Text
with facsimile reproductions.
220 BIBLE
GENERAL AIDS TO STUDY.
ALLWORTHY
critical
(Thomas Bateson) Women in the apostolic church. study of the evidence for the prominence of women in early 42288 Cambridge, 1917. 8vo, pp. vi, 147. Christianity.
BUNYAN
or, gospel light fetched (John) Solomon's temple spiritualized out of the temple at Jerusalem, to let us more easily into the glory of New Testament truths. The twelfth edition. Glasgow, 1773.
: . . .
12mo, pp. 143.
41
336
COMPANION.
written edition of the
W.
companion to Biblical studies, being a revised and reCambridge companion to the Bible. Edited by Cambridge, 1916. Emery Barnes. [With maps and plates.]
. . .
8vo, pp.
x,
"
677.
Erskine) Apocalyptic problems.
41
039
HlLL (Henry
xii,
London, 1916.
275.
R
272.
:
8vo, pp. 41 531
MORGAN
MOULTON
lectures
(William)
The
lectures delivered in the

session 1914-15.
The Kerr religion and theology of Paul. United Free Church College, Glasgow, during
8vo, pp.
xi,
Edinburgh, 1917.
42290
(James Hope) From Egyptian rubbish-heaps on the New Testament, with a sermon, delivered
in
five
popular
143.
at Northfield,
Massachusetts,
August,
1914.
London,
[1916].
8vo,
pp.
R
.
.
40646
.
NAVILLE (douard
8vo, pp.
viii,
Henri)
The
text of the
Old Testament.
The
1916.
Schweich Lectures, 1915.

82.
[The
British
Academy.]
London,
R R
42371
SELBIE (William Boothby) The nature and message

don, [1916].
8vo, pp. 175.
of the Bible.
Lon41 124
STUDIA SlNAITICA.
progress.
1 .
[With
:
facsimiles.]
London, 1902-07.
4to.
In
R 6778
.
. .
1 Apocrypha Syriaca the Prot-evangelium Jacobi and Transitus Maiiae, with texts from the Septuagint, the Goran, the Peshitta, and from a Syriac hymn in a Syro-Arabic Edited and translated by A. S. Lewis. With palimpsest of the fifth and other centuries. an appendix of Palestinian Syriac texts from the Taylor-Schechter collection. 1902. 12. Lewis (A. S.) and Gibson (M. D.) Forty-one facsimiles of dated Christian Arabic With text and English translation by A. S. Lewis and M. D. Gibson. manuscripts. . With introductory observations on Arabic calligraphy by ... D. S. Margoliouth. .
. .
486

220 BIBLE:
GENERAL AIDS TO STUDY.

Testament.
Leipzig, 1915.
UNTERSUCHUNGEN zum Neuen

progress.
7.
8vo.
In
R
Das Hotfen im Neuen Testament
fur
in seiner
33674
Pott (A.)
Beziehung zum Glauben.
ZEITSCHRIFT
die
alttestamentliche
Wissenschaft.
Beihefte.
Gzessen, ]9\4.
8vo.
In progress.
.
.
5341
J.
. . .
27. Wellhausen (J.) Studien zur semitischen Philologie und Religionsgeschichte. Wellhausen zum siebzigsten Geburtstag gewidwet von Freunden und Schiilern, und 1914. herausgegeben von K. Marti.
.
.
220 BIBLE:
COMMENTARIES.
DODGSON (Edward
HORAE.
4to.
1
Spencer) Metrical verses in Leicarragas Baskish New 41352 4to, pp. 4. Testament, A.D. 1571, [./., 1915],
Horae
Semiticae.
[With
facsimiles.]
Cambridge,
1916.
In progress.
1.
10436
Bishop
. .
.
The commentaries of Isho 'dad of Merv. Isho-'dadh of Merv, Bishop of rHedhatta. Hadatha ... in Syriac and English. Edited and translated by M. D. Gibson, Vol. V, part i. The epistles of Paul the With an introduction by J. R. Harris.
of
. . .
Apostle
in Syriac.
(Vol. V, part
ii.
The
epistles of
Paul the Apostle
in English.)
1916.
THIRTLE
(James William) The Lord's prayer: an interpretation critical R 41084 and expository. London, 1915. 8vo, pp. xii, 287.
MlNGANA
(Alphonse) Quelques mots sur les odes de Salomon. [Sonderabdruck aus der Zeitschrift fur die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kunde des Urchristentums ... 15 Jahrgang, 1914, Heft 3.] R 4 605 8vo, pp. 234-253. \Geissen, 1914.] * * # The title is taken from the wrapper.
1
230 RELIGION
DOCTRINAL THEOLOGY.
virgin birth of Jesus
:
GENERAL.
BOX
(George Herbert) The
critical
examination of the gospel narratives of the nativity, and other New Testament and early Christian evidence, and the alleged influence of With a foreword by the Lord Bishop of London heathen ideas. A. F. W. Ingram]. 8vo, pp. xviii, 246. London, 1916. [i.e.
.
. .
R41314
CALVIN Q ean ) An Abridgement Of The Institvtion Of Wherein Briefe And written by M. Ihon Caluin.
to
Christian Religion
sound aunsvveres dovvne. By William Faithfullie translated out of Latine into English by ChrisLawne. Imprinted topher Fetherstone. [Printer's device beneath title.] at Edinburgh by Thomas Vautrollier, 1585. 8vo, pp. [32], 398,
the objections
. .
.
of
the aduersaries are
set
[30].
41
636
CAMBRIDGE
life,
The elements of pain and conflict in human University of. considered from a Christian point of view being lectures delivered
:
:
at the
Cambridge Summer Meeting, 1916, by members of the [With prefatory note by V. H. Stanton.] Cambridge, 1916.
206.
university.
vi.
8vo, pp. 41 403

230
au
487
RELIGION
La
DOCTRINAL THEOLOGY.
. . .
(Charles).
lique
commencement du XVII e
.
devotion a la Vierge dans la litterature cathosiecle. Public par Alfred
Ouvrage couronne par 1'Academie fran$aise (Prix Thiers). [Extrait de la Revue de 1'histoire des religions, tome Ixxii, R 41391 1915 et tome Ixxiii, 1916.] 8vo, pp. 174. Paris, 1916.
Rebellian.
.
.
tion thomiste des antinomies agnostiques.
Solu(R.) Dieu: son existence et sa nature. Paris, 1914. 8vo, pp.

.
770.
R R
41
652
GLOVER
With a foreword by (Terrot Reaveley) The Jesus of history. the Archbishop of Canterbury [i.e. R. T. Davidson.] London, 1917. 41873 8vo, pp. xv, 247.
vice beneath
GOD.
God. ... [By T. Morton.] [DePrinted by Tho. Creede for Robert Dexter, London, title.] dwelling in Pauls Church-yard, at the signe of the brazen Serpent, 8 vo, PP [16], 239. R 41718 1599.
the Nature of
.
A Treatise of
HARRIS
Vacher Burch.
(James Rendel) Testimonies, by R. Harris with the assistance of 4 5 9 Cambridge, 1916. 8vo. In progress.
R
R
HUSBAND
tory
and
legality.
(Richard Wellington) The prosecution of Jesus Princeton, 1916. 8vo, pp. vii, 302.
its
date, his-
41929
QUICK
xliii,
(Oliver Chase) Essays in orthodoxy. 310.
London, 1916.
R 41 991
modern thought.
8vo, pp.
RAVEN
1916.
(Charles Earle)
its
What
think ye of Christ ?
incarnation and
interpretation in terms of
8vo, pp. xxx, 250.
Being lectures on the London, 4 992
SAN DAY
1916.
(William)
Form and
content in the Christian tradition

. .
a friendly
.
discussion between
W.
Sanday
and N. P. Williams.
London,
8vo, pp. xv, 167.
R 41 567
London, 1915.
8vo, pp.
xii,
SPENS
(William) Belief and practice.
244.
41445
STEWART
churches
:
(Alexander)
The
Croall Lectures for

. .
.
1901-2.
Creeds and
.
.
Archibald
studies in symbolics. R. S. Kennedy.]
With
a memoir of the author [by
Edited by
8vo, pp.
...
xlvii,
John
280.
Morrison
[With
portrait.]
London, 1916.
stoici.
41325
STOICS.
all sects
Religio
and
sorts.
With a friendly addresse to the phanaticks of [By Sir G. Mackenzie.] Edinburgh, 1665. 8vo,
pp.144.
R
THEOLOGY.
The
41631
STUDIES
IN
London, [1916].
God
:
8vo.
In progress.
R
Forsyth (P. T.)
justification of
41395
lectures for war-time
on a Christian theodicy.
488

230 RELIGION:
DOCTRINAL THEOLOGY.
TANQUEREY
(Ad.) Brevior synopsis theologiae dogmaticae j'fauctore Ad. Editio altera. Tanquerey, cooperantibus E. M. Quevastre et L. Hebert. R 40929 Roma, 1914. 8vo, pp. xx, 680.
(William) 367.
TEMPLE
xiii,
Mens
creatrix
an essay.
London, 1917.
8vo/~pp.
41
592
TERTULLIANUS
tulliani apologeticus.
(Quintus Septimius Florens) Q. Septimi Florentis TerThe text of Oehler. Annotated, with an introWith a translation by Alex. duction, by John E. B. Mayor. Souter. 42299 Cambridge, 1917. 8vo, pp. xx, 496.
. . . . . .
THURSTON
history
(Herbert)
The
stations of the
cross.
An
account of their
and devotional purpose.

8vo, pp.
xii,
[New
impression.]
[With
London, [1914].
183.
plates.J
41994
WILLIAMS
sentation
(Arthur Lukyn) The Hebrew-Christian Messiah, or the preof the Messiah to the Jews in the gospel according to St. Matthew being twelve lectures delivered before the Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn on the Foundation of Bishop Warburton in the years With an introductory note by the Bishop of Ely [Frederic 191 - 5.
:
Henry Chase]
London,
91 6.
8vo,|pp.
xxii,
424.
977
ESCHATOLOGY.
JONES (Ebenezer
Griffith)
a study of the Christian doctrine of the life^to come. 8vo, pp. xviii, 338.
Faith and îmmortality ; London,** [1917].
41 61
240 RELIGION: DEVOTIONAL.
BUNYAN
(John)
frontispiece.]
discourse upon the pharisee,and the publicane. [With R 41335 London, 1685. 8vo, pp. 202.
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE.
on the
The
.
Christian doctrine of health
handbook
197.
relation of bodily to spiritual
and moral
health.
By
the author of
x.
"Pro
Christo et ecclesia".
London, 1916.
8vo,'pp.
R
IMBERT-GOURBEYRE
miracles
41412
(Antoine) La stigmatisation,[Textase divine et les Deuxieme reponse aux libre-penseurs. Clermontedition augmentee d'un avant-propos. [With illustrations.] 12804 8vo. 2vols. Ferrand, 1898.
de Lourdes
1 .
Les
faits.
2.
Analyse
et discussion.
JONES (Rufus Matthew) The

xii,
inner
life.
New
York, 1916.
194.
8vo, pp. 41 442
MACKENZIE
don, 1695.
(Sir George) Lord Advocate.

8vo, pp. 158.
Reason.
An
essay.
Lon41630

250 RELIGION: HOMILETICS.
489
DAVIDSON (Andrew
J.
Bruce)
.
The
called of
God.
A.
Paterson.
.
With
biographical
introduction
Edited by ... by A. Taylor

vii,
Innes.
[With
portraits.]
Edinburgh, 1902.
8vo, pp.
336.
3401 8
:
GERARD
(Pierre)
is set
Preparation
the true
To The Most
to
Wherein
downe
meanes
;
Holie be well prepared
Ministerie
to the same,
by an exact description, and consideration, of the necessitie, excellencie, with the maruellous effects of the dimcultie, and great profit thereof same Also a liuely exhortation to all youth, to giue themselues to the and a confutation of the obiections which may be brought studie thereof Diuided into two Bookes. Written in any sort to touch the same. in French by Peter Gerard, and translated into English by N. B. [i.e. N. Becket]. Imprinted at London by Thomas Creed, for Thomas
:
Man, dwelling
8vo, pp.
[8],
in Paternoster row, at the signe of the Talbot, 15
[9] 8.
328
42449
. .
MACKENNAL
Second
edition.
(Alexander) Christ's healing touch, and other sermons. R 41987 8vo, pp. xiv, 289. Manchester, 1884.
.
260 RELIGION:
CHURCH INSTITUTIONS AND WORK.

London, 1916-17.
8vo.
ALCUIN CLUB.
20. Exeter.
Collections.
In progress.
R7955
The Edwardian
documents
. .
from the
original
inventories for the city and county of Exeter. 1916. by B. F. Creiswell.

:
Transcribed
a survey of the practice of reserving the sacrament reserved euchanst, with special reference to the communion of the sick, during the first twelve centuries. 1917.
21. Freestone
(W. H.) The
BENSON
in
its (Louis FitzGerald) The English hymn development and use London, 1915. 8vo, pp. 624 worship. [With frontispiece.]
:
R41121
GOGUEL
1910.
8vo, pp.
(Maurice) L'eucharistie des origines a Justin Martyr. ix, 336.
Paris,
22262
GUYET
arum.
gatur
(Charles) Heortologia, sive de
Opus novum ...

.
. .
in
quo
origo, ritus, ratioque Acpropria, adductis passim exemplis praecipuarum ecclesiarum. cedit commentarius historicus et dogmaticus de dierum festorum celebra2 tione, a Ludovico Thomassino Venetiis, 1729. conscriptus.
. .
.
festis propriis locorum ecclesipropositis variis quaestionibus investiomnis celebrandi quaecumque festa
&
pts. in
vol.
Fol.
R
SOCIETY.
42 195
HENRY BRADSHAW
1917.
2892.
Founded
in
the year of our

facsimiles.]
Lord 1890
London,
for the editing of rare liturgical tracts.
[With
8vo.
In progress.
Latin Rite.
R
The Canterbury
. .
6097
51. Liturgies.
benedictional.
British
Museum, Harl.
Edited by R.
M.
Woolley.
32
490

260 RELIGION:
LITURGIES.
Church of England. Leabhar na nurnaighe comhchoitchionn, mhiniostralachd 11 v\ r\\qu\meiticeyoh agus f\e*\CT>^ agus eile tu\ heAgUMfe, do reir usaide A ne^gt-Aif S^r\\tu\C ^
1
Aoncuigte
maille
ris
^\n
U|v\ilCv\i|A
no
Psalmuibh
Dhaibhi.
At-Ctu\t, 1825.
8vo, pp. 478.

.
40493
LITURGIES.
Latin Rite. Breviarium monasticum Pauli V. et Urbani VIII. ss. pontificum auctoritate recognitum pro omnibus sub regulae Auctum officiis novissime praeceptis vel ss. p.n. Benedicti militantibus.
.
concessis per ss. pont. et juxta sancitas leges revisum sub moderamine reverendissimi abbatis praesidis generalis congregationis Anglo-Benedictinae.
Mechlinia,
(Supplementum 87 [- 72] 4
\
1
.
pro
vols.
congregatione 8vo.
Anglo-Benedictina.)
4 827
1
Breviarium monasticum Pauli V. et Urbani VIII. ss. pontificum omnibus sub regula ss. patris nostri Benedicti militantibus, auctum officiis novissime praeceptis vel concessis per ss. pont. et juxta sancitas leges revisum sub moderamine reverendissimi abbatis
auctoritate recognitum pro
praesidis generalis congregationis 4 vols. 8vo. 1901.
Anglo- Benedictinae.
Mechlin ice, R 41 603
Breviarium
Francisci
Roman o-Seraphi cum ad usum

et
. . .
fratrum minorum Sancti

.
Capuccinorum
xiii
Leonis Papae
monialium ejusdem ordinis auctoritate Bernardi ab Andermatt recognitum et jussu
totius
praefati ordinis ministri generalis editum.
[With
plates.]
Romce, 1895.
vols.
-
8vo.
R 41 660
restitutum,
Breviarium
Romanum
Max.
ex decreto
ss.
concilii Tridentini
jussu editum, dementis VIII, Urbani VIII, et Leonis XIII, auctoritate recognitum, cum officiis sanctorum novissime conTornaci NerviEditio Tornacensis tertia post typicam. cessis.
S. Pii
V.
.
.
Pontif.
orum, 1893.
editionis
vols.
8vo.
41820
Kyriale, seu ordinarium missae,
Vaticanae concinnatum.
cum cantu Gregoriano ad exemplar Romae, Tornaci, 1905. 8vo, pp.
87.
41 826-1
Kyriale, seu ordinarium missae juxta editionem Vaticanam a Solesmensibus monachis in recentioris musicae notulas translatum et rhythmicis sienis diligenter ornatum. Romae, Tornaci, 1909. 8vo, pp. 98.
41824
Missa pro defunctis et ordo exsequiarum, cum cantu Gregoriano ad Romae, Tornaci, 1907. 8vo, pp. 15. exemplar editionis Vaticanae. 41 826-2
according ordinationum juxta Pontificale Romanum.) New York, 1877. 8vo, pp. 107.
.
. .
Rite
of
ordinations
to the
Roman
By
.
pontifical.
.
(Ritus
J.
S.
M. Lynch.
41821
The rite of marriage, the nuptial mass the form of blessing without the mass. With an instruction by ... Bishop Butt. London, 1915. 41828 8vo, PP viii, 49.
.
&
CLASSIFIED LIST OF
260 RELIGION:
RECENT ACCESSIONS
491
service for the consecration of a church, in LITURGIES. English and extracted from the Roman pontifical. Published by lawful authorLatin, London, [n.d.]. 8vo, pp. 100. 41823 ity.
The
SOLOV'EV
Deuxieme
(Vladimir
edition.
Sergyeevich) La Russie et 1'eglise Paris, 1906. 8vo, pp. Ixvii, 336.

reserved
sacrament.
universelle.
R
of
42316
42154
and
STONE
(Darwell)
The
[Handbooks
art.
Catholic
Faith and Practice.]
London, 1917.
8vo, pp. 143.
R
[With
STUDIES.
Studies in east Christian and
Roman
plates
illustrations.]
New
I.
[University of Michigan Studies, Humanistic Series, 12.] In progress. 8vo. 42439 York, 1914.
East Christian paintings
in the
Freer collection.
By
C. R.
:
Morey
1914.
SWETE
creed.
(Henry Barclay) The forgiveness London, 1916. 8vo, pp.

. .
of sins
xiv,
a study in the apostles'
197.
41520
TESNlRE
76.
(Albert)
la
De
la
predication de 1'eucharistie.
Introduction a la
[1885].
somme de
predication eucharistique.
Bruxelles,
8vo, pp. 41 834
THURSTON
1892?]
(Herbert)
The
pallium.
[With
illustrations.]
%*
8vo, pp. 40. The title is taken from
[London ? R 41 835
the caption.
WORLD
field
:
Christian literature in the mission Missionary Conference, 1910. a survey of the present situation made under the direction of the Continuation Committee of the World Missionary Conference, 1910.
By John H.
Ritson.
Edinburgh, 1910.
8vo, pp.
viii,
152.
R
270 RELIGION: RELIGIOUS HISTORY.
41092
GENERAL.
in Cappadocia. Etude historique et litteraire sur Saint Basile Par Eugene Fialon. . 1'Hexameron, traduit en francais.
.
BASIL, Saint, surnamed the Great, Archbishop ofCaesarea suivie de

; .
Ouvrage
couronne par T Academic francaise.

8vo, pp. 525.
Deuxieme
edition.
Paris, 1869. 41 710
CAMPBELL
pp.
x,
(Reginald John) 339.
A spiritual pilgrimage.
'
London, 1916.
8vo,
41 156
R
:
CARPENTER
six lectures. (Joseph Estlin) Phases of early Christianity New York and Lectures on the History of Religions.] [American 41514 London, 1916. 8vo, pp. xvi, 449.
CHANDLER
added at Goa.
.
.
(Samuel) The
.
history
II.
of
persecution, from the patriarchal
age, to the reign of
George
...
new
edition.
To which
are
Buchanan's Notices of the present state of the Inquisition Also, an appendix containing hints on the recent persecutions in the British empire some circumstances relating to Lord Viscount Sidmouth's bill a circumstantial detail of the steps taken to obtain the new toleration act, with the act itself, and other important matter. By Charles Atmore. Hull, 1813. 8ro, pp. viii, [With portrait.] 520. 41 672
; ; . .
492

(George Gordon) Medieval
legend.
COULTON
monasteries
2.
studies.
yds. in 2. 8vo. 1. The monastic

".
1
10 London, 1905- [13]. R 18527

the English
criticism of
Abbot Gasquet's " Henry VIII and

from the autobiography
of
905.
Guelf and Ghibelline.
[Dante
. .
illustrations
Salimbene de
Adamo.]-[1905.]
3.
Sidelights on the Franciscans.
.[1905.]
.
. .
4.
5.
6.
The high ancestry of Puritanism. [1 9*05.] Romanism and morals. [A criticism of an article by W. Barry.] [1905.] The truth about the monasteries. ... [A criticism of R. H. Benson's " The
[1906.]
. . .
King's
Achievement".]
7.
[A
. . Religious education before the Reformation. [1907.] and people before the Reformation. . (Parish life in mediaeval England. " criticism of F. A. Gasquet's Parish life in mediaeval England ".]) [1907.]
8.
Priests
9.
The
failure of the friars.

in the
.[1907.]
.
.
10.
Monastic schools
:
middle ages.
[1913.]
DlDASKALEION
(1915).
Torino, [1912,
studi filologici di letteratura cristiana antica in progress. 8vo. etc.].

.
...
1912-
R
,
40552
DOWNSIDE ABBEY.
1
882
(etc.).
The Downside review July, 1880, to July, [With plates.] London and Stratford-on-A von, etc. 882
.
etc.,
8vo.
In progress.
41 71
An
review, volumes I-XXV, 1880-1906. ton, 1907. 8vo, p. 50.
index to the writers and principal contents of the Downside Compiled by E. C. Leaming-
R 41 71 4
EPHESUS, Council
duction
of,
A.D. 449.
.
Actes du brigandage d'Ephese.

.
Tra-
faite sur le texte
Musee
britannique par sciences ecclesiastiques.
syriaque contenu dans le manuscrit 1 4530 du Martin Extrait de la Revue des

.
Amiens, 1874.
8vo, pp. 182.
41
130
HEFELE
(Carl Joseph von) Bishop of Rottenburg.

les
.
Histoire des conciles
d'apres
faite sur la
Nouvelle traduction francaise documents originaux. deuxieme edition allemande corrigee et augmentee de notes
. . .
. .
critiques et bibliographiques par.
H. Leclercq.
In progress.
Tome
VII,
deuxieme
partie.
Paris, 1916.
8vo.
39771
ORCHARD
(William Edwin)
The
outlook for religion.
8vo, pp. 271.
London, 1917. R 42 107
RlVINGTON (Luke) The

Lincoln.
London, 1893.
appeal to history 8vo, pp. 44.

cattolicoa Pio
.
a letter to the Bishop of
41839
ROME
Church of. L'orbe da Roma, 1848-1850.

: . . :
IX, pontefice massimo, esulante R 41843 4to. 2 vols. Napoli, 1850.

collectio.
TRENT
Council
of.
Concilium Tridentinum.
epistularum, tractatuum nova
Diariorum, actorum, Edidit Societas Goerresiana

studiis.
promovendis inter Germanos Catholicos litterarum

Brisgoviae, 1916.
4to.
In progress.
(Collegit edidit illustravit
Friburgi R 8231
10. Epistularum pars prima.
G.
Buschbell.)
1916.
WOODWARD
Roman
empire.
(Ernest Llewellyn) Christianity and nationalism in the later 41328 London, 1916. 8vo, pp. vii, 106.

493
MONASTIC ORDERS.
ANGELUS, a S. Francisco [Richard Mason]. Certamen seraphicum proYinciae Angliae pro sancta Dei ecclesia. In quo breviter declarator, quomodo Fratres Minores Angli calamo & sanguine [With portraits.] pro fide Christi sanctaque eius ecclesia certarunt.
.
. .
Duad, 1649. %* There

is
4to, pp.
also
356.
title-page.
41493
an engraved
BENEDICTINES
regulam
S.
Cassinensis.
-
American Cassinese Congregation.

.
.
Declarationes in
Benedicti,
seu
statuta
congregationis
[N.p.], 1893.
8vo, pp. 50.

in
AmericanoR 41320
Benedictine
priory
the
United
States.
[Subscribed
H.
8vo,
Leonard Sargent.] PP .23.

-
[With
frontispiece.]
[Exeter printed, 1916.]
41713
sancti. . . . Benedicti, abbatis et monachorum patriarchae. constitutionibus congregationis Beuronensis a s. sede approbatis. Placidi Wolter abbatis, dictae congregationis archiabbatis, . lussu .
Regula
.
Cum
typis mandata.
Pragae, 1899.
8vo, pp.
viii,
149.
R 41318
.
J0RGENSEN
1917.
(Johannes)
xxiii,
Le
livre
de
la
route.
Traduit du danois
par Teodor de Wyzewa.

8vo, pp.
[Tenth
edition.]
[With
plates.]
Paris,
248.
41
650
Pelerinages franciscains.
1'auteur par
Traduits du danois avec 1'autorisation de
Teodor de Wyzewa.
[With
plates.]
Pan's, 1914.
pp. x,
320.
:
R
s.
8vo, 41 601
SUBIACO Abbey of. Pax.Consuetudines et caeremoniae regularis observantiae

monasterii Sublacensis et venerabilis loci specus Leonem Allodi. . . editae per. Sublaci, 81.
.
.
Benedicti in lucem
8vo, pp.
xii,
1902.
41319
THOMAS,
de Celano. sa vie et ses miracles. Sainte Claire d'Assise Racontes par Thomas de Celano et completes par des recits tires des chroniques de 1'ordre des Mineurs et du proces de canonisation. Traduits, d'apres un manuscrit italien du XVI e siecle, avec une introduction et des notes par Madeleine Havard de la Montagne. [With R 42317 8vo, pp. xxiii, 248. Paris, 1917. plates.]
:
ENGLAND.
CAMM
. .
Ambrose Barlow
V The
.
(Bede) The martyr-monk of 1585-1641. [London, 191

.
Manchester.
.]
8vo, pp. 32.
title is
R
.
4 Q32
1
CANTERBURY AND YORK SOCIETY.

Davis Canterbury and In progress. 8vo.
. .
General
editor
F.
N.
York
series.
London, [191 3-] 1915-16. R 11947

.
.
19. Winchester,
Diocese
of.
A.D. MCCL.XXXI1-MCCCIV.
[1913-J15.
Registrum Johannis de Pontissara, episcopi Wyntoniensis, Transcribed and edited by C. Deedes. . Vol. I.
494

Historical sketches of Nonconformity in the county palatine of various ministers and laymen in the county. With a map.
CHESHIRE.
Chester.
By
Ixix,
[Edited by William Urwick.] 504.
London, Manchester,
864.
8vo, pp.
41988
EXETER,
Monasticon dioecesis Exoniensis, being a collection of. and instruments illustrating the ancient conventual, collegiate, and eleemosynary foundations, in the counties of Cornwall and Devon, with historical notices, and a supplement, comprising a list of the dedications of churches in the diocese, an amended edition of the taxation of Pope Nicholas, and an abstract of the chantry rolls. By George Oliver.
of records
. . .
Diocese
(Additional supplement.
With
map
of the diocese, deaneries,

. . .
and sites of religious houses. By G. Oliver. locorum et rerum. By J. S. Attwood.) [With

1846-89.
Fol.
plates.]
Index nominum, Exeter,
41
702
.
FERRAR
N.
Ferrar.
(Nicholas) Memoirs [by By P. Peckard.

.
.
John Ferrar] of the life of Cambridge, 1790. [With plates.]

.
8vo, pp. xvi, 316.
41614
Nicholas Ferrar
his
household and his

portrait.]
friends.
Edited by
...
T. T. Carter.
331.
[With
London, 1892.
8vo, pp. xxvi.
R
:
41699
The story books of Little Gidding being the religious dialogues From the original manuscript of recited in the Great Room, 1631-2. N. Ferrar. With an introduction by E. Cruurys Sharland. [With
plates.]
London, 1899.
8vo, pp.
Iv,
291.
41698
HOWORTH
8vo.
(Sir Henry Hoyle) The golden days of the early English With church from the arrival of Theodore to the death of Bede. 3 vols. illustrations, maps, tables, and appendices. London, 1917.
.
. .
42293
ILLINGWORTH Qohn Richard) The ... as portrayed by his letters and
life
and work
of J.
R. Illingworth
illustrated
by his wife [Agnes Louisa Illingworth], Richmond. With a preface by Charles Gore London, 1917. 8vo, pp. xii, 346.
. . .
by photographs. Edited with a chapter by ... Wilfrid

.
. .
Bishop of Oxford.
42362
of
KLEIN (Arthur
England.
Jay)
Intolerance
in
London, 1917.
8vo, pp.
the reign xi, 218.

:
of
Elizabeth,
Queen
MARSHALL (Emma)
George Herbert
Crawford.
. .
A haunt of ancient peace

and
.
Ferrar's house at Little Gidding,

:
story.
memories of Mr. Nicholas Dr. Donne and Mr. With illustrations by T. Hamilton
of his friends
vi,
London, 1897.
8vo, pp.
353.
41697
CLASSIFIED LIST OF
270 RELIGION
:
RECENT ACCESSIONS
A
495
RELIGIOUS HISTORY.
MlRROR.
Short View liuely expressing The Mirror of Martyrs. In the force of their Faith, the feruency of their Loue, the wisedome of With their Prayers their Sayings, the patience of their Suffrings, &c.
for their last farewell.
full of
.
Whereunto is added two godly sweet consolation for all such as At London. J [By C. Cotton.] Printed by T. P. [i.e. T. Purfoof\for Io. Budge, and are to be sold at his Shop at the great South doore of S. Paules, and at Brittaines Bursse.
and preparation
Letters written by M. Bradford, are afflicted in conscience.
. .
An. 1615.
12mo, pp.
[22], 432, [20].
41612
. . .
RUSSELL (George William

With
portraits
Erskine)
Arthur Stanton.
London, 1917.
memoir.
and
illustrations.
8vo, pp. 323.
R
.
.
41583
TURNER
memoirs
Brief (Francis) successively Bishop of Rochester and of Ely. . founder of a Protestant religious of Nicholas Ferrar
at
establishment
narrative
Little
by ... additions and biographical notices by some
Gidding, Huntingdonshire; Turner, formerly Bishop of Ely

of
of
collected
;
from a
contemT. M.
now
edited with
...
Ferrar* s
[i.e.
poraries.
By
clergyman
the
Established
vii,
Church
Macdonogh].
Bristol, 1829.
8vo, pp.
248.
to
41696
WESTMINSTER ABBEY.
Abbey.
Notes and documents relating In progress. Cambridge, 1916. 8vo.

:
Westminster R 18087
5. The monks of Westminster being a register of the brethren of the convent from the time of the Confessor to the dissolution, with lists of the obedientiaries and an introduction. By E. H. Pearce. . . .
IRELAND.
of Ireland.
CUSACK (Mary
(The
Frances)
The
life
of Saint Patrick, apostle

.
tripartite life of Saint
Patrick.
Translated from
. .
the original Irish [of Saint Evin] by London, 1871. 4to, pp. illustrations.]
W. M.
xii,
Hennessy. 656.
.)
R
the
.
[With 42411
%* There
is
also an
engraved title-page.
SCOTLAND.
edition,
SCOTT (Hew)
Fasti ecclesiae Scoticanae
succession
. .
of ministers in the
Church of Scotland from the Reformation. New revised and continued to the present time under the super-
intendence of a committee appointed by the General Assembly. In progress. 8vo. burgh, \9\1.
2.
E'din38761
Synods
of
Merse and Teviotdale, Dumfries and Galloway.
1917.
AFRICA.
LIVINGSTONE (William
. . .
P.)
Mary
Slessor of Calabar, pioneer

plates.]
missionary. 1916. 8vo, pp.
Seventh edition.
xi,
[With maps and
London,
347.
R
China.
41
346
CHINA
.
. .
(P.) introductory note by
.SAEKI
The
Nestorian
monument
in
With an
A. H. Sayce.
Lord William Gascoyne-Cecil and a preface by London, 1916. 8vo, pp. x, 342. [With plates.] R 40738
: . . .
RICHARD
.
illustrations.
(Timothy) Forty-five years in China reminiscences. London, [1916.] 8vo, pp. 384.
With
41516
496

FRANCE.
2.
BRIiMOND (Henri) Histoire litteraire du sentiment religieux en France depuis la fin des guerres de religion jusqu'anos jours. [With 8vo. In progress. R 4023 1 Paris, 1916. plates.]
L'invasion mystique, 1590-1620.
1916.
DOUARD, AbbJ,
ments
;
pseud,
[i.e.
Armand
.
Biron]
.
Fontevrault et ses monusa fondation
ou,
histoire
1
de
cette royale
abbaye depuis
.
jusqu'a
sa suppression,
abbesses.
100-1793, ornee de 2 vols. Paris, 1873-74.
gravures et des armoiries des 8vo. 22195
RENAUDET
guerres Florence.
d'ltalie,
(A.) Prereforme et humanisme a Paris pendant 1494-1517. [Bibliotheque de 1'Institut

Ssrie
1.
les
premieres Francais de
739.
Tome
6.]
Paris, 1916.
8vo, pp.
xlviii,
R41138
V ALOIS
ITALY.
(Joseph Marie Noel) 4 vols. Paris, 1896-1902.
La France
8vo.
et
le
grand schisme d'occident
14756
FAURE (Gabriel Auguste) Au pays de saint Francois d'Assise. 41457 4to, pp. 112. Grenoble, 1916. [Aquarelles de P. Vignal.]
FLORENCE.
. .
.
Reale
istituto di
studi superiori pratici
e di perfezionamento
Fonti di storia fiorentina.
Roma,
in
1913.
8vo.
In progress.
R
1 .
33803
Le
carte del
monastero di S. Maria
Firenze (Badia).
Edito da L. Schiaparelli
con
la
collaborazione di F. Baldasseroni e di
R. Ciasca.
NETHERLANDS.
APELDOORN (Lambertusjohannes van) De kerkelijke goederen in Friesland beschrijving van de ontwikkeling van het recht omtrent de kerkelijke goederen in Friesland tot 1795. [i.] Proefschrift ter verkrijging van den graad van Doctor in de Rechtswetenschap aan de Rijks-Universiteit te Utrecht op gezag van den Rector-Magnificus Ernst Cohen volgens besluit van den Senaat der Universiteit tegen de bedenkingen van de Faculteit der Rechtsgeleerdheid te verde:
digen op vrijdag 5 November, 1915. In progress.
Leeuwarden, 1915.
8vo.
R
.
.
40953
. .
BEKA
(Joannes de) loannes de Beka

Ultraiectinis.
.
et
Wilhelmus Heda
. . .
de
episcopis Buchelio.
Recogniti
Petri
.
.
et notis historicis illustrati
ab
Am.
Accedunt Lamb. Hortensii

.
tinarum
***
libri, et Siffridi
[With map.]
The
Ultraiecti, 1643.
is
secessionum Ultraiecappendix ad historiam Ultrajectinam. R 42024 vol. Fol. 3 pts. in

1
title-page
engraved.
VELTENAAR
in
Briel tot 1816.
(Cornells) Het kerkelijk leven der Gereformeerden in den Proefschrift ter verkrijging van den graad van doctor
.
.
de godgeleerdheid aan de Rijks-Universiteit te Utrecht, op gezag van den Rector-Magnificus H. Snellen volgens besluit van den Senaat der Universiteit tegen de bedenkingen van de Faculteit der Godgeleerdheid te verdedigen, op Woensdag 23 Juni, 1915, des namiddags te 4
.
uur, door C. Veltenaar.
[With
frontispiece.]
8vo, pp. 481.
Amsterdam, 1915. R 40957

270 RELIGION:
497
RELIGIOUS HISTORY.
la,
POLAND.
Sigismund
BERGA
III.
(A.) Un predicateur de Pierre Skarga, 1536-1612.
cour de Pologne sous

sur la
Etude
Pologne du
8vo, pp. xvi,
XVI e
376.
siecle et le protestantisme polonais.
Paris, 1916.
41816
SPAIN.
ESCUELA
1vol.
rid, 1915.
Spain.
espanola en Roma. 8vo.

1 1
:
Obras.
[With
plates.]
Mad40297
la
Compania de
El conclave de 774 a 775 accion de las cortes catdlicas en la supresiun de For E. Pacheco y de Leyva. . . Jesus segun documentos espaiioles.
.
PEY ORDEIX
analitico
de
(S.) Historia critica de san Ignacio de Loyola. . . . Estudio la vida e historia del santo funclador de la compania hecho
directamente sobre los documentos de los archives nacionales y extrande jeros, especialmente de los secretes del Vaticano, de la Inquisicion y la compania. Madrid, [1916]. 8vo. In [With illustrations.]
.
progress. 1. Su
4 643
1
juventud.
280 RELIGION:
CHRISTIAN CHURCHES.
Scientiarum, [Berlin.]
PRIMITIVE.
SOCIETAS Regia
christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte.
Die griechischen Herausgegeben
von der Kirchenvater- Commission der Konigl. Preussischen Akademie In progress. 8vo. der Wissenschaften. Leipzig, 1915.
. . .
R4939
25. Epiphanius,
arion).
Bishop of Constantia in Cyrus.

. . .
Epiphanius (Ancoratus und Pan-
Herausgegeben
Von K.
Holl.
1915.
.ROMAN CATHOLIC.
London, 1916.
8vo.
20. Lancashire Registers.
CATHOLIC RECORD SOCIETY.

In progress.
III.
Publications.
R
part.
10892
Northern
Edited by
J.
P. Smith.
1916.
Pius
ROME, Church of. Encyclical letter, X. ... Pope on the doctrines of the
.
"
Pascendi gregis
"
of
. .
modernists.
Official trans-
lation.
London, [1907].
8vo, pp.
Kestell)
ii,
69.
41838
ANGLICAN.
-
FLOYER Qohn
(William)
church endowments.
London, 1917.
studies in the history of English 41 707 8vo, pp. viii, 128.
HUMPHREY
The
divine teacher.
letter to
a friend.
English Church defence tracts," " entitled Papal infallibility" [subscribed; H. P. L. and W. B., i.e. H. P. Liddon and W. Bright]. Third edition. London, 1876. 8vo, 41 825 pp. xxiii, 71.
a preface in reply to
of the
.
. .
With
No. 3
"
NORTHCOTE Qames
:
Spencer)
The
.
fourfold difficulty of Anglican-
ism
of
or, the
Church
.
.
of
J.
letters
by
England tested by the Nicene creed. In a series Second edition. London, S. Northcote.
.
.
1891.
8vo, pp.
vii,
100.
R 41836
Historical Society. CylchCalfinaidd. The
.
.METHODISTS.
CALVINISTIC Methodist
grawn Cymdeithas Hanes y Methodistiaid

J916.
8vo.
transactions of the Calvinistic Methodist Historical Society.
In progress.
Cardiff,
39832
498

280 RELIGION: CHRISTIAN
CHURCHES.
J.
METHODISTS.
.
WESLEY
letters.
. .
(John) Letters of
Wesley
a selection of
and biographical notes by With a chapter on Wesley, his times, and work George Eayrs. portrait of Wesley and letters in by ... Augustine Birrell. ... R 41120 facsimile. London, 1915. 8vo, pp. xxxix, 509.
introductions
important and new
With
PRESBYTERIANS.
Gordon
amongst
.
.
.
GORDON
(Jrm) of Glencat.
Memoirs
of
J.
thirteen years in the Scots College at Paris, the secular clergy. Wherein the absurdities and delusions of
laid
who was
Popery are
open, the history of Baianism, Jansenism, and the Con-
and the infallibility of the Romish church is confuted. With an appendix, containing some short but full answers to any question that can be proposed by a Papist. To which is prefix'd, a testimonial from the Presbytery of Edinburgh, of the author's as also a renouncing Popery, and embracing the Protestant religion letter of protection from the Lord Chief Justice Clerk at Edinburgh to
stitution Unigenitus, impartially related,
;
the author.
[With
plates.]
London, 1733.
12mo, pp. 11, 132.
41670
of
SWEDENBORG1ANS.
SPALDING Qohn Howard) The kingdom

.
. .
heaven as seen by Swedenborg.
London, 1916.
8vo, pp.
vi,
348.
41 101
FRIENDS.
FRIENDS, Society of: North Carolina. Friends in North Carolina during the American War 1861 to 1865. Reprinted from the American narrative by John Bellows. 8vo, pp. 23. Gloucester, 1894.
41359
** The
-
title is
FRIENDS* HISTORICAL SOCIETY.

London, 1908.
Pole.
.
Friends' Historical Society:
[Journal Supplements].
7.
8vo.
In progress.
N. Penney.
10063
by
Wedmore
and
.
. .
(E. T.)
portrait,
drawings by
Thomas ...
With
notes by
Illustrated
Pole.
HUGUENOTS.
tions of the
HUGUENOT SOCIETY OF LONDON.

of
The
publica-
Huguenot Society
The
registers of the
.
.
London.
London, 1916.
8vo.
In progress.
23.
R
French Church, Threadneedle
.
4919
London.
Street.
Volume IV.
Edited by T. C. Colyer-Fergusson.
MINOR SECTS.
De
(Cipriano de) Los dos tratados Del papa, i C. D. Valera i por el publicados primero el a. por 1588, luego el a. 1599: ahora fielmente reimpresos. (Enjambre de los falsos milagros, i ilusiones del Demonic, con que Man'a de la i Visitazion, priora de la Anunziada de Lisboa, engario a mui muchos de como fue descubierta i condenada ano de 1588). Luis [Edited by de Usoz y Rio.] [Reformistas Antiguos Espafioles, 6.] [Madrid?}
la misa, escritos
;
. .
.
VALERA
1851.
8vo, pp. 610.
40486

290 RELIGION: NON-CHRISTIAN.
499
BARTH
Barth.
Les
CEuvres de (Marie Etienne Auguste) Quarante ans d'Indianisme. Recueillies a T'occasion de son quatre-vingtieme anniversaire.
portrait.]
[With
1
Paris, 1914.
de 1'Inde
et Bulletins
2 vols.
8vo.
41382
2.
religions Bulletins des religions
des religions de 1'Inde, 1880-85.
de Tlnde, 1889-1902.
MYTHOLOGY.
. .
.
The mythology
George Foot
of all races
Louis Herbert
Gray
[With 41 799
editor.
Moore
.
.
plates
1.
and
illustrations.]
Greek and Roman.

Indian.
Boston, 1916. By W. S. Fox.

.
.
consulting editor. In progress. 8vo.

.
6.
9.
Oceanic.
10.
Iranian. By A. By A. B. Keith. By R. B. Dixon. North American. By H. B. Alexander.

. . . .
.
J.
Carnoy.
.1917.
GREEK AND ROMAN.

pus.
HARRIS (James
Ren del)
vii,
The
140.
ascent of
Olym41715
cult
[Four lectures delivered in the

plates.]
cult
of
John Rylands Library, 1915-16.]

8vo, pp. The
[With
Manchester, 1917.
Dionysos.
[The
The
cult
of
Apollo.
cult of
Artemis.
The
of
Aphrodite.l
PRELLER (Ludwig) Romische

Jordan.
Berlin, 1881-83.
Mythologie. 2 vols. 8vo.
Dritte Auflage von
H.
34771
HINDUISM, ETC.
gospel of Buddhism.
COOMARASWAMY
. . .
With
illustrations
. .
Tagore ...
photographs.
&
(Ananda K.) Buddha and the ... by Abanindro Nath

.
Nanda Lai Bose and

8vo, pp.
London, 1916.
viii,
reproductions 369.
from
41348
INDIA.
Drie oude Portugeesche verhandelingen over het Hindoeisme. VerhandeToegelicht en vertaald door W. Caland en A. A. Fokker. lingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam. Deel XVI. No. 2. AmsterAfdeeling Letterkunde. Nieuwe reeks. 40950 dam, 1915. 4to, PP viii, 216.
.
JAIN LITERATURE SOCIETY.

Cambridge, 1916.
8vo.
Jaini (J.) Outlines of Jainism.
.
. .
[Publications.]
[With folding
tables.]
In progress.
Edited, with preliminary note, by F.
4 095
1
W.
et
Thomas.
LlACRE-DE SAINT-FlRMIN
bouddhiques de
1'Inde.
Madame.
Medecine
Paris, 1916.
8vo, pp. 120.

. .
R
. .
legendes
41383
MlLA RASPA.
. . .
Edited by Mgur-Hbum, or songs of Mi-la-ras-pa. Chandra Acharyya Vidyabhusana. (Translated by 2 vols. Dousamdap Kazi. ) Darjeeling, and Calcutta, 1912-14. inl. 8vo. R 41 265
Satis
.
. .
Translation of the seventh chapter of Jetsiin

history of Jetsiin Mila-Repa.
. .
Kahbum,
biographical
.
.
Calcutta, 1914.
8vo, pp. 5
1 .
Edited by Dousamdap Kazi. R 4 264

. 1
. .
NOBLE
K.
Ratcliffe.
(Margaret E.) Religion and dharma. London, 1915. 8vo, pp. x, 156.
With
a preface by S.
R 41091
500

(Benoy Kumar) The folk-element
.
.
SARKAR
Sarkar
bution to socio-religious studies in

.
assisted
in Hindu culture. Hindu folk-institutions. By London by Hemendra K. Rakshit.

. .
A contriB.
,
K.
1917.
8vo, pp. xx, 312.
R
Edited by
42204
So-SOR-THAR-PA.
So-sor-thar-pa, or the code of moral and monastic
discipline of the Buddhists of Tibet.
...
Satis
Chandra
Acharyya Vidyabhusana.
19, (56).
[Tibetan.]
Calcutta,
1912.
R
future.
. .
8vo, pp.
41
738
JUDAISM.
pp.
viii,
JEWS. Zionism and the Jewish Edited by H. Sacher. With maps.

. .
.
By
various writers.
London, 1916.
8vo,
252.
:
40734
(Moses) The Jews in Great Britain being a series of delivered in the Liverpool Collegiate Institution, on the anLondon, 1846. 8vo, pp. xvi, 412. tiquities of the Jews in England.
six lectures,
.
R
MlSHNAH.
:
42351
Die Mischna Text, Ubersetzung und ausfiihrliche Erklarung. Mit eingehenden geschichtlichen und sprachlichen Einleitungen. und O. Holtzmann. G. Beer Herausgegeben von R 30871 10 vols. 8vo. Giessen, 1912-14.
. . . .
. . .
I.
i.
Zeraim.
Berakot.
Gebete.
Nebst einem textkritischen Anhang von

.
.
O. Holtzmann.
. . .
ii.
Pea.
. . .
Vora Ackerwinkel.
1914.
Nebst einem
. .
textkritischen
Anhang von
W.
Bauer.
iv.
.
Kilajim.
Verbotene Mischgattungen.
.

.
K. Albrecht.
ix.
1914.
. . .
Challa.
Teighebe.
Nebst einem textkiitischen Anhang von
K. Albrecht.
.1913.
2.
iii.
Moed.
Pesachim.
Ostern.
.
Nebst einem textkritischen Anhang von.

.
. .
G. Beer.
. .
1912.
v. Joma. Meinhold.
.
Der Versdhnungstag.
. .

.
J.
viii.
1913. Rosch ha-schana.

.
Neujahr.
"
...
P.
Fiebig.
4.
i.
.1914.
Civilrechts.
. . .
Nezikin.
" Erste Pforte des Baba'qamma. von ... W. Windfuhr. 1913.

. .
.
Nebst einem textkritischen Anhang

.
.
x.
Horajot.
.
Entscheidungen.
W.
Windfuhr.
5. x.
.-1914.
.
.
Quodaschim. Middot. Von den Massen des Tempels. von ... O. Holtzmann. 1913.
.
Nebst einem textkritischen Anhang
MOHAMMEDANISM.
monde; etude
8vo.
CASANOVA
(Paul)
Mohammed
Paris, 1911
et
la
fin
du
pts.
critique sur 1'islam primitif.
[-131.
2
41
580
HURGRONJE
its
(Christian Snouck)
Mohammedanism
its
lectures on
its
origin,
religious
and
political
growth, and
and London,
Lectures on the History of Religions. 1916. 8vo, pp. xi, 184.
present state. Series of 1914-15.]
New
[American
York 41518

501
MlNGANA
Reprinted (Alphonse) The transmission of the Kur'an. from the Journal of the Manchester Egyptian and Oriental Society, 1915R 40995 16. 8vo, pp. 25-47. Manchester, 1916.
. . .
\* The
[With
title is
TlSDALL (William
Saint Clair)
The
original sources of the Qur'an.
frontispiece.]
London, 1905.
8vo, pp. 287.
41069
MINOR RELIGIONS.
religion
;
MACBAIN (Alexander) Celtic mythology and with chapters upon Druid circles and Celtic burial. With and notes by ... W. J. Watson. [With introductory chapters 42300 8vo, pp. xviii, 252. Stirling, 1917. plates.]
. . . . . .
RlNKES (Douwe Adolf) Abdoerraoef van
Bijdrage tot de Singkel. kennis van de mystiek op Sumatra en Java. Academisch proefschrift ter verkrijging van den graad van doctor in de Taal-en Letterkunde v/d
. . .
Archipel, aan de Rijks-universiteit te Leiden, op gezag van den voor de Faculteit te verdedigen Rector-Magnificus Dr. J. Kluijver den 4 den October, 1 909, des namiddags te 4 ure, door op Donderdag D. A. Rinkes. R 40948 8vo, pp. x, 144. Heerenveen, 1909.
O-I.
1
. .
.
SARKAR
a study in the (B. K.) Chinese religion through Hindu eyes tendencies of Asiatic mentality. With an introduction by R 41 574 Shanghai, 1916. 8vo, pp. xxxii, 331. Ting-Fang.
: . .
.
Wu
300 SOCIOLOGY
BOSANQUET
patriotism.
GENERAL.
:
(Bernard) Social and international ideals London, 1917. 8vo, pp. ix, 325.
being studies
in
42443
COMPETITION.
Harvey,
J. St.
G. Wood.
Competition: a study in human motive. By John G. C. Heath, Malcolm Spencer, William Temple, H. [The Collegium.] London, 1917. 8vo, pp. xviii, 232.
. .
42291
8vo,
LEIST (Burkard Wilhelm) Alt-arisches

pp. xiv, 623.
Jus gentium.
Jena, 1889.
R
Society.
.
. .
40787
PEASE (Edward
. .
.
R.)
The
history
of
the
Fabian
With
41343
illustrations.
London, 1916.
fur Social
8vo, pp. 288.
R R
VlERTELJAHRSCHRIFT
1903,
1,
. .
.
und Wirtschaftsgeschichte.
. . .
Leipzig,
etc.
etc.
8vo.
In progress.
. . .
36434
S. Bauer Herausgegeben von Redaktionssekretar K. Kaser.

. . .
.
G. von Below
L.
M. Hartmann
320 SOCIOLOGY: POLITICAL SCIENCE.
BARNES
Fovre Bookes of Offices (Barnabe). [Ornament above title.] Enabling Privat persons for the speciall seruice of all good Princes and Policies. Made and deuised by Barnabe Barnes. [Printer's device London Printed at the charges of George Bishop, T. beneath title.] Adams, and C. Burbie. 1606. ([Colophon:] Imprinted at London
:
by Adam Islip, 1606. 210.
[Woodcut beneath colophon.])
Fol., pp. [18],
41 174
502

320 SOCIOLOGY: POLITICAL SCIENCE.
(Roger) Jean Bodin, auteur de
8vo, pp. 543.
la
CHAUVm
1914.
"
Republique
".
Paris
R 41 136
CONSTANT DE REBECQUE
stitutionnelle
;
(Henri Benjamin de) Cours de politique concollection des ouvrages publics sur le gouvernement Avec une introduction et des notes par represe/itatif par B. Constant. Deuxieme edition. . Edouard Laboulaye . . [Economistes
ou,
. . .
&
Publicistes Contemporains.]
Paris 1872.
, .
2
.
vols.
.
8vo.
R
Pages.
41 711
Cours de politique
'
constitutionnelle.
Nouvelle edition, mise

.
.
en ordre et precedee d'une introduction par 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1836.
J.
P.
41810
de
la
DUGUIT
Revue generale du droit.] Paris, 1901. 8vo, pp. 20. R 40894 HOLDICH (Sir Thomas Hungerford) Political frontiers and boundary R 41310 London, 1916. 8vo, pp. xi, 307. making.
(Leon)
L'etat,
le droit objectif et
la loi positive.
[Extrait
MACDONALD
(Allan John Smith) Trade politics and Christianity in With an introduction by Sir Harry Johnston, Africa and the east. 42114 G.C.M.G. London, 1916. 8vo, pp. xxi, 295.
.
WALL1S (Wilson Dallam) Individual initiative and social compulsion. ... A thesis presented to the faculty and trustees of the University on
in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree [sic] Pennsylvania of doctor of philosophy, June, 1915. [Reprinted from the American
Anthropologist,
vol.
17.]
Lancaster,
Pa., 1915.
8vo, pp. 647-55.
41014
WERGELAND
the middle ages. 8vo, pp. xvi, 158.
(Agnes Mathilde) Slavery in Germanic society during Chicago, [1916]. [With preface by J. F. Jameson.]
41 179
WILSON (Thomas Woodrow)

:
President of the United States of America.
LonCongressional government a study of the American constitution. 42297 8vo, pp. xvi, 344. don, 1914.
R
.
The
[1899].
state
elements of historical and practical
politics.
. .
Re-
vised edition.
introduction by 8vo, pp. xxxv, 656.
With
Oscar Browning.
London,
42287
330
:
SOCIOLOGY
in
. . .
POLITICAL ECONOMY.
GENERAL CANNAN
and distribution Second edition.
(Edwin)
English
A history of
political
economy from 1776

8vo, pp.
xiii,
the theories of production to 1848.
London, 1903.
422.
R
R
42307
COHEN (Julius Henry) Law and order in industry. \^New York, 1916. 8vo, pp. xviii, 292. GEBHARD (Hannes) Co-operation in Finland.
Smith-Gordon.
. . .
Five years' experience.
41086
190.
Edited by Lionel
8vo, pp.
xiii,
With
a map.
London, 1916.
41
568

330
503
SOCIOLOGY: POLITICAL ECONOMY.
NlCHOLLS
[A.D.
history of the English poor law in connec(Sir George) . tion with the state of the country and the condition of the people Re-issue of the new edition containing the re924-A.D. 1898].
. .
visions
(Vol. 3 vols.
3.
made by the author and a biography by H. G. Willink. London, [With portrait.] By Thomas Mackay.)
8vo.
:
1904.
42301
NOURSE
in
a selection of materials Agricultural economics (Edwin G.) which economic principles are applied to the practice of agriculture. R 41805 8vo, pp. xxv, 896. Chicago, [1916]. [With illustrations.]
SCHLOESSER (Henry Herman) and CLARK

position of trade unions.
.
Second
edition.
(William Smith) The legal London, 1913. 8vo,
pp.
xliv,
268.
R
. . .
42305
:
CAPITAL AND LABOUR.

. . .
EsTEY Q. A.). Revolutionary syndicalism With an introduction by L. Lovell an exposition and a criticism. R 42304 Price London, 1913. 8vo, pp. xxxii, 212.
SOCIALISM.
Saint- Simon.
HUBBARD
.
et ses travaux.
Suivi de
Saint-Simon, sa vie (Nicolas Gustave Ad.). fragments des plus celebres ecrits de
1857.
[Bibliotheque des Sciences Morales et Politiques.] 8vo, pp. 316.
Paris,
R 36100
.
. .
JANET
(Paul Alexandre Rene) Saint- Simon et le saint- simonisme. Cours professe a 1'Ecole des Sciences Politiques. [Bibliotheque de
Philosophic
Contemporaine.]
Paris,
1878.
8vo,
pp.
vi,
171.
R
FINANCE.
Kingdom.
36099
United 41 1 16
HlGGS (Henry)
London, 1914.
The
8vo, pp.
financial
x,
system
of
the
218.
in
PROTECTION.
tection
in
A history of German
Various
DAWSON
fiscal
(William Harbutt) Protection
Germany.
policy during the nineteenth century. [ProLondon, 1904. 8vo, pp. 259. Countries.]
421 64
340
SOCIOLOGY: LAW.
The
student's edition.
GENERAL: AUSTIN
prudence
;
(John)
Lectures on
.
juris-
positive philosophy Abridged from the larger work for the use of students by Robert Campbell. 40844 London, 1875. 8vo, pp. xxxix, 504.
of
or
the
law.
BRYCE
-N
Oxford
1893.
(James)] Viscount Bryce. Legal studies in the University of a valedictory lecture delivered before the University, June 1 0,
:
London, 1893.
8vo, pp. 35.
40904
DlGBY (Kenelm Edward) An

real property.
introduction to the history of the law of

.
With
.
original authorities.
Fourth edition.
Oxford,
1892.
8vo,; PP xiv, 446.
40806
504

340
SOCIOLOGY: LAW.
in prison
:
DODD
The
Futurity. ... which are added, his last prayer, written in the night before his death ; the convict's address to his unhappy brethren [by S. Johnson, with
(William) Thoughts Public retrospect.
in five parts, viz.
The
imprisonment.
punishment.
The
trial.
To
additions by Dodd] and other miscellaneous account of the author, and a list of his works.
: . . . .
W.
The
With an pieces. third edition.
[With
portrait.]
London, 1789.
8vo, pp. xxxvi, 208.
39959
ESMEIN
(Jean Paul Hippolyte Emmanuel) afterwards (Adhemar) Le serment promissoire dans le droit canonique. [Extrait de la Nouvelle revue de droit frangais et etranger.] Paris, 1888. 8vo, pp. 71. R 40891
FlNCH (Gerard Brown) Legal
education
its
aim and
method.
[An
inaugural lecture delivered at Queen's College, Cambridge, Oct. 16th, 40906 London, [1886]. 8vo, pp. 16. 1885.]
%* The
title is
GROOT (Hugo
traducteur.
de)
Le
droit
de
la
guerre
. .
et
de
;
la paix.
Nouvelle
Avec les notes de 1'auteur meme, traduction, par Jean Barbeyrac. . n'avoient point encore paru en francois de nouvelles notes du qui
&
[With
portrait]
Amsterdam,
1724.
vols.
4to.
R
The
elements of jurisprudence. 8vo, pp. xxvi, 458.
International law.
42255
. .
HOLLAND
Twelfth
(Thomas Erskine)
edition.
Oxford, 1916.
41855
40842
INTERNATIONAL.
8vo, pp.
ix,
BATY
(Thomas)
London, 1909.
364.
FABIAN SOCIETY.
Woolf.
International government: two reports by L. S. Prepared for the Fabian research department, together with a project by a Fabian committee for a supernational authority that will R 40944 London. [1916]. 8vo, pp. 259. prevent war.
arbitration cases compromis and awards with decided under the provisions of the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 for the pacific settlement of international disputes and Boston texts of the Conventions. By George Grafton Wilson.
:
HAGUE.
maps
The Hague
in cases
and London,
1915.
8vo, pp.
x,
525.
40036
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN.

plan of government
.
BACON
(Charles
. .
.
W.) The American
the constitution of the United States as interpreted

. .
assisted by Franklyn by accepted authorities. By C. W. Bacon, . S. Morse. With an introduction by George Gordon Battle. R 41513 New York and London, 1916. 8vo, pp. xxi, 474.
. .
ENGLAND.
editor,
. . .
digest of
English
civil
law.
By Edward Jenks
W. M.
C. Miles.
ii.
Geldart
.
.
J.
R. W. Lee ... London, 1905-14. 9 vols.
...
W.
S.
Holdsworth
8vo.
40855
1.
General.
iii.
By E.
Jenks.
1905.
2.'i,
2.
3.
Law of contract. By R. W. Lee. 2 vols. 1906-7. Law of quasi-contract and tort. By J. C. Miles. 2 vols. Law of property. By E. Jenks. 4 vols. 191 1-14.
1908-10.

340 SOCIOLOGY:
505
LAW.
ENGLAND.
. .
Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen. In der Ursprache mit Ueberund einem antiquarischen Glossar, herausgegeben Reinhold Schmid von Zweite, vollig umgearbeitete und R 40829 1858. vermehrte Auflage. 8vo, pp. Ixxxiii, 680. Leipzig,
setzung, Erlauterungen
. . . .
HALE
the
. .
The history of (Sir Matthew) Lord ChiefJustice of England. of England, and an analysis of the civil part of the law. and some account edition, with additional notes of the life of the author, by Charles Runnington. London, 1820. R 40781 vol. 8vo. 2 parts in
common law The sixth
. . .
HOLMES
1881.
(Oliver Wendell) the Younger. 8vo, pp. xvi, 422.
The common
law.
London,
40783
:
MAITLAND
Rede
98.
lecture for
the (Frederic William) English law and the renaissance with some notes. 1901. 8vo, pp. 1901, Cambridge,
40766
MOYLE (John Baron)
The contract of sale
in the civil
law
ences to the laws of England, Scotland, and France. 8vo, pp. xiii, 271.
Oxford,
with refer1892.
40769
REEVES
to the
(John) History of the English law, from the time of the Saxons, end of the reign of Philip and Mary (to the end of the reign of The third edition. 5 vols. London, 1814-29. Elizabeth).
. . .
8vo.
R
Vol. 5
is
40857
%*
of the
first
edition.
RICHARD,
of Ely, Bishop of London.
De
necessariis observantiis scac. .

.
Edited by commonly called Dialogus de scaccario. Arthur Hughes, C. G. Crump and C. Johnson. 8vo, Oxford, 1902. R 38718 pp. viii, 250.
carii dialogus,
WILSON
[Historical
(Sir Roland Knyvet) Bart. History of modern English law. R 40822 London, 1875. 8vo, pp. xvi, 306. Handbooks.]
FOREIGN.
Dritte
BLUNTSCHLI
. .
durch Aufnahme Auflage, besorgt von

pp. xxxi, 775.
(Johann Caspar) Deutsches Privatrecht. des Handels-und Wechselrechts erweiterte

. .
Felix Dahn.
Miinchen,
1864.
8vo,
R 40846
du
droit prive a 1'usage des
1*
BRISSAUD
(Jean Baptiste) Manuel d'histoire etudiants en licence et en doctoral. . . .
Ouvrage couronne par

Prix Koenigswarter.
Aca-
demic des sciences morales

1908.
et
politiques.
Paris,
8vo, pp. 916.

Brissonii
; . .
.
40830
BRISSON (Barnabe) Barnabae

tinent significatione libri
juris civilis
editi
de verborum quae ad jus perjam itaaucti ut absolutissimum in Corpus indicem praestare queant ex analectis Jo. Ottonis Taboris
XIX
plurimisque novis accessionibus locupletati a Jo. Christiano Lipsia, 1 72 1 Fol, PP 1 1 43.

.
Ittero.
R 42252
33
506

340 SOCIOLOGY:
LAW.
...
in titulum
BRONCHORST
emendation
(Everardus) E. Bronchorst
Lug<t. Batavor, 1641.
Digestorum de
diversis regulis juris antiqui enarrationes.
Editio postrema, prioribus 12 mo, pp. 355. 42266
BRUNNER
Zweite Auflage. (Heinrich) Deutsche Rechtsge chichte. [Systematisches Handbuch der Deutschen Rechtswissenschaft. 2, i.i.]
. . .
Leipzig, 1906.
8vo.
In progress.
. . .
40868
Grundziige der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte.

Leipzig, 1910.
8vo, pp.
vii,
336.
Vierte Auflage40831
BUCKLAND
private law.
(William Warwick) Elementary principles of the Roman R 40838 Cambridge, 1912. 8vo, pp. viii, 419.
in
Equity
Roman law
lectures
delivered in
the
London,
pp.
vii,
at
the request of the Faculty of Laws.
London, 1911.
University of 8vo,
136.
. . .
40834
CARPZOV
Benedicti Carpzovii (Benedict) the Younger. jurisprudentia forensis Romano- Saxonica, secundum ordinem constitutionum.
. .
Augusti Electoris Saxon, in partes quatuor divisa, rerum et quaestionum in foro praesertim Saxonico occurrentium, et in dicasterio sepdefmitiones judiciales temvirali Saxonico exhibens, revisa ab
. .
.
Andrea Mylio.
1684.
Editio
novissima.
Lipsia
&
Francofurti,
Fol., pp. 1492.
R
rerum criminalium pars
.
41 687
%*
There
is
Practicae novas imperialis Saxonicae mendis Editio octava, ab

.
(-III)
vindicata.
1684.
3vols. inl.
Fol.
Wittebergce, 41 687
CHAISEMARTIN
en eux-memes
et
(A.) Proverbes et maximes du droit germanique etudies dans leurs rapports avec le droit francais. Paris, 1891.
8vo, pp. xxx, 585.
40794
CLARK (Edwin
1906-14.
1.
Charles) History of 8vo. 3vols.

2
vols.
Roman
private
law.
Cambridge, R 40841
Sources.
2. Jurisprudence.
COHN,
afterwards CONRAT (Max) Geschichte der Quellen und Literatur 1 vol. des romischen Rechts im friiheren Mittelalter. Leipzig, \ 889. R 40847 8vo.
%* No
more published.
. . .
COLLINET
1912.
1 .
(Paul) Etudes historiques sur le droit de Justinien. In progress. 8vo.

caracte.-e oriental
Paris,
40867
Le
de 1'oeuvre
legislative
de Justinien
et les destinies
des institutions
classiques en Occident.

340
507
SOCIOLOGY: LAW.
juri cliques
CUQ
(douard) Les
J.
institutions
leurs rapports
Preface par
1.
avec 1'etat E. Labbe.
social et
. .
des Remains envisagees dans progres de la jurisprudence. 8vo. Paris, 1902-04. .2 vols.
avec
les
R
institutions juridiques
40859
L'ancien droit.
2.
-
Le
1904. (Seconde edition . . . refondue.) 1902. droit classique et le droit du Bas-Empire.
Manuel des
viii,
des Remains.
Paris,
1917.
8vo, pp.
938.
42 135
.
ElCHHORN
Fiinfte verbesserte
(Carl Friedrich) Deutsche Staats-und Rechtsgeschichte. 4 vols. 8vo. Gbttingen, 1 843-44. Ausgabe.
40864
ESMEIN
(Jean Paul Hippolyte Emmanuel) afterwards (Adhemar) Cours elementaire d'histoire du droit francais, a 1'usage des etudiants de . . Ouvrage couronne par 1* Academic des sciences premiere annee.
.
morales et politiques. vii, 828.

-
Neuvieme
du
edition.
Paris, 1908.
R
droit et
8vo, pp.
40792
Paris,
Melanges
d'histoire
ii,
de
critique.
Droit romain.
1886.
8vo, pp.
420.
40809
Revolution, consulat
^Precis elementaire de 1'histoire du droit francais de 1789 a 1814. 8vo, pp. viii, 382. Paris, 1908. empire.
&
40793
in
EUROPE.
J.
A general
survey of events, sources, persons,
&
movements
continental legal history.
By
liii,
various
H. Wigmore.]
[With maps.]
8vo, pp. 754.
.
[Edited by European [Continental Legal History Series 1 .]
authors.
London, 1912.
40810
FAVRE
(Antoine) Antonii Fabri. (Tertiam) Partem Pandectarvm. Titvlos Nonnvllos Qvartae 1526-31. pendix. . .) Geneves,
.
Rationalia In
.
.
Primam Et Secvndam
.
.
.
(A. Fabri
Rationalivm In
&
6
Qvintae
partis vols. in 4. Fol.

.
. .
Pandectarvm Ap-
R 42239
FERRETTUS
Ferretti Opera, quae haberi (Aemilius) Magni Aemyl. omnia. Qvibvs Continentvr, Tarn Quae, dum Romas, vnquam potuerunt, Valentiae profiteretur, auditoribus suis publice dictauit Avenioni, quam quae, dum viueret, ipse edidit Hac Serie I. Notae in IV. Libros
&
Institutionum
lustiniani.
Libros.
tatus
III.
in praecipuos II. Praelectiones Praelectiones in praecipuos Codicis Titulos.
Pandectarum IV. Trac.
Nvnc Vero Ex Ipsius Auctoris de Mora, Responsa LX. Cum Vita Auctoris. edita. [Printer's Recognitione 598. device beneath imprint.] Francofurti, Ex Officina M. Zach4 pts. in 1 vol. 4to. arice Palthenii, sumtibus loncz Rhodii.
. . .
.
&
.
R
.
42279
Annasi
FERRlkRES
Ferrerii
.
(Jacques) . cura
.
luris
tractatus
varii
lacobi
Ferrerii
&
industria in
lucem
editi.
Tolosce, 1652.
Fol., pp.
362.
R 42235
508

340
SOCIOLOGY
LAW.
FLACH
(Jacques Geoffroi) Etudes critiques sur 1'histoire du droit remain au moyen age, avec textes inedits. Paris, 1890. 8vo, pp. 336.
R R
40807
La bonorum possessio mencement du II e siecle jusqu'a

-
sous les
Justinien exclusivement.
empereurs remains depuis le comParis, 1870.
8vo, pp. 180.
408 14
;
GAIUS,
or,
the Jurist.
Gaii institutionum iuris
civilis
commentarii quattuor
elements of
8vo, pp.
Roman
. . .
law.
With
a translation
and commentary
Oxford,
by Edward Poste.
1890.
Third
edition, revised
and enlarged.
xviii,
685.
.
.
R
. .
.
40804
GlRARD
(Paul Frederic)
1'
couronne par
Manuel elementaire de droit romain. Academic des sciences morales et politiques.

Paris, 1906.
Ouvrage
.Qua-
trieme edition, revue et augmentee.
8vo, pp. xvi, 1115.
R
8vo.
40803
Melanges de
I.
droit romain.
Paris, 1912.
In progress.
40856
.
Histoire des sources.

.
Textes de droit romain. Publics et annotes par P. F. Girard. Troisieme edition revue et augmentee. Part's, 1903. 8vo, pp. xv, 857.
.
40802
GLASSON
tives
(Ernest Desire) Etude sur Gaius et sur quelques difficultes relaNouvelle edition, completement aux sources du droit romain. R 40813 refondue. Paris, 1885. 8vo, pp. 333.
. .
**
This copy
is
interleaved.
GOVEANUS
(Antonius)
Antonii
Goveani
referant.
.-
Disciplinae claustra continent
&
Vna cum
Opera. Qvae Summarijs

.
Ciuilis
&
notis
Et indice. ad vniuscuiusque legis interpretationem. Ex Officina Vincentii, device beneath title.] Lvgdvni,
8vo, pp.
[4],
[Printer's
M.D.XCIX.
907, [15].
Gravinae
.
.
R
.
42272
GRAVINA
1717.)
(Giovanni Vincenzo) Jani Vine. extant omnia, in tres tomos divisa. [Edited
4to, pp. 715.
opera quae
(Lipsia,
by
J.
B. Mencke.]
40881
HAENEL
num
res
(Gustav) Corpus legum ab imperatoribus Romanis ante
lustinia-
latarum, quae extra constitutionum codices supersunt.
Accedunt
illustratur.
ab imperatoribus gestae, quibus Romani iuris historia et imperii status Ex monumentis et scriptoribus Graecis Latinisque collegit, ad temporis rationem disposuit, indicibus, qui codices quoque comprehendunt, constitutionum, rerum, personarum, locorum instruxit G. Haenel. vol. 4to. 2 pts. in Lipsiae, 185 7 [-60].
. . .
R 40884
R
HARRIS (Seymour
A concise digest
Justinian.
. . .
Frederick)
The
elements of
Roman law
of the matter contained in the Institutes of
summarized. Gaius and
London, 1875.
8vo, pp.
xi,
204.
40805

340 SOCIOLOGY:
509
LAW.
.
KARLOWA (Otto)
1.
Romische Rechtsgeschichte.
Leipzig, 1885.
8vo.
40879
. .
.
Staatsrecht
und Rechtsquellen.
KELKE
(William Henry
Hastings)
An
epitome of
8vo, pp.
Roman
vi,
law.
[Students' Epitomes, 3.]
London, 1901.
268.
.
R
.
.
40778
Dritte
KlPP (Theodor) .Geschichte

vermehrte
. . .
Auflage.
der Quellen des romischen Rechts 8vo, pp. viii, 189. Leipzig, 1909.
40790
KOENIGSWARTER
France depuis couronne par
.
.
les
(Louis Jean) Histoire de 1'organisation de la famille en Memoire temps les plus recules jusqu'a nos jours.
1'Institut,
Academic des
viii,
sciences morales
et
politiques.
Parts, 1851.
8vo, pp.
371.
40801
KUNTZE
Institutionem sowie der ausseren
R 40799 Zweite Auflage. Leipzig, 1879-80. 2 vols. 8vo. de doctorat sur I'histoire du droit matrimonial LEFEBVRE (Charles) Cours 8vo. R 40789 francais. 2 vols. Paris, 1906-08.
.
.
.
Lehrbuch der (Johannes Emil) Cursus des romischen Rechts. und inneren Rechtsgeschichte. (Excurse Hiilfsbuch fur academische Privatstudien im iiber romisches Recht. Gebiet der Institutionem sowie der ausseren und inneren Rechtsgeschichte.)
Le
Introduction ge'nerale. 1906. droit des gens marie's. 1908.

:
LEHR
(Paul Ernest) Traite elementaire de droit civil germanique magne et Autriche. Paris, 1892. 2 vols. 8vo.
Alle-
40773
LEIST (Burkard Wilhelm) Graeco-italische Rechtsgeschichte.

8vo, pp.
xviii,
Jena, 1884.
769.
40763
MAASSEN
.
.
.
(Friedrich) Geschichte der Quellen und der Literatur des canonischen Rechts im Abendlande bis zum Ausgange des Mittelalters. Zur Ausfiihrung wissensohaftlicher Reisen und Vorarbeiten ist das Unternehmen auf Grund des Beschlusses der kais. Academic der Wissenschaften vom 28. December 1 865 unterstiitzt durch die Savigny8vo. 1 vol. 40764 Grate, 1870 [1871]. Stiftung.
MARAN
(Guillaume de) Paratitla in
XLII
priores Digestorum
libros.
by Raymond de Maran.] Parisiis, 1661. Fol, pp. 961.

[Edited
[With
portrait.]
Tolosce
and
.
.
R
.
.
42243
.
M ARC AN O
I
Marciani. Opera legalia posthuma lucem edita cum summariis & indice. [Edited by Giovanni Francesco Marciano.] 5 pts. in vol. Fol. Neapoli, 680.
(Marcello)
in
M.
Nunc primum
R
MENDOZA
urn luris
42250
Mendoga, disputation(Ferdinandus de) Domini Ferdinandi Ad ciuilis, in difficiliores leges ff. de Pactis. Libri Tres.
Philippvm II, Hispaniae, Siciliae, & vtriusque Indiae, Comptvti, Ex Typographia, Ferdinandi Ramirez, PP [4], 763 [error for 759], [1].
.
Regem Catholicum. Anno 1586. Fol.,
R 42259
**
Title within
woodcut border.
510

340 SOCIOLOGY:
LAW.
.
MENOCHIUS
.
.
A Multis
De Adipiscenda, Retinenda, (Jacobus) lacobi Menochii Commentaria. Nunc denuo ab ipso Et Recvperanda Possessione Accesservnt Responsa. Cavsae Finariensis auctore recognita
.
. . . .
Italiae
celeberrimis lurisconsultorum Collegijs reddita,
eodem
auctore edita.
Adiecta
2
sunt
Summaria,
Gyjtinicvm,
vol.
Indicesq3.
Coloniae
Agrippinae,
Apvd loannem
pts. in
.
Svb
Monocerote,
Anno
M.D.LXXXVH.
Cavsis, Libri
Fol.
42234-2
lacobi Menochii
De
.
Arbitrariis
eruditione referti, Dvo, Varia exercentibus, oppido quam necessarij. prassertim

. .
.
Ivdicvm Qvaestionibvs Et & omnibus, iudicia

. .
Nunc demum
hacq3 omnium postrema auctoris recognitione, multarum rerum auctione illustrati inclusimus. quas his notis [ ] Accessit Praeterea Libro Secvndo Centvria Qvinta Adiecta sunt Summaria, Indicesq5 duo copiosi. [Printer's device beneath title.] Coloniae Agrippinae, Apvd loannem Gymnicvm, Svb Monocerote,
multis in locis restituti
.
.
Anno M.D.LXXXVH.
Fol., pp. [24],
649
[error for 646], [120].
42234
MlTTEIS (Ludwig) Romisches Privatrecht bis auf die Zeit Diokletians. [Systematisches Handbuch der Deutschen [Rechtswissenschaft. 1. vi.J
'
Leipzig. 1908.
I .
vol.
8vo.
Grundbegriffe und Lehre von den juristischen Personen.
R
. .
40872
MOD DERM AN
MOMMSEN
.
. .
(W.) Die Reception des romischen Rechts

. . .
Autorisirte
.
.
Ubersetzung mit Zusatzen herausgegeben von
Karl Schulz.
Jena {Leipzig printed}, 1875.

par
.
8vo, pp.
vi,
128.
. . .
40765
Traduit de 1'allemand (Theodor) Le droit penal romain. Tome deuxieme (-troisieme). [Manuel J. Duquesne. 2 vols. 8vo. des Antiquites Romaines, 8, 9.] Paris, 907.
.
.
40875
.
.
PADELLETTI (Guido) Lehrbuch
der romischen Rechtsgeschichte Mit Riicksichtnahme auf das deutsche UniversitatsDeutsche Ausgabe. studium besorgt von Franz von Holtzendorff. Berlin, 1879. 8vo, pp.
.
xii,
458.
40774
PHILLIPS (Georg) Grundsatze des gemeinen deutschen

Einschluss des Lehnrechts
. . .
Privatrechts mit
Dritte verbesserte Auflage.
Berlin,
1846.
vols.
8vo.
40775
:
RlVIER (Alphonse Pierre Octave) Introduction
historique au droit romain
manuel-programme pour servir aux cours universitaires et a 1'etude privee comprenant une chrestomathie elementaire et quelques lineaments d'histoire
litteraire et
biographique.
Bruxelles,
872.
8vo, pp.
vii,
580.
40845
ROBY (Henry
to therein.
John)
An
containing an account of
introduction to the study of Justinian's Digest, its composition and of the jurists used or referred
Cambridge, 1886.
8vo, pp. cclxxix.
40825

340
511
SOCIOLOGY: LAW.
ROME.
.
. .
Arnold! Vinnii ... in quatuor libros Institutionum imperialium commentarius academicus & forensis. [With text.] Jo. Gottl. Heineccius
recensuit et praefationem notulasque adjecit.
4to, pp. 908.
Lugduni Batavorum,
726.
42245
Libri
Codicis Dn. Ivstiniani Sacratiss. Principis Ex Repetita Praelectione XII. ex fide antiq. exemplarium, quoad fieri potuit, a Greg. Haloandro diligentissime purgati recogniticj. Adiecta Svnt Operi Haec.
Summulae quaedam Nouellarum constitutionum lustiniani principis quas Authenticas uulgus appellat, sparsim per IX. Codicis libros a posteris insertae. Excerpta constitutionum Friderichi Imperatoris, quas sub certis titulis codici leguntur apposita. alioqui [Printer's device beneath title.] Basileae Apod lo. Hervagivin Anno M.XLI. Fol., pp. [28],
. . .
685
[error for 695], [1].
R R R
42241
by
Translated into English, with Institutes of Justinian. B. Moyle. . . . Fifth edition. 8vo, pp. Oxford, 1913. J.
-
The
an index, viii, 220.
40605
Johannis
Friderici
Bockelmanni
compendium
institutionum
Sive elementa juris civilis in brevem Caes. Justiniani. redacta. Lugduni Batav., 1679. 12mo, pp. 3.16. %* There is also an engraved title-page.
&
facilem ordinem
42267
SAVIGNY
(Friedrich Carl von) Histoire du droit remain au moyen age. Traduite de 1'allemand sur la derniere edition, et precedee d'une notice Charles Guenoux. sur la vie et les ecrits de 1'auteur par 8vo. 4vols. in 3. R 40866 Paris, 1839.
.
System des heutigen romischen Rechts.

Traite de droit remain.
Berlin, 1840.
vols.
8vo.
.
R
.
.
40865
.
Guenoux.
-
Paris, 1840-41.
Traduit de 1'allemand par 2 vols. 8vo.

5 vols.
.
Ch.
Vermischte Schriften.
Berlin, 1850.
8vo.
R 40849 R 40862
SCHLOSSMANN
Guilelmi II, imperatoris (Siegmund) Diei natalis . . faustissima sollemnia quorum laetitiam oratio a professore publico regis, ordinario Ernesto Siemerling habenda interpretabitur die xxvii mensis
lanuarii
MCMIV.
Inest
:
in
rector et consistorium
Kiliensis.
magna aula universitatis academicum Universitatis

.
celebranda indicunt
Christianae Albertinae
S.
Schlossmann
dissertatio patrio
sermone scripta
De
in iure cessione et mancipatione.
Kiliae, 1904.
8vo, pp. 79.
40870
SCHULTE
(Johann
Friedrich
von)
Literatur des canonischen Rechts von Gratian bis auf die
Stuttgart, 1875-80.
vols. in 3.
Die Geschichte der Quellen und Gegenwart. R 40853 8vo.
SERAFINI
patrio.
(Filippo) Istituzioni di diritto romano comparato al diritto civile Firenze, Quinta edizione riveduta e notevolmente aumentata.
1892.
1vol.
8vo.
40848
512

340 SOCIOLOGY:
LAW.
examination guide
;
SHEARWOOD
(Joseph Alexander)
Roman law
con-
taining an historical sketch, tables, an analysis, and examination questions and answers, selected chiefly from recent Bar examinations. Designed
Second edition, revised for the Bar and other law examinations. and enlarged. R 40828 London. 1910. 8vo, pp. 197. SOCIETE DE LEGISLATION COMPARÊ. Annuaire de legislation franPublic par la Societe de legislation comparee. Contenant le texte <jaise. des principales lois votees en France en 1892 (-1895). Douzieme 4 vols. in 2. 8vo. R 40882 Paris, 1893-96. (-quinzieme) annee.
.
SOHM
(Rudolph) The
Institutes of
Roman
law.
Translated, from the

.
. .
With German, by James Crawford Ledlie. an introductory essay by Erwin Grueber. Oxford, 1892. 8vo, R 40832 pp. xxxv, 520.
fourth edition of the
.
STINTZING (Roderich von) Geschichte
Edited by Ernst Landsberg.] [Vol. 2. ten in Deutschland. Neuere Zeit. 18.]

84.
der deutschen Rechtswissenschaft. [Geschichte der Wissenschaf-
vols.
8vo.
Milnchen and Leipzig, 1880R 40876

Rechtsquellen. 8vo. 40854
STOBBE
Bearbeitet von
(Johann Ernst Otto) Geschichte der deutschen O. Stobbe. Leipzig, 1860-64. 2 vols.
TARDIF (Adolphe
origines romaines.
Francois Lucien) Histoire des sources du droit Paris, 1890. 8vo, pp. v, 527.
franc,ais
40820
TROPLONG (Raymond
droit civil des
Theodore) De 1'influence du Christianisme sur le R 40819 Remains. 8vo, pp. 368. Paris, 1843.
VlLOSA
(Rafael de) Tractatus de fugitivis ad explicationem Claudii TryD. de verbo sign. Nunc secundo in phonini in 1. Fugitiuus 225. lucem prodit ab auctore varijs capitulis auctus, aliquibus dissertationibus
&
ad praxim valde
Fol.
vtilibus exornatus.
Neapoli, 1674.
pts. in
vol.
42248
WARNKCENIG
(Leopold August) and STEIN (Lorenz von) Franzosische Staats-und Rechtsgeschichte von L. A. Warnkcenig und L. Stein (Th. A. Warnkoenig). (Mit Basel, 1846-48. Geschichtskarten.) 40863 3 vols. 8vo.
.
1846. Franzosische Staatsgeschichte von L. A. Warnkoenig. 2. Geschichte der Rechtsquellen und des Privatrechts von L. A. Warnkoenig und T. 1848. Warnkoenig. 1846. 3. Geschichte des franzosischen Strafrechts und des Processes von L. Stein.
1.
A.
WlLHELM
Le
2 vols.
1.
droit romain
(A.) Examen de premiere (deuxieme) annee, premiere partie. resume en tableaux synoptiques. Paris, 889- [90]
. . .
8vo.
40880
2.
1889. Septieme edition, revue et augmentee de notes explicatives. Cinquieme edition, revue et augmentee de notes explicatives. [1890],
WILLIS (Walter Addington)
Willis and Oliver's Roman law examination Third edition, guide for bar and university. Questions and answers. rewritten. David T. Oliver and W. Nalder Williams. partly By 40823 London, 1910. 8vo, pp. x, 392, 20.
.
.

350 SOCIOLOGY:
513
LOCAL GOVERNMENT.
of municipal adminis-
MUNRO
tration.
(William Bennett) Principles and methods New York, 1916. 8vo, pp. xi, 491.
41
15
PRATT (Edwin
1914.
A.) The
rise of
rail-power in
war and conquest, 18338vo, pp.

xii,
With
a bibliography.
London, 1915.
405.
42306
SANDERSON
(T. J. Cobden-) The city planned. Reprinted from the Westminster Gazette, 27 October, 1910. [Subscribed: T. J. CobdenR 41377 Sanderson.] {Hammersmith}, Doves Press, [1910]. 8vo.
370
SOCIOLOGY
vi,
EDUCATION.
Cam41522
GENERAL. EDDY
CAMPAGNAC
8vo, pp.
(Ernest Trafford) Converging paths.

113.
.
. .
bridge, 1916.
The students of Asia. With foreword by the Arthur Lawley, G.C.S.I. Edited for (British edition. the United Council for Missionary Education by Basil Yeaxlee. .) R 41517 London, 1916. 8vo, pp. xxii, 305.
(G. Sherwood)
Sir
Hon.
INDIA.
Hindu mind
training.
By an Anglo-Saxon
. . .
mother.
With an
introduction by S.
M.
Mitra.
London, 1917.
in education.
8vo, pp. xxiv, 536.
41
803
8vo,
KEATINGE
pp.
viii,
(Maurice Walter) Studies
London, 1916.
205.
R 41 061
:
KlRTON
(Charles H.) The principles and practice of continuation teaching a manual of principles and teaching methods specially adapted to the
requirements of teachers in commercial and continuation schools. don, [1917]. 8vo, pp. xi, 364.
Lon42155
MONTESSORI
tinuazione del volume
Con(Maria) L'autoeducazione nelle scuole elementari. II metodo della pedagogia scientifica applicato all* educazione infantile nelle case dei bambini. [With plates and illus41385 Roma, 1916. 8vo, pp. xxiii, 579. trations.]
:
PARKER
With
illustrations.
(William Belmont) Edward Rowland Sill his life and work. Boston and New York, 1915. 8vo, pp. viii, 307.
:
. .
40940
a fore-
PAYNE
(George Henry) The child

. .
.
in
.
human
. .
progress.
With
word by A.
With Jacobi. London, 1916. 8vo, pp. xix, 400.

(Kenneth)
introduction
illustrations.
New
York and R 41085
RICHMOND
The permanent
values
in
education.
With an
xxiii,
by A. Clutton-Brock.
London, [1917].
8vo, pp.
136.
42092
SADOLETO (Jacopo) Cardinal. Sadoleto on education a translation of the De pueris recte instituendis. With notes and introduction by E. T.
:
Campagnac
141.
and K. Forbes.
Oxford, 1916.
8vo, pp.
xlviii.
41527
514

370
SOCIOLOGY
EDUCATION.
VASSAR
(Matthew) The autobiography and letters of M. Vassar. Edited New York, 1916. [With plates.] by Elizabeth Hazelton Haight. R 41 501 8vo, P p.210.
WATSON (Foster) The old grammar schools.

Manuals
150.
of
Science and Literature.]
[With plates.] Cambridge, 1916.
[Cambridge
8vo, pp. vi, 41 579
UNIVERSITY.
8vo, pp.
x,
:
BAKER
and college reform

189.
relative to school
(James Hutchins) American University progress and society. New York, 1916.
41 104
CAMBRIDGE
.
Admissions to Trinity College, Cambridge. University of. Edited by W. W. Rouse Ball and J. A. Venn. Cambridge, 1911-16. 5vols. 8vo. 42440
.
.
CAMPBELL (Edward De
the University
of
Mille)
History of
the chemical laboratory of

. .
.
Michigan,
1856-1916.
[With
plates.]
Ann
42366
Arbor, 1916.
8vo, pp. 166.

of.
GLASGOW
University
roll of
the graduates of the University of

.
Glasgow from 31st December, 1727 to 31st December, 1897, with short Glasîns, biographical notes. Compiled by W. Innes Addison. R 42388 1898. 4to, pp. x, 695.
.
.
GOODSPEED (Thomas
history of the University of Chicago, Wakefield) founded by John D. Rockefeller the first quarter-century. [With a foreword by H. P. Judson and an introduction by F. T. Gates.] [With R 40723 8vo, pp. xvi, 522. Chicago, [1916]. plates.]
:
:
LEIDEN
Rijks Universiteit.
Bronnen
door.
20.]
. .
tot
. *
Uitgegeven Geschiedkundige Publication.

progress. 1. 15747
Febr., 1610.
:
Universiteit.
de geschiedenis der Leidsche P. C. Molhuysen. [Rijks S-Gravenhage, 1913. 8vo. In
41589
MANCHESTER
chester.
8.
University
of.
Publications of the University of
Man-
Manchester, 1916.
:
8vo.
a study of the
English series. Duffin (H. C.) T. Hardy 1916. by C. H. Herford.]

Serie franchise.
2.
Wessex
novels.
[With a prefatory note
4J35]
Lingendes
(J.
introduction et des notes.
de) CEuvres poetiques de J. de Lingendes. Publie'e par E. T. Griffiths. ...
Edition critique avec une
R
studies.
41
594
MICHIGAN
1904,
1.
etc.
University In progress. 8vo.

series.
of.
University of
Michigan
Xew
York,
Humanistic
Roman
Historical Sources.
Roman
historical sources
and
institutions.
Edited by
H.
A. Sanders
3.
-1904.
Edited by C. L. Meader.
. .
Latin Philology.
.1910.
R 42284 R 42285
1910.
4.
Roman
History.
Roman
history
and mythology.
Edited by H. A. Sanders.
42286

*
515
370
SOCIOLOGY: EDUCATION.
I
5. Ration (C. S.) Sources of the synoptic gospels. ... [A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the department of literature, science, and the arts of the University of Michigan for 1915. the degree of doctor of philosophy.] 42434 6. Fairbanks (A.) Athenian lekythoi, with outline drawing in glaze varnish on a white
ground.- 1907.
7.
:
42435
Fairbanks (A.) Athenian lekythoi, with outline drawing in matt colour on a white ground. Appendix additional lekythoi with outline drawing in glaze varnish on a white
ground.-1914.
Scientific series.
42435
42437
Ford (W. B.) Studies on divergent
series
and summability.
1916.
380 SOCIOLOGY:
COMMERCE.
modern Eng-
AN (W. T.) The development of transportation in J AC land. Cambridge, 1916. 2 vols. 8vo. [With maps.]
396 SOCIOLOGY:
KM
25
WOMAN.
Scandinavia.
ANTHONY
1916.
(Katharine) Feminism in 8vo, pp. v, 260.
Germany and
et
R
:
London, 41 094
BRIDEL
(Louis)
Le
droit des
legislation comparee. 8vo, pp. Paris, 1893.
etudes critiques de le mariage de Philosophic Contemporaine.] [Bibliotheque
femmes
ii,
167.
40890
398 SOCIOLOGY:
FOLKLORE.
[From
BORDE (Andrew)
facsimiles.]
Introduction of knowledge".]
" The fyrst boke of the Thomas Crofton. [With By Henry [Reprinted from the Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society,
Borde's Egipt speche.
'
October, 1907.]
{Liverpool, 1907.]
8vo, pp. 12.
4091 5
%* The
logy.
velt.
.
title is
WESTERVELT
.
.
(William Drake) Hawaiian legends of volcanoes, mythoCollected and translated from the Hawaiian by W. D. Wester42093 8vo, pp. xv, 205. Boston, 1916. [With plates.]
400
DlHIGO Y MESTRE
.
.
PHILOLOGY: GENERAL.
estudio critico. (Juan Miguel) Regnaud y su obra la Revista de la Facultad de Letras y Ciencias.
:
Publicado en
portrait.]
[With
Habana, 1908.
8vo, pp. 20.
R 42120
JONG
van
(Jan Petrus Benjamin de Josselin de) De waardeeringsonderscheiding " " " in het Indogermaansch vergeleken met levenloos levend "en
in enkele
hetzelfde verschijnsel
studie.
Algonkintalen.
Ethno-psychologische
Academisch proefschrift ter verkrijging van den graad van doctor in de nederlandsche letteren, aan de Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden, voor B. D. Eerdmans op gezag van den rector-magnificus de faculteit der letteren en wijsbegeerte te verdedigen op Donderdag 15 Mei 1913, desnamiddags te 3 uur, door J. P. B. de J. de Jong. R 40954 8vo, pp. xii, 223, 8. Leiden, 1913.
. .
. . . .
.
516

420
PHILOLOGY
The
ENGLISH.
Leaflet (Pamphlet)
ENGLISH ASSOCIATION.
No. 17(-18, 20-35).
17.
English Association.
[Oxford printed], 1910-16.
8vo.
The teaching of English composition. 1910. 191 1. teaching of literature in French and German secondary schools. 1912. 20. Bradley (A. C.) The uses of poetry. 21. English literature in schools : a list of authors and works for successive stages of study.
Fowler 0- H.)
18.
Lee
(E.)
The
-1912.
22. Smith (J. C.) Some characteristics of Scots literature. 1912. 23. Short bibliographies of Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley, Keats. 1912. 24. Thackeray (A. I.) afterwards Ritchie (Lady A. I.). discourse on modern 1913. Sibyls. 1 9 1 3. 25. Gosse (E. W.) The future of English poetry.
26. Leathes (S. M.) P. Ker. 1913.
The
teaching of English at the universities.
With
a note
W.
by
27. Abercrombie (L.) Poetry and contemporary speech. 1914. and what they can do for us. 28. Smith (G. C. M.) The poet and the artist 1914. 29. Vaughan (C. E.) Bibliographies of Swinburne, Morris and Rossetti. 1914. 30. Boas (F. S.) Wordsworth's patriotic poems and their significance to-day. 1914. 1915. 31. Hadow (W. H.)The use of comic episodes in tragedy. 32. Colvin (off S.) On concentration and suggestion in poetry. 1915.
:
1915. 33. Fowler (J. H.) School libraries. 1916. 34. Wilson (J. D.) Poetry and the child. 1916. 35. Ker (W. P.) The eighteenth century.
GREENOUGH
Words and
431.
(James
their
Bradstreet)
and KlTTREDGE (George Lyman).

London, 1902.
8vo, pp. x, 41 554
ways
in English speech.
HODGKIN
(John) Proper terms

of the
an attempt
at a rational explanation of the
of phrases in book of St. Albans,'* meanings " of beestysand fowlys," and similar lists. . . . 1486, entitled Compaynys [Supplement to the Transactions of the Philological Society, 1907-1910.]
collection
"The
[London, 1910?]
8vo, pp. 187.

This copy
is
39696
\*
100 copies printed.
No. 74.
KALUZA
2
vols.
1
.
[Studien
(Max) Der altenglische Vers. Eine metrische Untersuchung. zum Germanischen Alliterationsvers. 1.2.] Berlin, 1894. R 41 544 8vo.
Kritik der bisherigen Theorien.
2.
Die Metrik des Beowulfliedes.
KOCH
. .
.
Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache (Ch. Friedrich). 8vo. 2 rols. Zweite Cassel, 1878-82. Auflage.
.
41
562
Auflage.
Zweite Flexions- Lehre der englischen Sprache. 1882. 2. Die Satzlehre der englischen Sprache. Zweite Auflage besorgt von . 1878.
1.
. . . . .
Die Laut-und
unveranderte
J.
Zupitza.
KONRATH
(Mathias)
[Extract from
teraturen. 88.]
Archiv
Flexionslehre des Mittelkentischen. das Studium der neueren Sprachen und Lit41542'2 8vo, pp. 47-66. [Braunschweig, 1892.]
fiir
Zur Laut-und

420
lexicon.
517
PHILOLOGY: ENGLISH.
[i.e.
LORING (Andrew) pseud,

.
Lorin
Andrews
Lathrop].
The
rhymers'
Compiled and edited by A. Loring with an introduction by London, [1907]. 8vo, pp. xlviii, 879. George Saintsbury. R 42433
.
.
MARSH
and
(George Perkins) Lectures on the English language.

8vo, pp.
viii,
New
30296
York, 1860.
697.
MOORMAN
W.
traditional
(Frederick William) Yorkshire dialect poems, 1673-1915; poems. Compiled with an historical introduction by F.
.
.
.
Moorman.
Second
xlii,
edition.
[Yorkshire
Dialect
Society.]
London, 1917.
8vo, pp.
136.
40919
PARTINGTON
tionists.
(S.) Future of old English words. problem for educafrom the " Middleton Guardian ". [With portrait.] Reprinted
Middleton, [1917].
8vo, pp.
xii,
255.
English
versification.
42151
41
SCHIPPER Qacob M.)

8vo, pp. xix, 390.
A history of
Oxford, 1910.
559
439
PHILOLOGY: DUTCH.
werkwoordsVerhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie Amsterdam. Afdeeling Letterkunde. Nieuwe
. .
KERN
(J.
H.)
in't
De met
het participium praeteriti omschreven

.
vormen
reeks.
Nederlands.
te
van Wetenschappen
Deel XII.
N.
2.
Amsterdam, 1912.
8vo, pp. xiv, 318.
40951
440-450
VERRIER
(A.
J.)
PHILOLOGY: FRENCH, ITALIAN. tfÔNlLLON (R.) Glossaire etymologique et

;
historique
des patois et des parlers de 1'Anjou comprenant le glossaire proprement dit des dialogues, contes, recits et nouvelles en patois, le folk-lore de la 15657 2 vols., 8vo. [With map.] province.
^^,1908.
ACCADEMIA DELLA CRUSCA.

Crusca.
In quest*
Vocabolario degli Accademici
della
vltima edizione da* medesimi riueduto, e ampliato, con aggiunta di molte voci degli autori del buon secolo, e buona quantita di quelle dell'vso. Con tre indici delle voci, locuzioni, et prouerbi latini,
e greci, posti per entro 1'opera.
Venetia,
1680.
Fol.,
R
.
.
pp. 940.
42069
CASTO
(Antonio
toscana.
del) Sogno di Fiorindo sopra rorigini della lingua Descritto da Antonio del Casto. . Firenze, 1692. 4to,
pp.216.
41951
FLORIO
Worlde of Wordes, Or Most copious, and exact (Giovanni) Printed at Dictionarie in Italian and English, collected by lohn Florio. London, by Arnold Hatfield for Edw. Blount, 1598. ([Colophon:]
motto "
Imprinted at London by Arnold Hatfield, for Edward Blunt : and are to be sold at his shop ouer against the great North dore of Paules R 40074 Fol., pp. [18], 462. Church, 1598.) *** Title within woodcut border, having in the base the initials C T and a device with
Non Vi Sed
Virtute ".
518

440-450 PHILOLOGY:
FRENCH, ITALIAN.
ZALLI
(Casimiro) Dizionario piemontese, italiano, latino e francese. ComC. Zalli. Edizione seconda, riordinata e di nuovi pilato dal vocaboli arrichita. 4to. Carmagnola, 830. 2 vols. in
. .
1 .
Wanting
the appendix.
4)
959
470
PHILOLOGY: LATIN AND ROMANCE LANGUAGES.
BUGGE
(Elseus Sophus) Das Verhaltnis der Etrusker zu den Indogermanen und der vorgriechischen Bevolkerung Kleinasiens und Griechenlands. Sprachliche Untersuchungen von S. Bugge. Herausgegeben von Alf R 20473 8vo, pp. viii, 241. Strassburg, 1909. Torp.
490
PHILOLOGY: MINOR LANGUAGES.

Drummond)
short vocabulary of the 8vo, pp. w, 20.
ANDERSON
. .
.
(James
Aka
language.
Shillong, 1896.
41749
ASSAM.
iii,
Some Assamese
annotated by
118.
...
Second edition. Compiled and proverbs. P. R. T. Gurdon. 8vo, Shillong, 1903.

.
. .
R41
BAILEY
(T. Grahame) Panjabi grammar.

in the
brief
grammar
spoken
Wazirabad
district.
Lahore, 1904.
of Panjabi as 8vo, pp. 60.
R
BELL
(Charles Alfred) Manual of colloquial Tibetan. 2 pts. in 1 vol. 8vo. Calcutta, 1905.
.
.
.
41
736
[With map.]
41275
8vo.
1
BRAY
(Denys de S.) The Brahui language. In progress

.
Calcutta, 1909.
R4
4 72
I.
Introduction and grammar.
BROWN
(William Barclay) An outline grammar of the Deori Chutiya With an introduction, illustrative language, spoken in Upper Assam. sentences and short vocabulary. 8vo, pp. viii, 84. Shillong, 1895.
41
754
CLARK (Mary
cabulary.
M.)
Ao Naga
grammar with
8vo, pp. 181.
illustrative
phrases and vo-
Shillong, 1893.
41465
DAL* (Vladimir
B.iajiiMipa /Ja.in
Ivanovitch) TO.IKOBUH cjiouapb KHBOFO Be.uiuopyccKaro T I<. TBepToe ncnpanjieiiHoe 11 BHaHiiTe.itno jono.iiioHiioe n;uaiiie II. A. Bojyona-je. IICUT. pejaKitiero [With portrait.] C.-HeiepKypienD. 41658 4 vols. 8vo. 6y P n,, MocKBa, [1912-]! 914.
i . .
DAMES
sisting
(Mansel Longworth)
of
.
.
text
book
of the
miscellaneous stories, legends, Fol. Lahore, 1913. vocabulary.

.
Balochi language, conpoems, and Balochi- English
R
.
41
734
--
TransText-book (parts I and II) of the Baluchi language. lated into English by ... Jamiat Rai with the assistance of ... 41734 Dur Muhammad. . . . Lahore, 1913. 8vo, pp. ii, 91.
.

490
519
DELITZSCH
biicher zur
(Friedrich) Grundziige der sumerischen Grammatik. [HilfsKunde des Alien Orients. 5.] Leipzig, 1914. 8vo, pp.
xxv, 158.
35798
DlACK (A. H.) The Kulu

structure, with
dialect of Hindi some notes on its grammatical specimens of the songs and sayings current amongst the R 41290 Lahore, 1896. 8vo, pp. iv, 107. people, and a glossary.
:
DRAGE
(Godfrey)
A few notes on Wa.

An
outline
Rangoon, 1907.
8vo, pp. 104.
41470
DUNDAS (W.
. . .
C. M.)
(Dimasa) language. Published by authority.
grammar and dictionary of the Kachari Based on Mani Charan Barman's Kachari grammar.
[Shillong], 1908.
8vo, pp. 170.
41
756
ENDLE
as
collection of Kachari folk-tales and rhymes, intended (Sydney) a supplement to ... S. Endle's Kachari grammar. By J. D. 41463 Anderson. 8vo, pp. v, 61. Shillong, 1895.
. .
.
district
Outline grammar of the Kachari (Bara) language, as spoken in with illustrative sentences, notes, reading Darrang, Assam 4 462 8vo. lessons and a short vocabulary. Shillong, 884.
;
GRIERSON
(Sir George Abraham)
The
languages of India
being a re.
. . print of the chapter on languages contributed by G. A. Grierson to the Report on the census of India, 1901, together with the census statistics of language. [With maps.] Calcutta, 1903. Fol., pp. x, 146.
41 727
HAHN
(Ferdinand) Kurukh grammar.
Calcutta, 1900.
4to, pp. xi, 109.
R 41262
Kurukh
4to, pp.
ii,
(Orao)-English
dictionary.
Part
I.
Calcutta,
1903.
184.
R 41 256
An
outline
HAMILTON
by the
lished
(R. C.)
grammar
of the Dafla language as
spoken
.
tribes immediately south of the
Apa Tanang
country.
by
authority.
Shillong, 1900.
.
. .
8vo, pp. 127, 3.
Pub41466
HEM CHANDRA BARUA.

dictionary
of
.
.
the
Assamese
.
Gurdon
and
Kosha, or an etymological Edited by ... P. R. language. Hemchandra Gosain. [With portrait.]

. . .
Hema
[Calcutta printed], 1900.
8vo, pp.
iii.
(972).
41767
HERTZ
language
F.) practical hand-book of the Kachin or Chingpaw containing the grammatical principles and peculiarities of the With an appendix on language, colloquial exercises, and a vocabulary. Kachin customs, laws and religion. Rangoon, 1911. 8vo, pp. v, 163.
(H.
;
R
HODSON
long, 1905.
41302
Shil-
(T. C.) Thado grammar. 8vo, pp. vi, 98.
Published by authority.
39883
520

490

Mundari grammar.
Calcutta,
HOFFMANN
222, xiv,
(J.)
1903.
8vo, pp.
ii,
lix,
xi.
.
R
.
. .
41 267
INDIA.
piled
Vol. II (-VII, IX, iii). Linguistic survey of India. and edited by G. A. Grierson [With maps.] In progress. 7 vols. in 10. 1903-09. 4to.
.
. :
Com41203
Calcutta,
IRELAND.
of the
Auraicept na n-eces the scholars' primer. Being the texts tract from the Book of Ballymote and the Yellow Book of Lecan, and the text of the Trefhocul from the Book of Leinster. Edited from eight manuscripts, with introduction, translation of the Ballymote text, notes and indices by George Calder. [With facsimiles.]
Ogham
Edinburgh, 1917.
-
8vo, pp.
Ivi,
374.
glosses, prose
. .
41620
Goidelica.
Old and Early-Middle-Irish

Second
edition.
.
Edited by Whitley Stokes.
and verse. London, 1872. 8vo,
pp.184.
R
.
40447
KAY
(S. P.) An English-Mikir vocabulary with Assamese equivalents, to which have been added a few Mikir phrases. Shillong, 1904,
. .
8vo, pp. 2, 189.
R 41 761
Larger English-Irish
edition
.
LANE
and
(T. O'Neill)
.
. .
dictionary,
.
. .
ocl6i|A
t>6A|\Ui-
5A.\et)il5e
New
revised and
1
enlarged.
Belfast, 1916.
8vo, pp. xiv,
748.
Dublin 4 392
1
LEITNER
being
1
an
(Gottlieb William von) The Hunza and Nagyr handbook; introduction to a knowledge of the language, race, and
. . .
countries of Hunza, Nagyr, and a part of Yasin.

vol.
1 .
Calcutta, 1889.
Fol.
R
of the
41
474
The Khajuna
or Burishaski language.
LETCHMAJEE
(Lingum)
.
An
.
introduction to the
edition.
grammar
Kui or
[by
Kandh language. G. A. Grierson].

LITURGIES.
the
Second
Revised and corrected
Calcutta, 1902.
Irish
4to.
R
.
41260
The
Orleans
glosses.
passages in the Stowe missal, with some notes on Edited by Whitley Stokes. Calcutta,
.
privately printed, 1881, 8vo, pp. 22.
40506
Second 41758
%* 50 copies printed. LUSHAIS. Mizo zir tir

edition.
bu.
Printed and published by authority.

8vo, pp. 27.
Shillong, 1901.
R R
MACCABE
(Robert Blair) Outline grammar of the Angami Naga language, with a vocabulary and illustrative sentences. 8vo, pp. Calcutta, 1887. 95. 41464
(A.) English-Tulu dictionary.
MAENNER
v,
Mangalore, 1888.
653.
R 41221
8vo, pp.
MAINWARING
language, as
it
(Georges Byres)
exists in the Dorjeling
grammar of the Rong (Lepcha) and Sikim hills. Calcutta, 1876.
4to, pp. xxvii, 146.
R 41 198

490
521
MAYER
1910.]
(T. J. Lee) Mr. Mayer's English-Biluchi dictionary. 8vo, pp. 3, 227.

title is
[Lahore, 41 287
V The
NEEDHAM
Shillong,
(Jack
\
897.
collection F.) 8vo, pp. 1 1

.
of
few Moshang Naga words. R 41 759
Outline grammar of the ... Khamti language, as spoken by the Khamtis residing in the neighbourhood of Sadiya, with illustrative sentences, phrase-book and vocabulary. Rangoon, 1894. 8vo, pp. iii,
201.
41
306
Outline grammar of the Shaiyang Miri language as spoken by the Miris of that clan residing in the neighbourhood of Sadiya. With 1886. illustrative sentences, phrase-book, and vocabulary. Shillong, 41 461 8vo, pp. ii, 157.
Outline grammar of the Singpho language, as spoken by the Singphos, Dowanniyas, and others, residing in the neighbourhood of With illustrative sentences, phrase-book and vocabulary. Sadiya. 41 757 8vo, pp. 119. Shillong, 1889.
NEUMANN
the English
I.
(A systematical dictionary of (M.) Inglise-eesti Sonaraamat. and Estonian languages.) vol. 8vo. Tallinnas, 1910.
1
R 40725
English- Estonian.
richt.
Praktisches Lehrbuch der estnischen Sprache fur den SelbstunterMit zahlreichen Beispielen zu den Regeln, Uebungsaufgaben,
. .
einem estnisch-deutschen und deutsch-estnischen Worterbuche. /. R 40751 Zweite Auflage. Reval, 1910. 8vo, pp. 192.
O'BRIEN (Edward)
Panjabi.
. . .
[With map.]
Glossary of the Multani language, or south-western and Hari Kishen Kaul. Revised by J. Wilson 8vo. 4 pts. in 1 vol. 1903. 41735 Lahore,
. . .
ORAONS.
by
Kurukh
folk-lore in the original.

.
.
Collected and transliterated

1905.
4to,
...
(J.
FerdT Hahn.
Calcutta,
pp.
iii,
108.
R 41263
. .
PEREIRA
edition.
E. Friend) Calcutta, 1909.
grammar
8vo.
of
the
Kui language.
First
R
. .
.
41261
PHILLIPS (E. G.) Outline grammar of the Garo language. lished by authority. 8vo, pp. 3 Shillong, 904.
\
1 .
Pub4 760
1
PORTMAN
of
(M. V.) Notes on

(Vocabulary.)
vol.
1
the languages of the south
Andaman group
Calcutta,
tribes.
pts. in
[With folding map.]
1898.
41 725
4to.
522

490

.
RAiMKHE (M.)
M.
C. Mason.]
(S.
Bengali-Garo dictionary. [With an introduction by R 41747 Turn, 1887. 8vo, pp. (884).
.
RlVEN BURG
1905.
W.)
Phrases
in
English and
Angami Naga.
Kohima,
8vo, pp. 133.
R R
41
763
SALMON E
system.
1.
.
(Habib Anthony) [With table.]

.
An
London, 1890.
2.
Arabic-English dictionary on a new 2 vols. 8vo. 39517

English index,
Arabic-English.
SAVIDGE
. .
(Fred.
W.)
by
A grammar and
authority.
dictionary of the
Lakher language.
8vo,
pp. 210. 41 764
Published
Allahabad,
vai thoH thu.
1908.
SHAKESPEAR
pp. 32.
(John)
Mi-zo leh
of
.
Shillong,
Sierra
1898.
4to,
R
W.
Specimens Thomas.
.
.
41
766
SlERRA LEONE.
Northcote
1916.
languages from
Leone.
By
Government Anthropologist.
.
London,
8vo, pp. 62. (Nissor)

.
41098
R.
41
SINGH
Khasi-English dictionary.
Edited
.
by P.
T.
Gurdon.
Dohory Ropmay
8vo, pp.
iv,
and
Hajom
.
Kissor Singh.
Shilling, 1906.
247.
.
755
STACK (Edward) Some

preface by Sir E.
A.
Tsangla-Bhutanese sentences. 8vo, pp. 91. Shillong, 1897. Gait.]

Tsangla-Bhutanese grammar.
i.e.
[With a 41748
\*
Being Part
III of a projected
TURNBULL
vocabulary. 185.
(Archibald) Nepali,
.
.
Second
edition.
Gorkhali or Parbate grammar and 8vo, pp. viii, Darjeeling, 1904.
41268
VARLEY
(F. J.)
short
hand-book
of the
Mavchi and Pavra
dialects.
Bombay, 1902.
8vo, pp. 11
R
vieil-irlandais
:
41249
VENDRYES
syntaxe.
(J.)
Grammaire du
[Collection Linguistique.]
copies printed.
phonetique-morphologie8vo, pp. x, 408. Paris, 1908.
15068
.
%*
I.
200
WlKLUND
(Carl Bernhard) Entwurf einer urlappischen Lautlehre
Einleitung, Quantitats-gesetze, Accent, Geschichte der Hauptbetonten Vokale. [Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Toimituksia, 10, i.]
Helsingfors,
mt>.
8vo.
40727
%* No
more published.
WILSON
and
(Horace Hayman) glossary of judicial and revenue terms, words occurring in official documents, relating to the administration of the government of British India, from the Arabic, and other languages. Persian, Hindustani, Sanskrit Compiled and published under the authority of ... the court of directors of the
of useful
. . .
East-India
Company by H. H. Wilson.
London, 1855.
4to, pp. xxir,
728.
42201

490
523

.
. .
WILSON
in the
(James) Grammar and dictionary of western Panjabi, as spoken 1898. Shahpur district, with proverbs, sayings, & verses. 8vo. R 41288 Lahore, 1899.
;
WITTER (W.
E.) Outline grammar of the Lhota Naga language with a Calcutta, 1888. 8vo, pp. 161. vocabulary and illustrative sentences.
41
460
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UNIV.

THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY

PUBLISHED FOR THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY AT

THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

(H. M. MCKECHNIE, Secretary) LIME GROVE, OXFORD ROAD, MANCHESTER

LONGMANS, GREEN & COMPANY LONDON 39 PATERNOSTER ROW

THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY

Library Notes and

Classified List of Additions to the Library

Biblical References in a Sahidic

The Venetian Point

Some Early Judaic-Christian Documents Mingana (A.). John Rylands Library

James Hope Moulton: 1863-1917

Powicke (F. J.). Love Story

or the Rev. Richard Baxter's

Incense and Libations.

GERARD N. FORD, J.P. SIR ALFRED HOPKINSON,

K.C., B.C.L., LL.D., etc.

GEORGE WATSON MACALPINE, J.P., THOMAS THORNHILL SHANN, J.P.

REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNORS.* SIR HENRY A. MIERS,

GERARD N. FORD, J.P. CHARLES HAROLD HERFORD,

GEORGE WATSON MACALPINE,

WILLIAM CARNELLEY. SIR THOMAS T. SHANN,

GERARD N. FORD, J.P. HENRY GUPPY, M.A.

The Representative and Co-optative Governors constitute the Council.

Honorary Governors are not Members

RULES AND REGULATIONS OF

THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY.

restricted to purposes of research

Persons desirous of being admitted to read

make proper use of the

any Book, Manuscript, or Map.

writing on any Book, Manuscript, or

tracing shall be allowed to be the Librarian.

of Application for Reader's Ticket

be had on application to the

RULES AND REGULATIONS

all wraps, canes, the Vestibule, and

infringement of these Rules will render the privilege of admission

granted upon the following conditions

ADMISSION OF THE GENERAL PUBLIC AND VISITORS.

JAMES HOPE MOULTON

BULLETIN OF THE JOHN RYLANDS -LIBRARY

LIBRARY NOTES AND NEWS.

regarded as irreparable, in the death,

which can only be HOPE under grievous cir- MOULTON.

a son of great promise,

in the present issue,

through the kindness of the re-

are able to offer to our readers an authoritative

Moulton's Work, with some and colleague, Professor

and accompanied by a reproduction

to reprint his letter

gram, of the tragic death of his friend.

claim the privilege of adding our

the halo of appreciation which already surrounds the

own modest tribute to name of the great

Lycidas, and hath not

THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY

and again when Tennyson poured out

his passionate yearning

the occult charm of a soul that

Of James Hope Moulton