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Reference Manual
2005A
Proprietary Notice
Copyright 1996-2005 Schlumberger. All rights reserved. No part of the "PVTi Reference Manual" may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or translated in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, without the prior written permission of Schlumberger. Use of this product is governed by the License Agreement. Use of this product is governed by the License Agreement. Schlumberger. Schlumberger makes no warranties, express, implied, or statutory, with respect to the product described herein and disclaims without limitation any warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose.
Patent information
Schlumberger ECLIPSE reservoir simulation software is protected by US Patents 6,018,497, 6,078,869 and 6,106,561, and UK Patents GB 2,326,747 B and GB 2,336,008 B. Patents pending.
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Silicon Graphics and IRIX are registered trademarks of Silicon Graphics, Inc. OpenGL and the oval logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Silicon Graphics, Inc. in the United States and/or other countries worldwide. OpenInventor and WebSpace are trademarks of Silicon Graphics, Inc. IBM, AIX and LoadLeveler are registered trademarks of International Business Machines Corporation. Sun, SPARC, Solaris, Ultra and UltraSPARC are trademarks or registered trademarks of Sun Microsystems, Inc. Macintosh is a registered trademark of Apple Computer, Inc. UNIX is a registered trademark of UNIX System Laboratories. Motif is a registered trademark of the Open Software Foundation, Inc. The X Window System and X11 are registered trademarks of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. PostScript and Encapsulated PostScript are registered trademarks of Adobe Systems, Inc. OpenWorks and VIP are registered trademarks of Landmark Graphics Corporation. Lotus, 1-2-3 and Symphony are registered trademarks of Lotus Development Corporation. Microsoft, Windows, Windows NT, Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Internet Explorer, Intellimouse and PowerPoint are either registered trademarks or trademarks of Microsoft Corporation in the United States and/or other countries. Netscape is a registered trademark of Netscape Communications Corporation. AVS is a registered trademark of AVS Inc. ZEH is a registered trademark of ZEH Graphics Systems. Ghostscript and GSview are Copyright of Aladdin Enterprises, CA. GNU Ghostscript is Copyright of the Free Software Foundation, Inc. Linux is Copyright of the Free Software Foundation, Inc. IRAP is Copyright of Roxar Technologies. LSF is a registered trademark of Platform Computing Corporation, Canada. VISAGE is a registered trademark of VIPS Ltd. Cosmo is a trademark and PLATINUM technology is a registered trademark of PLATINUM technology, inc. PEBI is a trademark of Veritas DGC Inc./HOT Engineering GmbH. Stratamodel is a trademark of Landmark Graphics Corporation. GLOBEtrotter, FLEXlm and SAMreport are registered trademarks of GLOBEtrotter Software, Inc. CrystalEyes is a trademark of StereoGraphics Corporation. Tektronix is a registered trade mark of Tektronix, Inc. GOCAD and JACTA are trademarks of T-Surf. Myrinet is a trade name of Myricom, Inc. This product may include software developed by the Apache Software Foundation (http://www.apache.org). Copyright (c) 1999-2001 The Apache Software Foundation. All rights reserved. MPI/Pro is a registered trademark of MPI Software Technology, Inc. The TGS logo is a trademark of TGS, Inc. POSC, the POSC logo and Epicentre are registered trademarks of Petrotechnical Open Standards Consortium, Inc. Red Hat is a registered trademeak of Red Hat, Inc. This product may include software developed using LAPACK (http://www.netlib.org/lapack/), which is copyright of its authors.
ALLDRY Dry Gas Tables for Each Sample ...................................................................................................................181 BIC Binary interaction coefficients ........................................................................................................................182 BLACKOIL Start of the BLACKOIL section ......................................................................................................................184 CALVAL Specify calorific values ..................................................................................................................................185 CHARACT Components to be characterized...................................................................................................................186 CNAMES Component names ........................................................................................................................................187 COATS Blackoil tables ................................................................................................................................................188 COMB Start of the COMB section .............................................................................................................................189 COMBINE Group existing components...........................................................................................................................190 CORRACF Splitting correlation for ACFs.........................................................................................................................191 CORRCP Splitting correlation for critical properties.......................................................................................................192 DRYGAS Dry gas tables..................................................................................................................................................193 DEADOIL Dead oil tables...............................................................................................................................................194 DEBUE Select output to debug file .............................................................................................................................195 DEBUG Select output to debug file .............................................................................................................................196 DEFBIC Default binary interaction coefficients ............................................................................................................197 DEGREES Temperature convention................................................................................................................................198 DIFFERENTIAL Blackoil tables........................................................................................................................................199 DREF Reference densities .......................................................................................................................................200 Keywords E-K ..... ...............................................................................................................................................................201 ECHO Insert PVI file into PVP file ............................................................................................................................202 EOS Defines the required Equation of State ..........................................................................................................203 EoS data for ECLIPSE 300...........................................................................................................................204 EOSOUT EXP Experiments ..................................................................................................................................................205 EXPIND Set Status of Experiments ................................................................................................................................210 FIT Perform fit by regression ...............................................................................................................................211 FRAC Specify plus fraction data ..............................................................................................................................212 FRAGOR Blackoil tables................................................................................................................................................213 FVFREF FVF reference conditions...............................................................................................................................214 GI Define GI nodes for E200 tables .....................................................................................................................215 GROUP Start of the GROUP section...........................................................................................................................216 GRBYALL Start of the GROUP section ..........................................................................................................................217 GRBYMIX Start of the GROUP section ..........................................................................................................................218 GRBYSAM Start of the GROUP section ..........................................................................................................................219 GRPBYWGT Grouping by molecular weight .......................................................................................................................220 HYDRO Define component as hydrocarbon or non-hydrocarbon................................................................................221 KVTABLE Request K-value table for ECLIPSE 300 output............................................................................................222 Keywords L- O .... ...............................................................................................................................................................223 LBC Lohrenz-Bray-Clark viscosities.......................................................................................................................224 LBCCOEF Set non-default LBC coefficients ...................................................................................................................225 LIVEOIL Live oil tables.................................................................................................................................................226 LNAMES Specify library names ....................................................................................................................................227 MAXIT Max. number of regression iterations.............................................................................................................228 MAXSTEP Maximum step size allowed in regression .....................................................................................................229 MDP Data for Whitson splitting ...............................................................................................................................230 MESSAGE Echo message to file and screen ..................................................................................................................231 MINDELP Minimum pressure difference ........................................................................................................................232 MINSTEP Minimum step limit allowed in regression ......................................................................................................233 MIX Mix samples ...................................................................................................................................................234 Denotes start of the run specification section ................................................................................................235 MODSPEC MODSYS Start of the MODSYS section ........................................................................................................................236 MOSES Blackoil tables ................................................................................................................................................237 MW Specify molecular weights..............................................................................................................................238 MWS Define plus fraction mole weight for CMF splitting .........................................................................................239 NCOMPS Specify number of components .....................................................................................................................240 NEWPVI Request new output PVI file ..........................................................................................................................241 NEWPVO Request new output PVO file.........................................................................................................................242 NOECHO No insertion of PVI file into PVP file...............................................................................................................243 OBS Specify observations ......................................................................................................................................244
OBSIND Specify observation weights ..........................................................................................................................245 OMEGAA,OMEGAB Specify EoS omega values.................................................................................................................................................247 OPTIONS Set various program options ........................................................................................................................248 OUTECL3 Start of the OUTECL3 section.......................................................................................................................250 Keywords P- S .... ...............................................................................................................................................................251 PARACHOR Define parachors ..........................................................................................................................................252 PCRIT Critical pressures ...........................................................................................................................................253 PEARCE Blackoil tables................................................................................................................................................254 PEDERSEN Specify Pedersen viscosities........................................................................................................................255 PRCORR Peng-Robinson correction .............................................................................................................................256 PSEUCOMP Start of the PSEUCOMP section...................................................................................................................257 RECOVERY Liquid production for recovery estimates ......................................................................................................258 REGRESS Start of the REGRESS section......................................................................................................................259 REGTARG Regression target ..........................................................................................................................................260 RTEMP Reservoir temperature for ECLIPSE Compositional......................................................................................261 RUNSPEC Denotes start of the run specification ............................................................................................................262 SALINITY Specify sample salinity .................................................................................................................................263 SAMPLE Specify fluid sample.........................................................................................................................................264 SAMPLES Specify fluid samples.....................................................................................................................................265 SAMPLES Specify fluid samples.....................................................................................................................................266 SAMTITLE Specify titles of fluid samples ........................................................................................................................267 SAVCOMP Save compositions ........................................................................................................................................268 SCT Defines Semi-Continuous Thermodynamics split ...........................................................................................269 SG Specify specific gravity...................................................................................................................................270 SIMULATE Start of the SIMULATE section .....................................................................................................................271 SPECHA,B,C,D Specify specific heat capacity coefficients..........................................................................................................................272 SPLIT Start of the SPLIT section..............................................................................................................................273 SSHIFT Dimensionless volume shifts for PR3 ............................................................................................................274 STCOND Standard conditions.......................................................................................................................................275 SYSTEM Start of the SYSTEM section.........................................................................................................................276 Keywords T - Z ... ...............................................................................................................................................................277 TBOIL Specify boiling points .....................................................................................................................................278 TCRIT Specify critical temperatures...........................................................................................................................279 THERMX Thermal expansion coefficient for volume shifts............................................................................................280 TITLE Specify run title ..............................................................................................................................................281 TLOW Define lowest temperature for VFP tables ......................................................................................................282 TREF Specify reference temperatures.....................................................................................................................283 UNITS Specify unit conventions ................................................................................................................................284 VAR Specify regression variables ..........................................................................................................................285 VCRIT Specify volumes.............................................................................................................................................289 VCRITVIS Specify volumes for LBC viscosity calculations ...........................................................................................290 VERSION Version of PVTi .............................................................................................................................................291 VFP Start of the VFP section .................................................................................................................................292 WAT100 Output water properties .................................................................................................................................293 WAT200 Output water properties .................................................................................................................................294 WAT300 Output water properties .................................................................................................................................295 WATVFP Output water properties .................................................................................................................................296 WETGAS Wet gas tables.................................................................................................................................................297 WHIT Defines Whitson splitting.................................................................................................................................298 WHITSON Blackoil tables ...............................................................................................................................................299 XMFVP/YMFVP ............................ XMFVP and YMFVP ECLIPSE tables ...................................................................................................300 ZCRIT Specify critical Z-factors.................................................................................................................................301 ZCRITVIS Specify critical Z-factors for LBC calculations ...............................................................................................302 ZI Specify sample composition...........................................................................................................................303 ZMFVD Composition versus depth table ....................................................................................................................304
Bibliography Index
List of Figures
Chapter 1 - New developments...................................................................................................... 11 Chapter 2 - The Most Asked Questions About PVTi.................................................................... 15 Chapter 3 - Introduction ................................................................................................................. 27 Chapter 4 - Getting started ............................................................................................................ 31 Chapter 5 - Tutorials ....................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 Figure 5.3 Figure 5.4 Figure 5.5 Figure 5.6 Figure 5.7 Figure 5.8 Figure 5.9 Figure 5.10 Figure 5.11 Figure 5.12 Fingerprint Plot .......................................................................................................................................42 Phase Plot ..............................................................................................................................................43 The plotted simulation results .................................................................................................................48 Plot of Oil FVF, Viscosity and Rs versus pressure for the output black oil property tables ....................61 Phase Diagram for Schrader Bluff Fluids ...............................................................................................78 The phase envelope plot. .......................................................................................................................86 The main display shows messages indicating the quality of the data.....................................................87 The main plot window after zooming in ..................................................................................................88 The plot of k values versus pressure. .....................................................................................................89 The Hoffman-Crump plot ........................................................................................................................90 Hoffman-Crump-Hocott plot. ...................................................................................................................91 The original sample, the cleaned sample and the estimated contaminant. ............................................94
Chapter 7 - Keywords ................................................................................................................... 177 Chapter 8 - Technical Description ............................................................................................... 305 Appendix A - Units........................................................................................................................ 431 Appendix B - Symbols.................................................................................................................. 435 Bibliography -
List of Tables
Chapter 1 - New developments...................................................................................................... 11 Chapter 2 - The Most Asked Questions About PVTi ................................................................... 15 Chapter 3 - Introduction ................................................................................................................. 27 Chapter 4 - Getting started ............................................................................................................ 31 Chapter 5 - Tutorials ....................................................................................................................... 33
Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Table 5.3 Table 5.4 Table 5.5 The Fundamentals panel .........................................................................................................................36 Component and fluid definitions...............................................................................................................40 Program Options data ..............................................................................................................................41 Constant Composition Expansion experiment at 220o F (* indicates bubble point pressure)..................46 Differential Liberation Experiment at 220o F (* indicates bubble point pressure).....................................49
Table 8.7 Table 8.8 Table 8.9 Table 8.10 Table 8.11 Table 8.12 Table 8.13
CVD Report ...........................................................................................................................................320 Equation of State coefficients ................................................................................................................332 Equation of State constants...................................................................................................................334 Parameter estimation data. N is the number of experimental points .....................................................351 Parameter Values for Pure Component Viscosity Correlation ...............................................................352 Physical Properties of Methane and Decane.........................................................................................353 PVTi defaults for Fluid Property Estimation ...........................................................................................407
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Batch Mode
For the 2004A version of PVTi the batch mode has undergone a significant revamp. Over the last few years the user interface of PVTi has evolved rapidly and the existing batch mode facility no longer adequately supports more recent functionality. There have been 3 significant modifications to the PVTi batch mode:
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The way a batch mode is executed has changed. The new way to launch a batch mode run on a PC is to use the command $pvti -batch filename where filename is the name of your PVTi project. See "General information" on page 163 for more details on running batch mode with other platforms. The new batch mode now supports the majority of the functionality available in interactive mode - namely splitting, grouping, regression, experiment simulation and export. Export for ECLIPSE Thermal, PNA splitting and material balance checks are not currently supported. For more details on the functionality constraints of the batch mode see "Constraints on the workflow" on page 165. It was felt that a more user friendly way of constructing the .PVI files suitable for batch mode was needed since a batch mode file requires some extra sections than a standard interactive mode PVI file does. A new option called Write Keywords for Batch Mode is available on the Options panel. If this is turned on and a workflow is performed in interactive mode and then the file saved, PVTi ensures that this file is then suitable for use in a batch mode run. The batch mode run then reproduces the workflow and results that were obtained in interactive mode. See"Preparing Batch Mode Files in Interactive Mode" on page 164 for a detailed explanation of this facility.
For an overview of all aspects of the new batch mode facility see "Batch system and keywords" on page 163.
Panel Addition/Modification
1 There is a new LBC Viscosity Coefficients panel available under the menu option Edit | Fluid Model | LBC Viscosity Coefficients.... This panel shows, if using the Lorentz-Bray-Clark (LBC) viscosity model, the current values of the five coefficients. The Thermal Properties panel has been modified to include the new properties introduced as a result of the new ECLIPSE Thermal export functionality. Specifically, the properties Heat Cap. A and Heat Cap. B have been changed to Heat Cap. A/G and Heat Cap. B/H. There is also a new property called Heat of Vaporization which corresponds to the HEATVAPS keyword exported for ECLIPSE Thermal.
Component Constraints
1 It is now possible to read in projects where fluid samples can have up to 100 components. However, no functionality involving the EoS flash can be used until a group operation has been performed in order to reduce the number of components in all samples to <=50. Two new components are available in the PVTi library - Benzene (C6H6) and Toluene (C7H8). The short names for use in the fundamentals or components panel are BEN for Benzene and TOL for Toluene. See "Library" on page 105 to view the components in the PVTi library. To view the library within PVTi itself use the View | Library option.
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Sections
There is a new section called APITRACK. This is used when preparing batch files if the API Tracking export facility is to be made use of in batch mode. It is essentially the same as the BLACKOIL section but has an extra keyword called SAMPLES, which records the samples for which PVT tables will be exported.
Manual
1 The section "The Most Asked Questions About PVTi" on page 15 has been updated with questions regarding the Batch Mode, ECLIPSE Thermal Export and API Tracking functionality. A number of the tutorials have been amended - in particular the tutorial entitled Using the ECLIPSE Thermal Support Module has been replaced by a tutorial called "Exporting an ECLIPSE Thermal model" on page 81.
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Chapter 2
Introduction
This section has been designed as a reference section so that you can quickly access information about common problems encountered with PVTi without having to spend time looking through the manual for the relevant section. The questions in this section have been constructed using the most common support issues and also the InTouch database. Cross-references are provided where necessary so that readers can access the appropriate parts of the manual for more detailed information on a particular topic if required. The questions are: "What is PVTi used for? Why do we need it?" on page 16 "Where do I start? How do I set up a project within PVTi?" on page 16 "How do I create an experiment along with a series of observations?" on page 17 "What are the data limitations in PVTi?" on page 18 "What is the Fluid Properties Estimation facility in PVTi?" on page 19 "How do I perform regression on multiple fluid samples?" on page 19 "What regression parameters should I choose?" on page 21 "What is the difference between normal regression, special regression and automatic (PVTi selects) regression?" on page 20 "How does PVTi support gas condensate simulation?" on page 22 "Can Black Oil tables be extended above the liquid bubble point in PVTi?" on page 23 "Can PVTi be used if you know the composition of a fluid but do not have any observations? And vice-versa?" on page 23 "What black oil correlations are available in PVTi?" on page 24 "How do I generate the asphaltene phase envelope using PVTi?" on page 24
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"How does PVTi support ECLIPSE Thermal?" on page 25 "How do I Use PVTis Batch Mode?" on page 25 "How Can I Export PVT Tables to use the API Tracking Functionality in ECLIPSE BlackOil?" on page 26
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Warning
If you try to perform operations on a fluid with incorrectly normalized mole/weight fractions then the operation may fail.
Once the Fundamentals panel has been completed you will see have a sample called ZI on the tree view on the left-hand side of the main window.This is the fundamental sample for the project and the name ZI cannot be changed.
Once at least one fluid sample (the ZI sample) has been defined then any experiment supported within PVTi can be simulated as well as operations such as phase plots, fingerprint plots and splitting. For more information on creating fluid samples see "Defining Samples" on page 118.
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Creating Observations
If there are no observations at all for a particular experiment then to create one you need to select the Edit | Observations... option and the Observations panel appears. On the Experiments column on the left-hand side there is a list of all the experiments that are available within PVTi and * symbols are next to the ones that you currently have defined within your project. If one of these experiments is selected then in the Experiment List column a list of all the names of the experiments of that type in your project appears for example, BUBBLE5, DEW3, DL1. If one of these is selected then all the possible observations available within PVTi for that type of experiment are displayed in the Observation Type column. Again observation types with a * next to them means that there are values already defined for this particular experiment in your project. Simply click on one to see and edit the values. To create a new observation select the one you want and then click on the + button on the top left of the panel. Values and weights can then be entered for the observation. Note Currently defined observations for an experiment can be edited in the Observations folder on the experiment Entry panel.
For more information on creating and editing experiments/observations see "Simulation using PVTi" on page 128 and/or the tutorial "Simulating experiments" on page 45.
Note
2003A
These pre-2003A data constraints have been present in PVTi for 4 to 5 years and, in-line with the huge increase in computing power in the last few years, we have decided to enhance the data constraint capability of PVTi so that the following is now available: 100 fluid samples
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100 components per fluid sample* (see below) 100 experiments per fluid sample 300 observations per experiment It is now possible to read in, save, split and group with fluids containing up to 100 components. However, the limit is still 50 components for any functionality involving the EoS flash.
Note
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Disabling Experiments/Observations
You can prevent PVTi from including an experiment in the regression by right-clicking on the experiment and selecting Dont use in Regression. A cross appears on the experiment indicating it is not currently available within the regression facility. You can disable an observation so that it is not used within the regression by again right-clicking and selecting Dont use in Regression. Alternatively, by right-clicking and selecting Set Weight and then entering zero the observation is also not included in the regression. Note If an experiment is disabled then, as you would expect, all the observations are automatically disabled.
Regression Weights
In general there will be a set of values in an observation. For example, if we have a differential liberation (DL) experiment defined then a viscosity observation would have a value for each pressure. We have two types of weight: there are single weights for each value of an observation and global weights that apply to every value in an observation. By right clicking on an experiment observation the global weight can be set. As mentioned above, by setting this to zero none of the values in the observation would be used. Alternatively, you may want to set a global weight for an experimental observation particularly high, for example, matching the bubble point of a fluid is normally very important if one wants to ensure that it is a single-phase liquid at the temperature and pressure of the reservoir. Or maybe you do not trust the accuracy of a particular observation value, for example an oil formation volume factor (FVF) value in a DL experiment.You may then not want to use a global weight as all the other observation values look ok. In this case setting a single-value weight to a very low value helps you match all the other values in the observation during regression as the rogue, inaccurate value no longer inhibits convergence. Both the single-value and global weights for an experimental observation can be set in the Observations panel by selecting the Edit | Observations... option, highlighting the appropriate observation and then simply typing in your chosen weights. For a good example of how to use the regression facility, see the tutorial "Fitting an equation of state to experimental results" on page 53.
What is the difference between normal regression, special regression and automatic (PVTi selects) regression?
There are 3 types of regression: normal, special and automatic. The difference between them depends entirely on what kind of variables are being regressed on.
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Normal regression parameters are equation of state variables relating to a particular component, for example, critical pressure, P c , critical temperature, T c , acentric factor,
. and the binary coefficients. The full set of normal regression variables can be
viewed using the regression panel using the Run | Regression... panel. Select normal as the regression type and then click variables - the upper table shows the singlevalued normal regression parameters for each component and the lower panel shows the binary coefficients table. For more information on setting normal regression see "Setting normal variables" on page 139. Special regression parameters are global Equation of State variables, for example, the thermal expansion coefficient or the Cheuh-Prausnitz A factor for binary coefficients. There may also be some splitting parameters available as special regression variables depending on whether a multi-feed split has been performed on the plus fraction. See "Multi-feed Split (also called semi-continuous thermodynamic (SCT) split)" on page 117 for more details on this facility. For more information on setting special regression variables see "Setting special variables" on page 140. The automatic regression facility or PVTi Selects as it is called on the Regression panel attempts to choose the best normal variables to regress on for you before actually doing the regression and reporting the answer. It should be noted that there is no substitute for a good engineer in the sense that one should not just use this automatic facility all the time in the belief that PVTi will do all the work. For example, the automatic facility will not use special variables to regress on and so it is up to you to decide whether this would be necessary or not. However the automatic facility can still be a useful tool in obtaining a good match to PVT data. The way the algorithm chooses the regression parameters is essentially based on 2 criterion. No parameters are allowed to have more than a 90% correlation on any other parameter. Secondly, no parameter is allowed to have less than 1% of the sensitivity of the most sensitive parameter For a detailed discussion of the automatic regression algorithm see "A consistent methodology that can be applied automatically" on page 411. For more general information on the regression facility see "Regression in PVTi" on page 137.
P c, T c and of any non-library component. P c, T c and of any component with mole weight of C7 or heavier (as these are
effectively mixtures of different molecule types and so may differ from library values).
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The variables mentioned above are all normal regression variables. The following set of special regression variables can also often prove useful to get a match between samples: Do a multi-feed split to split the plus fraction into 2 or 3 pseudo-components. The , SCTMW and Kw parameters, which control the splitting are then very good choices. The Cheuh-Prausnitz A binary parameter if using Cheuch-Prausnitz binaries. The mole weight of a plus fraction (if no split on the plus fraction has been performed).
For a detailed explanation of why some of the above are good and bad choices for regression parameters, see "Regression in PVT analysis" on page 408. There are also more specific guidelines for choosing regression parameters depending on whether one is dealing with an oil reservoir, see "Recommended PVT analysis for oil reservoirs" on page 393 - or a gas-condensate reservoir, see "Recommended PVT analysis for gas condensate reservoirs" on page 398. Finally, for a tutorial illustrating the use of the normal and special regression facilities in a typical workflow see the new "Workflow Tutorial" on page 69.
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Can Black Oil tables be extended above the liquid bubble point in PVTi?
Yes. You should make sure that the DL/CVD experiment you simulate in PVTi covers the full range of pressure values you are likely to encounter within your reservoir. If ECLIPSE BlackOil encounters a pressure outside the range in the black oil table you exported from PVTi then it will have no choice but to try to extrapolate to estimate properties such as gas-oil ratio (GOR) and formation volume factor (FVF). The extrapolation used is linear and uses the appropriate quantities at the two highest pressures in the exported black oil table. However, this extrapolation can sometimes run into difficulties as is common in any problem when you are trying to gain information about unexplored parameter space. The normal error is that ECLIPSE throws up negative compressibilities for your fluid. If this happens then be sure to check your black oil tables covered the appropriate range of pressures. For a thorough description of the black oil model used by PVTi and how the tables are extended above the bubble point see "Blackoil model" on page 372.
Can PVTi be used if you know the composition of a fluid but do not have any observations? And vice-versa?
You know the fluid composition
If you have compositional information about the fluid, but no observations, then you can do anything you want within PVTi except use the Regression facility. This is because the Regression facility tries to minimize the differences between lab observations and PVTis theoretical predictions and this is not a sensible operation if no observations are defined. In fact, in PVT laboratories engineers tend to use the default fluid model (one that has not been regressed on) for a given equation of state in PVTi to give them a ball-park answer for their particular experimental observation. This can give them some idea as to how to set their experiment up as they now have information on the kind of answers they might expect to measure.
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Make sure there is at least one observation defined for this experiment and then right click on the experiment and select plot. You can super-impose your curve onto a standard phase plot by using the super-impose button on the toolbar.
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Hint
There is a shortcut for doing standard phase plots. This is accessed by clicking and holding the left mouse button down on the appropriate fluid sample icon and then dragging the cursor into the plot viewer.
There is a more detailed section on the theory behind how PVTi models the presence of wax and asphaltene phases in "Wax and asphaltene precipitation in PVTi" on page 416.
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Load this new concise file back into PVTi and open the Set PVTi Program Options panel by doing Utilities | Program | Options.... Set the last option Write Keywords for Batch Mode to Yes. Now perform the required workflow in interactive mode that you wish the batch mode to reproduce e.g. simulation of experiment, splitting, grouping, export, etc. When you have performed the workflow save the file using File | Save... The saved file is now suitable for running in batch mode.
4 5 6
For a comprehensive review of the new batch mode functionality see "Batch system and keywords" on page 163.
How Can I Export PVT Tables to use the API Tracking Functionality in ECLIPSE BlackOil?
PVTi now has the capability to export multiple PVT Tables for use in ECLIPSE BlackOils API Tracking. Without the API Tracking facility, the presence of different types of oil in the reservoir could be handled with the aid of PVT region numbers. Oil in PVT region 1 would have its properties determined from PVT table number 1, and so on. However, this method cannot model the mixing of oil types. Oil flowing from region 1 into region 2 would appear to take on the properties associated with region 2 Just like exporting a standard black oil table a depletion experiment must be defined in order to do API Tracking export. The workflow is as follows: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Use the File | Export Keywords | API Tracking option in ECLIPSE BlackOil... menu option to open the Export Panel for API Tracking. Select the samples you wish to use in the export and move them to the Use box. Choose the keywords you wish to export. Normally the Live Oil (PVTO) and Dead Gas (PVDG) keywords are used with the API Tracking option. Select whether you wish to export a gas table for each sample or just a single gas table. Select whether you wish to plot the tables in PVTi. Select whether you wish to write to tables using full double precision numbers. Select the separator you wish to use for the export. Select the units you wish to export the table in.
PVTi should then write the tables to a file and show them in the output display. This file is then suitable to use as the PVT input for an API Tracking run in ECLIPSE BlackOil. For a similar description of the API Tracking workflow see "Export for API Tracking option in ECLIPSE BlackOil" on page 145. For a technical description of the API Tracking model in ECLIPSE as well as an explanation of how PVTi calculates suitable PVT tables see "Model for API Tracking option in ECLIPSE BlackOil" on page 383.
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Introduction Chapter 3
General information
The PVTi program is an Equation of State based package for generating PVT data from the laboratory analysis of oil and gas samples. The program may be used through an interactive menu system or run in a batch mode. An interactive session can be saved as a batch input file, which contains commands to reproduce the interactive operations. Alternatively, a batch input file can be run from an interactive session.
Fluid definition
Multiple fluid samples can be defined by specifying components as one of three types. Library components require only that the appropriate component mnemonic be entered. Characterized components define properties of plus fractions from a limited set of information. Finally all the properties of a component can be defined, a facility which can be used selectively to edit the properties of existing components.
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It is possible to group the components to reduce or pseudoise the fluid system (make a fluid definition of the system using pseudo components), or to split the plus fraction into more components, preserving molecular weight and mole fraction. Multiple samples having different plus fraction properties, say mole weight and specific gravity, can be characterized by splitting the plus fraction into two or more pseudocomponents of fixed properties but variable composition. Fingerprint plots of mole fraction against molecular weight, or phase diagrams, are available.
Simulation of experiments
Experiments may be performed on the fluid systems defined using the equation of state model. Possibilities are: saturation pressures flash calculations constant composition expansions constant volume depletions differential liberations swelling tests multi-stage separator simulations. composition versus depth vaporization test multiphase flash critical point saturation temperature first contact miscibility multiple contact miscibility (condensing and vaporizing). wax appearance temperature asphaltene appearance pressure
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Starting PVTi
Windows NT and Windows 98 platforms
GeoQuest Program Launcher
1 2 3 Start the GeoQuest Program Launcher. Click the PVTi button. Select the version and working directories as required.
Command line
1 Type the command $PVTI in a command prompt window.
UNIX platforms
1 Type the command @pvti at the command prompt.
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Tutorials Chapter 5
Overview
The tutorials provide a step-by-step introduction to the functionality of PVTi. Note These tutorials are not intended to teach PVT analysis, but instead concentrate on illustrating typical work-flows for PVTi.
Each tutorial is divided into a number of distinct sections intended to highlight a specific aspect of the analysis process. To avoid repetition, later tutorials assume familiarity with some used in the first tutorials, so it is strongly recommended that you work through them in the order they are presented.
Available tutorials
The following tutorials are available: "Fluid Properties Estimation" on page 35 "Creating a fluid system" on page 39. "Simulating experiments" on page 45. "Fitting an equation of state to experimental results" on page 53. "Exporting ECLIPSE Black Oil PVT tables" on page 59. "Converting a black oil run to compositional" on page 65. "Workflow Tutorial" on page 69. "Multiphase Flash" on page 77. "Exporting an ECLIPSE Thermal model" on page 81. "Data analysis and quality control" on page 85. "Removing contamination from samples" on page 93. Tutorials Available tutorials
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34
Introduction
Fluid properties estimation can provide quick-look PVT tables at the well site. A saturation pressure (bubble or dew-point) together with a reservoir composition are sufficient inputs to provide a quick-look simulation, giving an initial estimation of fluid properties in advance of a full fluid analysis in the lab. After completing this tutorial you should be able to use PVTi as a simulation tool for fluid properties estimation.
Hint
The Fundamentals panel allows you to enter the minimum information required to create a complete equation of state model. 3 Click on the Enter Weight Fractions check box. The mole fractions that you see in lab reports are derived from weight fractions and the mole weights of the components. It is weight fractions that are actually measured. PVTi allows a choice of either form in the Fundamentals panel.
Hint
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Right-click in the table and select Table Import | From File. Import the file FUNDAMENTALS.TXT . In the Text Import Wizard switch on Ignore Records and set the number of records to ignore to 2 (since we want to ignore the column headings).
The Fundamentals panel should now look like Table 5.1. Table 5.1 Components
CO2 N2 C1 C2 C3 IC4 NC4 IC5 NC5 C6 C7+
Mol Weight
Spec Gravity
Hint
Only enter mole weights for components whose properties will be characterized, the other components come from the library. Also, specific gravity is an optional additional parameter that can be used in the characterization, if it is not specified it is calculated using a correlation.
5 6
Click Apply PVTi adds the mole fractions and the specific gravity of the plus fraction. Click on the Fluid Properties Estimation (FPE) check box Enter a Temperature of 220 F. This is the temperature of the saturation pressure (dew or bubble point) and the temperature that is used in the generated depletion experiments. Enter a Saturation Pressure of 2800 psia. PVTi uses this saturation pressure to fit the fluid model. The weight of the plus-fraction is varied, the weight fraction being constant, until the saturation pressure predicted by the equation of state matches the entered pressure. Enter a Maximum Pressure of 5000 psia.
Hint
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Hint 7 8
This is the maximum pressure in the depletion experiments that are created.
Set the Project Units to Field, this sets the units that are used on the plots. Click OK.
This is all the information required to fit the equation of state and to generate the Constant Composition Expansion (CCE), depletion experiment (either differential liberation or constant volume depletion) and the optimized separator. After fitting the equation-of-state and creating the experiments, default plots from the depletion experiments are drawn along with the phase curve for the fitted fluid. The methods used in Fluid Properties Estimation are explained in "Fluid Properties Estimation" on page 406. 9 PVTi: Run | Simulate This opens a complete report for the project including the results from all the created experiments. Hint By clicking on one of the experiments in the sample tree with the right mouse button, and selecting Report..., you can view the reports for individual experiments separately.
Flash calculations
1 Right-click on ZI in the project tree-view and select Properties Estimation (FPE)... 2 Enter a temperature of 60 F Enter a pressure of 15 psia Click OK.
Right-click on the newly created Flash simulation (FLASH1) and select Report to see the results of flashing the reservoir fluid to standard conditions.
This allows you to attempt any Flash calculation on the reservoir fluid. Hint The Properties Estimation panel can also be used to create additional separators, saturation pressure or depletion experiments, for example at other temperatures.
Discussion
Fluid Properties Estimation is a useful tool, particularly in situations where full lab analysis of the fluid is not available for a complete equation-of-state matching project. For full details of the operations performed during fluid property estimation see "Fluid Properties Estimation" on page 406.
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During fluid properties estimation, the project created is a complete PVTi project. This means that a more experienced user has access to the rich range of features within the product. At the same time, the less experienced user can use PVTi for Fluid Properties Estimation without requiring in-depth knowledge of equation-of-state methods or PVT analysis.
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Introduction
The PVT report for this fluid contains details of three experiments: a Constant Composition Expansion experiment, a Differential Liberation experiment, and a Bubble Point experiment. The later tutorials describe how the experimental results may be used to fit an equation of state to the experimental behavior, and how this fitted equation of state can be used to generate PVT tables for use in reservoir simulations. This tutorial shows how to set up basic fluid properties in PVTi and how to display the phase envelope for the defined fluid.
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Defining a fluid
PVT analysis involves fitting an Equation of State to experimental data and then using this Equation of State to produce PVT tables for use in reservoir simulations. The first step is to start up PVTi, and import the component and fluid definitions. Table 5.2 shows the component and fluid definitions that are used in this tutorial. Table 5.2 Component
CO2 N2 C1 C2 C3 IC4 NC4 IC5 NC5 C6 C7+
Mole Weight
Specific Gravity
1 2 3 4
Start PVTi (if you are unsure about this see "Starting PVTi" on page 31). Select PVTi: File | New... Enter BLACK.PVI as the project name in the file selection window. Click on Open on PC or OK on UNIX platforms. This has defined BLACK as the prefix for any files that are written by PVTi.
Note
The Fundamentals panel opens so that basic project information can be entered. 5 6 7 8 Enter CO2, N2, C1 and C6 into the Components column. Click Apply. Click Yes so that PVTi fills in the library component names. Enter the mole fractions from Table 5.2 and the details for the C7+ component into the Fundamentals panel and click OK. The components for which no mole weight or specific gravity has been specified are automatically set to use the PVTi component properties library (see "Component types" on page 113.)
Note
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Hint
The component properties can be examined by selecting PVTi: Edit | Fluid Model | Components.... This panel can also be used to add additional components, the select alternative characterization methods and to manually defined component properties.
Hint
Only one sample, ZI, is defined in the Fundamentals panel. Additional samples can be created using PVTi: Edit | Samples | Names... and mole fractions can be entered using PVTi: Edit | Samples | Compositions...
Program options
1 2 3 PVTi: Utilities | Program | Options... This opens the Program Options panel. Set the Separator GOR calculation to use Liquid at Stock Tank Conditions. Set the Temperature-dependence for volume shifts to be calculated by Polynomial correlations. (See "Shift parameters" on page 336.)
The Program Options panel should now contain the following data: Table 5.3 Field
Definition of Liquid Saturation in CCE Treatment of volume shifts Separator GOR Calculation Temperature dependence for volume shifts Specify/Calculate density and molar volume units Specific Heat Capacity Coefficients and Calorific Values Calculated compositions Component Library No Save to samples Katz-Firoozabadi
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Experimental Compositions Experimental Results Plot Vectors Print File Output Definition of GOR in Diff Lib Definition of Oil relative volume in Diff Lib Black Oil Table Output Flash Calculations Sample mole fractions when regressing
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3 4
Figure 5.2 Phase Plot
Request Sample ZI, 5 quality lines. Click on OK. The plot should look like Figure 5.2.
Note
A default phase plot with a single quality line can be generated by dragging ZI from the tree-view of the project (in the left pane of the main window), and dropping it on to the main plot workspace.
Hint
This file can now be read in using the PVTi: File | Import | SYSTEM... option.
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Discussion
In this tutorial a fluid was defined from data and an Equation of State was selected to describe that fluid. This fluid definition provides the basic building blocks for further PVT analysis. The fluid definition can be used in simulation studies to compare it with experimental results from the reservoir fluid; see "Simulating experiments" on page 45. This definition can then be adjusted so that it describes the experimental results; see "Fitting an equation of state to experimental results" on page 53. The fitted fluid definition is finally used to generate PVT tables for ECLIPSE ; see "Exporting ECLIPSE Black Oil PVT tables" on page 59, ECLIPSE pseudo-compositional, VFPi and ECLIPSE Compositional.
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Simulating experiments
This tutorial illustrates how experiments are simulated in PVTi. It covers the basic functionality of PVTi. Knowledge of this tutorial is assumed in later tutorials, so you are advised to work through them in order. The data for this project are provided in the standard installation of PVTi in the directory: $ECL/2005a/pvti/tutorials and should be copied to the local directory before starting the tutorial. The tutorial is split into several sections: "Introduction" on page 45 "Defining experiments for simulation" on page 46 "Plotting simulation results" on page 48 "Defining further experiments and observations" on page 48 "Defining further experiments and observations" on page 48 "Simulating all the experiments" on page 50 "Discussion" on page 51.
Introduction
This tutorial describes how experimental observations can be entered into PVTi and how the experiments can then be simulated from an existing fluid definition. 1 2 3 Start PVTi (if you are unsure about this see "Starting PVTi" on page 31). File | Open... Open the file FLUID_DEF.PVI that was created in the last tutorial. (Alternatively open the supplied tutorial file FLUID_CORRECT.PVI).
Setting units
1 2 3 4 5 6 Utilities | Units... Set the Unit Type to Field Set the Temperature Unit Type to Fahrenheit Set Mole Fraction or Percentage to Percentage Set Absolute or Gauge Pressure to Gauge. Click on OK.
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Constant Composition Expansion experiment at 220o F (* indicates bubble point pressure) Relative Volume (V(p)/V(pb)
0.9453 0.9541 0.9638 0.9746 0.9867 0.9893 0.9920 0.9948 0.9970 0.9974 0.9978 1.0000 1.0243 1.0599 1.1066 1.1750 1.2655 1.4006 1.5557 1.8696 2.2956 2.9457 3.9877
1 2
PVTi: Edit | Experiments... Experiment Entry: Add | Pressure Depletion | Constant Composition Expansion...
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Hint
The constant composition expansion or CCE experiment can sometimes be known as a constant mass study in PVT Reports. The differential liberation or DL experiment is also known as a differential vaporization experiment in PVT Reports. The multi-stage separator or SEPS experiments can also be called a separation test in PVT Reports.
The Experiment Entry window now shows three folders: General, Observations and Components. These folders are used to define the experiment entry form. 3 4 5 Select the Observations folder. Click in the top left cell of the table and select Pressure from the drop-down list in that cell. In the second column select Relative Vol. from the drop-down list. By making the column headings the same as those in Table 5.4, the task of data entry is simplified. The ability to tailor the table means that data entry can then be further accelerated by importing observations from a text file or the clipboard.
Hint
Click on Next. The table now shows two folders. The Components folder has disappeared as there were no component observations selected; the General folder now shows an entry field to select fluid type and another to enter the temperature of the experiment.
7 8
In the General folder, enter the temperature from Table 5.4 (220 F). Select the Observations folder. The Observations folder now shows a two-column table with the columns selected previously. The table resembles Table 5.4. Table 5.4 is provided in the file CCE_TABLE.TXT
10 Select CCE_TABLE.TXT and click on Open. 11 In the Text Import Wizard turn on Ignore Records and set the number of records to ignore to 1 (since we want to ignore the column headings). The view of the table should no longer contain the first row. 12 Click on OK. Note The error message Cannot delete rows from this table appears This is because the table has a fixed length and the file we are importing from has fewer rows than the table. This message can be safely ignored.
13 Click on OK to remove the message Cannot delete rows from this table.
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The table now contains the same information as Table 5.4. As the experiment information is complete, the experiment can be created. 14 Click on Next to create the experiment. Hint The data tree now shows the created experiment (CCE1). The asterisk (*) next to the experiments name means that it is active. CCE1 has one observation node, for the relative volume measurements.
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Pressure (PSIG)
2516.7* 2350 2100 1850 1600 1350 1100 850 600 350 159 0
1 2 3
PVTi: Edit | Experiments... Experiment Entry: Add | Pressure depletion | Differential Liberation... In the Observations folder, set the table headings to match those in Table 5.5: Pressure, Oil Rel. Vol., Gas-Oil ratio, Vapor Z-factor, Liquid Density, Gas Gravity, Gas FVF. Click on Next Enter 220 F as the temperature in the General folder. The file DL_TABLE.TXT provides the table in Table 5.5. Import the file DL_TABLE.TXT into the table in the Observations folder, remembering to ignore the first line, which contains column headings. Click on Next to create the experiment.
4 5 6 7
The Experiment Entry panel now shows that there are 2 experiments defined.
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10 Click on Next 11 Enter the temperature, 220o F in the General folder. 12 Select the Observations folder. 13 Enter the saturation pressure as 2516.7 psig and the liquid density as 45.11 lb/ft3. 14 Click on Next to create the experiment. 15 Click Close.
Hint
PVTi: Run | Simulate A simulation report, showing information on all the experiments, is displayed in the Output Display panel.
Examine each of the plots and note how well (or badly) the simulation has matched the data.
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Hint
You can right-click on an axis and select Show Edit Box from the drop-down menu. This opens the Axis Property Editing panel. In this panel you can customize the axes, for example by changing the units used in plotting.
In the next section, the match between calculated and observed data values are improved by regression.
Discussion
In this tutorial an existing project was extended to include experiments. Constant Composition Expansion, Bubble Point and Differential Liberation experiments were imported and simulated for the defined fluid. The match between the experimental observations and the simulated results was examined using the plotting facilities in PVTi. The fluid model can then be adjusted so that it provides the best fit (in a leastsquares sense) to the experimental observations (see "Fitting an equation of state to experimental results" on page 53). The fitted fluid definition is finally used to generate PVT tables for ECLIPSE (see "Exporting ECLIPSE Black Oil PVT tables" on page 59).
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Introduction
This tutorial illustrates the fitting of the fluid definition to the experimental observations. The fluid definition and experiments are read in from an existing PVI file and the regression facilities in PVTi are used to generate an improved fit between the two.
Hint
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The first step in designing any regression is to determine the parameter set that will be used. There are certain steps an engineer can take to improve the performance of a regression. The first step is to try to make all regression variables have similar sizes. This is done to prevent a minor constituent of the fluid having its properties varied extensively to achieve a mathematical fit, which is not a reasonable physical solution. 4 Examine the fluid component data in "Component and fluid definitions" on page 40. The idea here is to look for consecutive components that have small mole fractions. These can be grouped together and treated as a single regression variable, forcing the solution to be physically realistic.
Note
Hint
The properties of C1 and C2 are well known and generally do not differ significantly from the library properties.
Grouping the C3, IC4, NC4, IC5, NC5 and C6 components into a single regression variable preserves monotonicity between the components, in addition to creating a variable that accounts for 19.5% of the total composition. Hint The plus fraction (C7+) contains a mixture of components C7+ and higher, so its properties may not be so well-determined. This makes the plus fraction an ideal candidate for regression to fit the equation of state to the experimental results.
Sensitivity analysis
Sensitivity analysis is used to establish which fluid properties most affect the difference between the observed and simulated values. The sensitivities are calculated for critical temperature and pressure for each experiment, for both regression variables. Finally the most sensitive properties will be selected for use in the regression. Hint In any regression, having a few very sensitive parameters is preferable to having hundreds of insensitive ones. Always look for parameters that can be discarded (this is called conditioning the problem - an ill-conditioned problem is difficult to solve).
5 6 7
PVTi: Run | Regression... opens the Regression panel. Select Normal as the Type of regression variables in the Variables section of the panel. Click Variables. The regression variables are numbered for each property. Entering 1 in the critical pressure (Pcrit) column in the rows corresponding to C3, IC4, NC4, IC5, NC5 and C6 groups those components into the first regression variable.
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Fill in the table in the Select EOS parameters for regression panel with the following data:
Pcrit 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 Tcrit 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
Leave the second part of the Select EOS parameters for regression panel blank.
10 Click on OK. Hint The second part of the Select EOS parameters for regression panel relates to binary interaction coefficients.
11 Click Regression in the Report section of the panel The Regression Report panel provides several views of the regression problem, designed to give the best possible insight into creating a fluid model. For a description of the Regression Report panel see "Regression Report" on page 142. Select the Sensitivities folder. The sensitivities for the first Pcrit parameter are generally lower than for the other regression variables. Select the Hessian folder. The values in the leading diagonal dominate the matrix, except in the first row, the row relating the first Pcrit parameter. Select the Covariance folder In this table the largest value is for the first Pcrit parameter, indicating that it is the least well determined by the regression. Select the Correlation folder. There is a strong negative correlation between the two Pcrit parameters, indicating that the regression would proceed better if only one of those two parameters were used. From an examination of the information in the Regression Report panel, it can be seen that the first Pcrit parameter is not likely to aid the regression, and it may hinder it. Consequently that regression variable is removed before regression is started. 12 Close the Regression Report panel. 13 Click Variables in the Regression panel. 14 In the Select EOS parameters for regression panel click on Reset to clear all the cells in the table.
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15 Fill in the columns to describe the reduced set of regression variables with the following data:
Mnem C3 IC4 NC4 IC5 NC5 C6 C7+ 1 Pcrit Tcrit 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
16 Click on OK.
21 Click Accept in the Regress section of the Regression Panel. 22 Close the Regression Report panel.
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The results of regression are the fluid definition (that is the SYSTEM section) of the newly created PVI file. They can now be read in using the PVTi: File | Import PVI Section | SYSTEM... option.
Discussion
In this tutorial a fluid definition, an Equation of State and some experiments along with their observations were imported from an existing PVI file (the file created in "Simulating experiments" on page 45). The definition was adjusted so that it provided the best fit (in a least-squares sense) to the experimental observations ("Fitting an equation of state to experimental results" on page 53). This fitted fluid definition can now be used to generate PVT tables for ECLIPSE (see "Exporting ECLIPSE Black Oil PVT tables" on page 59).
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Introduction
Once the fluid description has been fitted to the experimental observations, it may be used in a reservoir simulation. PVTi facilitates the transition between a fluid description and the PVT keyword description required by the ECLIPSE family of simulators. In this tutorial PVT tables are created for the fluid definition developed in the tutorials 2, 3 and 4. The output tables are then used in an ECLIPSE simulation. 1 2 Start PVTi (if you are unsure about this see "Starting PVTi" on page 31). Open REGRESS_SECTION.PVI created in the last tutorial (alternatively, open REGRESS_CORRECT.PVI).
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Hint
Select PVTO and PVDG (Live oil and dry gas) on the radio button menu. The Separators drop-down menu becomes active. This is because the produced fluid from the Differential Liberation experiment must be passed through a surface separator to calculate, for example, surface gas-oil ratios. The default is a separator at Standard Conditions. If any separator experiments were defined for this sample, they would also appear here.
3 4
Click OK In the File Selection box, enter ECLIPSE100 as the name of the export file.
The keywords are generated and the Display Output module shows the generated keywords. Note The comments prefixed with --PVTi that appear before each keyword are the concise version of the current PVTi project. This is the minimum information PVTi requires to create the tables. This information can be used to rapidly convert an ECLIPSE BlackOil data-set to an ECLIPSE Compositional data-set.
Caution
Avoid editing the --PVTi prefixed comments. Any changes may invalidate the file, preventing PVTi from reading it.
Note
The sample SWELLSAM has been added to the sample tree. This sample is the swelled sample that was obtained by swelling the original sample with vapor that was split off just below the bubble-point of the fluid. PVTi automatically swells the sample with the vapor from the bubble-point so that the table can be extended to values above the original bubble point.
The information in the keywords is also shown in the main plot space, keyword PVTO is shown in Figure 5.4.
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Figure 5.4 Plot of Oil FVF, Viscosity and Rs versus pressure for the output black oil property tables
In the Observations panel enter the depths 9000 ft. and 9400 ft. Click Next Click OK to allow PVTi to add extra points between the maximum and minimum depths. Click Close Right-click on the new experiment (COMPG1) in the sample tree and select Export keywords... from the drop-down menu.
10 Select the RSVD/RVVD (black oil) on the Equilibration Keyword radio button.
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11 Click OK. 12 Enter the filename RSVD.PVO for the exported keyword. Note In this case, only RSVD is generated. This is because the reservoir is all initially in the liquid phase. If there were a gas-oil contact, both RSVD and RVVD would have been generated. If the reservoir were all in the gas phase, only RVVD would be generated.
13 PVTi: File | Exit. Keywords have now been generated and can be incorporated into an ECLIPSE dataset using ECLIPSE Office.
Note
7 8 9
Close the PVT Section, saving the file with the new keywords. Open the Initialisation Section Initialisation Section: File | Import | Append..., and import the equilibration keyword file (RSVD.PVO). Click OK to remove the warning message.
10 In the Equilibration Data Specification keyword, set the Rs/Pb v Depth Table to 1, so that the imported RSVD keyword is used. 11 Close the Initialisation Section, saving the file with the new keywords. 12 Run the simulation.
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Discussion
In this tutorial an existing fluid definition was imported into PVTi and exported as PVT tables that were used in an ECLIPSE Black Oil reservoir simulation. The basic requirements are that PVTi must simulate a Constant Volume Depletion or Differential Liberation experiment and a Separator experiment to allow the generation of black oil tables from the fluid definition.
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Note
The data for this project are provided with the standard installation of PVTi under the directory: $ECL/2005a/pvti/tutorials and should be copied to the local directory before starting the tutorial. The tutorial is split into several sections: "Introduction" on page 65. "Exporting the fluid model" on page 66. "Converting equilibration keywords" on page 66. "Creating the ECLIPSE Compositional case" on page 67. "Discussion" on page 67.
Introduction
In this tutorial, the black oil PVT tables (PVTO and PVDG) and the Equilibration table (RSVD) are converted into a full compositional model and composition versus depth table (ZMFVD). This allows the ECLIPSE data-set from the previous tutorials to be run as a full compositional case. Caution The --PVTi comments written out with the keywords are used by PVTi to reconstruct the original fluid model. Without these there is not enough information to convert blackoil projects to compositional models. It is important that the lines prefixed by --PVTi in the ECLIPSE data-set are not edited or moved around in the file.
Start ECLIPSE Office with the project created in "Exporting ECLIPSE Black Oil PVT tables" on page 59 or create a new project and load in the data-set ECLIPSE100_FULL.DATA. Select the case. Click on the PVTi launch button. Click Run.
2 3 4
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Note
The launch button has a default selection of launching PVTi with the PVT section of the current case. PVTi reads this PVT section, creating a PVI file from the --PVTi comments.
Hint
4 5 6
Click OK. Export the fluid model to FLUID.PVO PVTi: File | Exit (There is no need to save the PVI file as it can be created from the ECLIPSE Office case).
Hint
4 5 6 7 8 9
In PVTi, right-click on the composition versus depth experiment COMPG1. Select Export keywords... from the drop-down menu. In the COMPG1 export panel, select ZMFVD (Compositional) on the radio button. Click OK. Export the keyword to the file ZMFVD.PVO. PVTi: File | Exit (there is no need to save the PVI file as it can be created from the ECLIPSE Office case).
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10 PVT Section: File | Import | Append... and import the file FLUID.PVO. 11 PVT Section: File | Import | Append... and import the file ZMFVD.PVO. 12 PVT Section: Section | Keywords... 13 Delete the PVTO and PVDG keywords. 14 PVT Keywords: File | Close... 15 PVT Section: File | Close... and save the section with a new name. 16 In the Data Manager select the Initialisation section. Delete the RSVD keyword. In the EQUIL keyword set the Compositional init type to 1 (so that ZMFVD is used for equilibration).
17 Initialisation Section: File | Close and save the section with a new name. 18 Run the simulation from the ECLIPSE Office Run Manager.
Discussion
In this tutorial, an ECLIPSE BlackOil simulation data-set was converted to ECLIPSE Compositional using the integration of PVTi and ECLIPSE Office. The insertion of the --PVTi comments into the keyword export from PVTi is a powerful tool, not just for converting data-sets, but also for developing projects in either black oil or compositional models.
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Workflow Tutorial
Introduction
This tutorial illustrates a typical workflow for an oil or gas condensate. It involves splitting the C7+ fraction into 2 pseudocomponents, special regression, normal regressing, grouping components, and matching viscosity data. We have an oil PVT case, with two fluid samples ZI and W2 (Well 2). There is a C7+ characterization with CO2 present. Well 2 has C7+ has a different MW and Specific Gravity, but the C7+ has been characterized with the ZI fraction only at this point. They are going to inject CO2 into this field, so there is a Swelling Test with CO2. The files for this tutorial are provided in the default PVTi installation in the following directory: $ECL/2005a/pvti/tutorials and should be copied to the local directory before starting the tutorial. This tutorial contains the following sections: "Comparing the Default EOS Calculations to the Observations" on page 69. "Splitting the C7+ Component" on page 70. "Special regression to adjust the tail in the splitting calculation" on page 71. "Normal regression to fine tune 11 component match" on page 72. "Grouping Like Components to Reduce Nc" on page 72. "Regressing to match viscosities" on page 75. "Discussion" on page 76.
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16 Create a Phase Plot superimposed on the unsplit plot. The phase diagram has not changed much at the reservoir temperature, which indicates a good splitting. 17 Before we move on the regression save these results, using File | Save As, give the file the name SPLIT.PVI.
We will also increase the weights of the Bubble Point Pressure (Sat. pressure) Observation as this is a very important criterion to match. 1 2 Right-click on Vapor Visc and enter 0 as the Set Weight. Right-click on Liquid Visc and enter 0 as the Set Weight. Setting the weight of an observation to zero turns off that observation.
Note 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Right-click on ZI | BUBBLE1 Z| Sat pressure and enter 40 as the Set Weight. Right-click on W2 | BUBBLE2 | Sat pressure and enter 40 as the Set Weight. Select Run| Regression. Click Special and then Variables Select all 3 SCT variables and press OK. Select Regress | Run. Note the RMS in the Log area. In the Regression panel click Simulation and observe the match of the 2 Bubble Point pressure. Or alternately select Report | Regression.
10 Under Details check the matches of the observations, especially the 2 bubble point pressures, both should match very well. Look at the Modifiers to see the amount of change in the parameters. Note You may also view the Sensitivities and the Hessian, Covariance and Correlation matrices in the Report panel. These matrices are explained in the "Reference section" on page 99.
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12 Right-click on each experiment CCE1, etc. click plot, view the match and then click Remove Plots before proceeding to the next experiment. Note the DL results are much improved. The general rule is if this special regression improves the match of the phase behavior you should accept the regression. If it does not improve it or makes it worse reject the regression. In this case the match is improved so we will accept this regression. 13 Click Accept and close the Regression panel. 14 Save the results, select File | Save As and save as ALPHA.PVI.
Select Run | Regression. Select Normal under the Variables section. Click Variables box. Now refer to the section ""Normal Regression to fine tune match" on page 73 to fine tune the match. Do not attempt to get a perfect match since the grouping process described below changes the match. The key here is to get the Swelling Test; Saturation Pressures to match better before grouping.
Note
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1 2 3
Before we group create a Phase diagram of component ZI and click the Superimpose button. Select Edit | Fluid Model |Group. Type the following integers into the New Index column: CO2 C1 C2 C3 IC4 NC4 IC5 NC5 C6 FRC1 FRC2 1 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 6
4 5 6 7
Click Update. Check the component (Group) names. You change them if you do not like a particular name. Click Update again, and then click OK. Click the Edit sample compositions button to view the mole fractions of the new group. The usual rule is if one of the group mole fractions is significantly smaller than the others group it into one of its neighbor groups.
Plot a Phase diagram on top of the un-grouped diagram. If they are close to each other then the grouping is good. Your phase match should still be close to the observed data.
10 Plot the experiments to see how much the grouping has changed the calculated results. 11 If the match looks reasonable save this characterization with a new file name. 12 If the match has changed substantially, close this project without saving and read in the .PVI file from the save at the end of the previous section. 13 Re-group with a different selection of groups or number of pseudocomponents.
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Volume shift parameters may be dependent on Tc and Pc - so you cannot regress on them separately. They may be independent in which case you can regress on them. If you are having trouble matching liquid densities try making the volume shifts independent.
A review of the match of the observations shows that the Saturation Pressure for the Swelling Experiment with CO2 contains the largest difference between the calculated and observed. We will increase the weight for these results. There are two ways to change the weight for experiments and observations: To change the global weight for the experiment: Right -click on the experiment and click on set weight Type in the new weight. select Edit | Observations: click on the experiment type, click experiment list, then observation type, then click on the large G in the upper left corner of the panel. Individual weights appear on the right most columns. Insert weight values and click Apply. Swelling, saturation pressure = 10. CCE, liquid densities = 5. SEPS, Gas-Oil Ratio = 5. Bubble point pressure = 40 (previously set).
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Below are 3 combinations of suggested variables (with volume shift parameters "Independent"). A variable should be defined for the contents of each bullet point in the 3 combinations: or: or: 1 Tc - C9+, C23+ Pc - C9+, C23+ AcenFac - C9+, C23+ Sshift - all components BIC CO2 and C1, C2+, C5+, C9+, C23+ BIC C1 and C5+, C9+, C23+ Omega A - C2+, C5+, C9+, C23+ Omega B - C2+, C5+, C9+, C23+ AcenFac - C2+, C5+, C9+, C23+ Shift - all components BIC CO2 and C1, C2+, C5+, C9+, C23+ BIC C1 and C5+, C9+, C23+ Omega A - C9+, C23+ Omega B - C9+, C23+ AcenFac - C9+, C23+ Shift - all components BIC CO2 and C1, C2+, C5+, C9+, C23+ BIC C1 and C5+, C9+, C23+
Try as many combinations as required to match the data to within the degree of accuracy you think is needed. Remember the accuracy of most PVT observations is 5% to 10% or about 20 Psi. Once you have finished matching the phase behavior data, accept the results of the regression and save the file.
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3 4 5
For the Vapor visc. and Liquid visc. change the weight (using the same sequence) from 0 to 1. Select Run | Regression. In the Variable section click Normal then the Variables box.
First iteration
6 7 8 9 In the Select EOS parameters for regression panel enter 1 in all the boxes under the heading VcritV. Click OK. In the Regression panel click Run. Plot the Liquid and Vapor viscosity and compare the new match with the observations.
Second iteration
10 In the Regression panel press Reject to return the characterization back to the preregression values. 11 In the Select EOS parameters for regression panel enter 1 in the first box, 2 in the second box, 3 through 11 in the remainder of boxes under the heading VcritV. 12 Click OK. 13 In the Regression panel click Run. 14 Plot the Liquid and Vapor viscosity and compare the new match with the observations. Note this new match is better than the first match. 15 Press Accept to accept these results. 16 Save this characterization with a new file name. The phase matching process is now complete. You are ready to export the PVT properties or characterization for ECLIPSE simulations.
Discussion
This tutorial illustrated a typical workflow for an oil or gas condensate. It involved splitting the C7+ fraction into 2 pseudocomponents, special regression, normal regressing, grouping components, and matching viscosity data.
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Multiphase Flash
Introduction
The multiphase flash experiment tends to find more than two phases in systems with Asphaltene/Waxes and/or with CO2 rich fluids at low temperatures. This tutorial demonstrates multiphase flashes with both systems. The files for this tutorial are provided in the default PVTi installation in the following directory: $ECL/2005a/pvti/tutorials and should be copied to the local directory before starting the tutorial. The tutorial is split into the following sections: "Asphaltene and wax system" on page 77. "CO2 Rich Fluids" on page 78. "Summary" on page 80.
To run the experiment (again) click GO. The Output Display shows the results of the flash.You will see two phases, Liquid and Vapor, and their properties and compositions.
Now we are going to split the C7+ fraction into it Paraffin, Naphthalene, and Aromatic components, then redo the multiphase flash. 6 7 Select Edit | Fluid Model |Split | PNA Distribution. The C7+ fraction is now split. To view the new characterization, select Edit | Fluid Model Components. You will see that there are three new user-defined components which have replaced the C7+ component. Click on the Complete folder to view the critical properties of these components. Click on OK to close the panel.
8 9
We are going to run the MFLASH experiment again and view the phases present. 10 Click on GO .
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The Output Display shows the following 4 phases: Liquid, Wax, Asphaltene Liquid, and Vapor. 11 Note that the compositions of the Wax is 100% PC7+ and the Asphaltene Liquid is 90.23% AC7+. 12 Close the project, do not save the changes.
We will attempt to verify the phases present with a 0.8 fraction of MI with PVTi multiphase flash. 1 2 Load MULTIPHASE-CO2.PVI into PVTi. This contains the fluids and characterization from the SPE paper,[Ref. 1]. View the compositions of the fluid sample by selecting Edit |Samples Compositions.
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3 4 5
Click OK to close the panel. To create a mixture of 80% MI and 20% reservoir oil, select Edit | Sample | Mix. In the Mix panel enter the following: Mixing Type By Fluid Sample 1 Fluid Sample 2 New Sample Name Temperature Mole Fraction Click OK. Mole Fraction of Sample 2 Z1 MI .8MI 86 F 80 percent
To view the new sample, click Edit | Samples | Compositions. Note the new sample has 65.209% CO2.
Now we will create multiphase flash experiments at a series of pressures (Temperature = 860 F) starting in the Liquid-Liquid region (1100 Psia) then through the LiquidLiquid-Vapor region and ending up in the Liquid-Vapor region (600 Psia). 7 8 Select Edit | Experiments | Add | Single Point | Multiphase Flash. Enter the following: 9 Fluid Sample Temperature .8 MI 86 F
Select Observations and enter 1100 (psia) as the Pressure = 1100 (psia).
10 Click Next> and Close. We now have MFLASH1 defined. 11 To create additional MFLASH experiments at a series of lower pressure, right click on MFLASH1 and select Clone. 12 Repeat for MFLASH2 through to MFLASH5. We now have 5 MFLASH experiments defined. 13 To change the flash pressures right click on the MFLASH experiment and select Edit | Observations | Pressure. 14 Enter the following pressure values: MFLASH2 MFLASH3 MFLASH4 MFLASH5 1050 (psia) 1000 (psia) 900 (psia) 600 (psia)
15 To run all experiments and view results, click GO. 16 Observe the results in the Output Display. Note as the pressure decreases the flashes proceeds from the L-L region to the L-LV region to the L-V regions, just as Figure 5.5 illustrates.
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Note
The MFLASH5 experiment can sometimes label both the phases as liquid. However, one of them is clearly a vapor as the density value is 5.64323 lb./ft.3.
Note
If a standard two-phase flash is performed at the same temperature and pressure as with the multiphase flash, then one obtains liquid and vapor phases with the same density values as produced with the MFLASH5 experiment.
Summary
This tutorial demonstrated the multiphase flash experiment. It tends to find more than two phases in systems with Asphaltene/Waxes and/or with CO2 rich fluids at low temperatures. This tutorial demonstrates multiphase flashes with both systems.
References
Guler B. et al, "Three- and Four-Phase Flow Compositional Simulations of CO2/NGL EOR"
SPE 71485
[Ref. 1]
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To model component K-values we can either export the KVWI keyword, which models them using Wilsons formula, or the KVCR keyword, which uses Crookstons formula. Crookstons formula is in general much more accurate and we will use this. See "KValues" on page 423 for a more detailed description regarding the modeling of Kvalues. 4 5 Tick the box Export Crookston Coefficient? to tell PVTi that you wish to export the KVCR keyword. Since we are exporting the KVCR keyword we need to determine the values of the coefficients of Crookstons equation to export. Click Fit Crookston Coefficients on the panel to open the Fit Crookston Coefficients panel. This panel shows Crookstons equation where p is the pressure, T is temperature and the coefficients A-E are what we wish to determine values for. Note The Fit Crookston Coefficients panel enables you to calculate the optimum values of the coefficients A-E in Crookstons formula, so that the best fit is found to PVTis EoS predicted K-values for each component over the temperature and pressure range defined by the user.
6 7
A and D should already be active. Click on B to make coefficient B active also. Select the Plot option in the Plot P, T Values Used in Fitting Crookston Coefficient? box.
In order to find values for the chosen coefficients PVTi throws in 40 points at random coordinates in the region you just defined in pressure-temperature space. The Plot option plots these points on the screen for you after the fit has been performed. Ideally, we would like to them superimposed on a phase plot. 8 9 Select PVTi: View | Samples | Phase Plot... and press OK to perform the phase plot. Select PVTi: Options | Graph | Superimpose. You can also access the Superimpose option using the toolbar.
Hint
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10 Now click Apply on the Fit Crookston Coefficients panel to start the run. Once the run has finished a results panel appears. In the Coefficients folder the best fit values of A, B and D are reported for each component. 11 Click on the Statistics panel. The mean error and standard deviation (in %) are reported for each fit. The C1 and C5 components have been fitted very well (rms<1.5%) and the C20+ fraction has been fitted reasonably well with an rms of somewhere between 7-9% (depending on the random number generator on your machine). Can we do better though? Caution Make sure you turn off the Superimpose option before moving to the next section.
First we will look at the K-value versus temperature fits, which are dictated by the D and E coefficients (just D in our case). 2 Enter 1250psia in the Enter Constant Pressure box and 400F and 200F as the Maximum and Minimum Temperatures respectively. Now click Apply. The PVTi EoS-based K-values are shown by the points and the K-values calculated using Crookstons equation are shown by the curves. 3 Experiment by changing the value of the constant pressure in the range 1000<P<1500 (our chosen pressure range) to see how well Crookstons formula models the temperature dependence of the K-values at a given pressure. In general, for the C20+ component, the D coefficient, models the observations pretty well over the whole pressure-temperature range, although using the E coefficient as well may well help slightly 4 5 Click the Plot at Constant Temperature box and enter 300F. Now enter the appropriate pressure range, which is 1500 psia and 1000 psia for the maximum and minimum values. Click Apply.
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Again, experiment by changing the value of the constant temperature in the range 200<T<400 to see how well Crookstons formula models the pressure dependence of K-values. In particular it can be seen in the range 300<T<400 (for the C20+ component) that Crookstons formula struggles to model the pressure dependence at pressures at P<1100psia when using just the A and B coefficients. Using the C coefficient may well improve things significantly. You can see in particular, the K-value versus pressure curve for the C20+ component struggles to fit the observations.The problem is that the term A+B/P starts to run into problems for pressure values <1100psia (due to the strongly negative value of B) and therefore we require the C coefficient to get a good fit.
7 8
Close the Crookston Report panel and the Plot K-values vs Temperature or Pressure? panel. Switch on the C and E coefficients by ticking the appropriate boxes on the Fit Crookston Coefficients panel. Now click Apply. This run will take slightly longer, as the introduction of the C and E terms vastly increases the amount of parameter space that PVTi must search.
Once the run has finished repeat steps 1-3. This time, due to the introduction of the C coefficient in the fit, we have done a better job in fitting the pressure dependence of Crookstons equation. The introduction of the E coefficient has also slightly improved the modeling of the C20+ K-value versus temperature.
10 Click on the Statistics folder. Overall, the introduction of the C and E coefficients has decreased the rms fit for the C20+ component from ~8% to ~5%.
1 2
Click the OK button on the Export for ECLIPSE Thermal panel. Choose a name for the file to be exported. By default PVTi names it rootname.PVOT, so in this case THERMAL.PVOT if you do not choose otherwise.
Click Save. The ECLIPSE Thermal fluid model is written to the specified file. This file can now be used to model PVT behavior as part of an ECLIPSE Thermal simulation.
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Introduction
In addition to allowing an equation of state to be fitted to laboratory results and facilitating the generation of ECLIPSE BlackOil/ Compositional PVT data, PVTi also provides material balance checks to assess data quality. For information on the calculations involved in material balance checking see "Compositional material balance" on page 320. Note Problems with the observations in a PVT report equate to problems with the fitted fluid model. It is therefore recommended that material balance checks are carried out on all PVT data.
In this tutorial an existing project file (GAS.PVI) is read into PVTi and the data are checked and modified for material balance errors. 1 2 3 Start PVTi (if you are unsure about this see "Starting PVTi" on page 31). PVTi: File | Open... Open GAS.PVI The Data Tree should show that there are two experiments, CVD1, defined with 10 different types of observations, SEPS1 with observations of fluid mole fractions (liquid and vapor) and CCE1 with observation of Vapor Z-Factor.
Hint
Click and drag the ZI node from the Data Tree and drop it into the Main Plot Window. The phase envelope should look like Figure 5.6.
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Note
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Figure 5.7 The main display shows messages indicating the quality of the data Warning Warning Warning Warning - Sg of final stage liquid plus fraction is not defined - Mw of final stage liquid plus fraction is not defined - Viscosities of gas of at least one stage of CVD is not defined - Mw of vapor plus fraction of at least one stage is not defined - setting constant Mw(CN+) = of Mw(CN+) at Psat Warning - Sg of vapor plus fraction of at least one stage is not defined Warning - Composition of final stage liquid does not sum to 100% Calculated liquid mole% of N2 at P= 6300.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of CO2 at P= 6300.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of IC4 at P= 6300.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of NC4 at P= 6300.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of IC5 at P= 6300.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of NC5 at P= 6300.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of C6 at P= 6300.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of N2 at P= 5700.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of CO2 at P= 5700.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of N2 at P= 5100.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of CO2 at P= 5100.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of N2 at P= 4500.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of N2 at P= 3800.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of N2 at P= 3100.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of N2 at P= 2400.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of N2 at P= 1700.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of CO2 at P= 1700.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of N2 at P= 1000.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of CO2 at P= 1000.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of N2 at P= 300.00000 is negative Calculated liquid mole% of CO2 at P= 300.00000 is negative
The messages show that some mole fractions were calculated as negative, so there are clearly problems with the data. PVTi supplies various options for plotting the data to ascertain the source of the errors. The first type of data check to perform is to view the pressure variation of the gas compositions. 3 4 Output Display: File | Close Click Plot in the Material Balance panel. 5 6 Select Vapor Compositions v Pressure in the Select Plot Type panel and click on Plot. Click Close
PVTi: View | Rubberband Zoom In Click and drag the mouse to define the zoom area to approximately cover the region 2800 to 6500 psia and 0.1 to 2 vapor composition. After zooming in, the plot window should look similar to Figure 5.8.
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Many of the components have non-monotonically varying gas compositions. In general, there are several fluids or analyses available, and bad data can be discarded. However, if no other data is available PVTi offers tools to make modifications to the bad data.
Component Percentage
Note
The other components are modified in proportion to their existing mole fractions. Placing a letter in the thin column to the left of each column of modifiers allows the proportion of that component to be fixed and thus not modified in proportion to its existing mole fraction.
10 Click on OK in the Set correction factors for CVD compositions panel. 11 Click Report in the Material Balance panel to create a new material balance report. 12 Click on Yes to modify the compositions on CVD vapor and Liquid Composition Modif... panel.
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13 Click on No on the CVD vapor and Liquid Composition to ... panel so that the compositions are saved, but retain their original values until after the modified results have been examined. Now none of the liquid mole percentages are negative. So this change to the data can be accepted. 14 Click Report in the Material Balance Panel 15 Click on Yes to modify the compositions. 16 This time, click on Yes so that the compositions are modified.
The K-values should plot monotonically in that N2 should be the largest, followed by C1, etc. This is clearly not the case, so although there are now no calculated negative compositions, the modified fluid definition is not fully consistent.
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In this plot, one line is generated for each pressure stage. The Hoffman F coefficients correspond to C1, C2 etc. and the lowest to C11, C12+. In general, these lines should be monotonic with pressure, with the highest pressure at the top. This plot shows most of the error to be in the first stage.
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Recovery calculations
PVTi can allow recovery calculations to be performed if a valid Constant Composition Expansion, Constant Volume Depletion and Separator test exist. 1 2 Right-click on CCE1 in the project tree-view and select Recovery... on the pop-up menu. Click on Report to perform the recovery calculation. This assumes that there is no direct production of reservoir liquid. If you want to include direct production of reservoir liquid, you need a relative permeability table, which you can enter be clicking on Rel. Perm.
Hint
Note
PVTi runs the material balance check on the Constant Volume Depletion experiment selected, and performs recombination on the Separator selected, before performing the recovery calculation.
Discussion
This tutorial has illustrated how fluids may be examined for consistency and, if necessary, modified, within a PVTi project.
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The sample has now been cleaned. PVTi: Options | Graph | Superimpose - and ensure that the Superimpose option is on. Right-click on the sample CLEAN and select Fingerprint plot from the drop-down menu.
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Right-click on the sample CONTAM and select Fingerprint plot from the drop-down menu. The plot should now look like Figure 5.12.
Figure 5.12 The original sample, the cleaned sample and the estimated contaminant.
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Right-click on the sample ZI and select Clean.... Enter CLEAN2 as the sample name for the cleaned sample. Select Subtraction as the method. Select MUD in the Contaminant drop-down. Click OK.
Right-click on the sample CLEAN2 and select Fingerprint plot from the drop-down menu.
Discussion
This tutorial showed how a fluid can be cleaned of oil-based contaminants such as drilling muds. For information on how the skimming and subtraction methods work see "Removing contamination from samples" on page 93. In general different PVT samples contain different levels of contaminant. It is usually best to fit the PVT reports from a number of (contaminated) samples. Once a consistent fluid model has been developed, the samples can be cleaned using either of the methods outlined in this tutorial. The cleaned samples can then be used in reservoir simulations.
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Introduction
The VERSION keyword, introduced in 2000A, allows a systematic method for updating old PVI files to be compatible with the latest version of PVTi. This tutorial describes how the keyword can be used to convert an old PVI file into the current version. Caution Files in FIELD units containing Differential Liberation (DL) experiments that have Gas formation volume factor (GFVF) observations must be updated to the current version.
Hint
6 7 8
File | Save As... Save the file with the name CONVERT.PVI File | Close
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Note
You could now use the file CONVERT.PVI in a normal session and PVTi interprets it according to the version specified by the VERSION keyword.
In this tutorial we go one step further and convert the PVI file to the current version.
Hint
Discussion
In this tutorial an old PVI file was converted to the latest version. This is important for files using FIELD units, containing Differential Liberation (DL) experiments that have Gas formation volume factor (GFVF) measurements as the units, for this type of observation was changed in 99B from rb/stb to rb/Mscf to make PVTis units systems consistent with those of the ECLIPSE simulators.
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General information
"Main PVTi window" on page 100 "File" on page 102. "View" on page 105 "The fluid model" on page 109 "COMB - Compositional Material Balance" on page 123 "Simulation using PVTi" on page 128 "Regression in PVTi" on page 137 "Exporting keywords" on page 144. "Utilities" on page 155. "Batch system and keywords" on page 163. "Error handling" on page 174.
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Data Tree
The main window contains all the tools necessary for Equation of State model fitting.
Basic features
The Data Tree provides a view of the current projects contents. Each fluid sample is identified with its experiments as sub-nodes in the tree. Likewise, each experiment has its observations as sub-nodes. The Log Window is updated with pertinent information relating to actions taken in PVTi. The Equation of State, upon which the current fluid model is based, is indicated in the status bar. The Main Plot Window and the Sub-plots provide an area for viewing project information graphically.
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File
The File menu allows you to open, close and save PVTi project files (PVI files) and import sections from PVI files, and provides access to keyword export modules. Graph printing and plotting facilities are also available from this menu. To open this menu, select File from the main PVTi window. New... This creates a new PVTi project. Open... Opens a PVTi project (PVI) file. The complete file is read in and the most recent fluid model, experiment descriptions, observations, etc., are restored. For more information on the files PVTi creates see "Files created by PVTi" on page 103. Close... Closes the current project. If the project is not empty you are asked if you want to save before closing. Save... Saves the current PVI file, overwriting the previously saved project. Save As... Saves the current project to a new PVI file. Save (concise)... Saves a concise version of the current project containing the latest version of the fluid model plus any experiments and observations used in simulation and regression. No other information is saved, therefore information regarding regression variables or split/group sections will not be recorded by the Save (concise) option. Export Keywords This provides access to the Keyword Export modules. Currently PVTi supports export for the ECLIPSE simulators and VFPi. See "Exporting keywords" on page 144. Import This option allows a section from a previous PVI project or ECLIPSE data-set to be imported or a concise PVI project to be merged with the current project. The sections that can be imported here are SYSTEM,GROUP, SPLIT,SIMULATE and REGRESS. See "Reading the SYSTEM section from a PVI or DATA File" on page 109. View PVI Section This opens a particular section from a PVI file and displays the keywords in a text editor. The sections that can be viewed this way are SYSTEM, GROUP, SPLIT, SIMULATE, and REGRESS. See "Displaying the SYSTEM section from a PVI file" on page 109. Exit This exits PVTi. If there is an active project, you are asked whether you would like to save the project before exiting. The File menu consists of the following options:
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Hint
REG files, for example ALL.REG Regress Module file. This temporary file holds details of the quantities plotted in the Regress module. It is left in the working directory if the program does not shut down cleanly.
Only one project at a time can be in use with a single run of PVTi. To open another project, close the current project, either by selecting the File | Open option (the program prompts you save the session to a new .PVI file) or by using File | Close. Note Although only one project may be in use by the program, different sections of different .PVI files may be read in.
Edit
The Edit menu allows entry and editing of the fluid model, samples, experiments, observations and regression variables.
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To open this menu, select Edit from the main PVTi window. Fundamentals... This opens the Fundamentals panel, See "Fluid Properties Estimation" on page 35. Fluid Model This opens the sub-menu of fluid model editing options. Equation of State... This opens the Equation of State selection panel. See "Equation of State" on page 111. Components... This opens the component properties panel. See "Components" on page 112. Binary Interaction Coefficients... This opens the binaries panel. See "Binary Interaction Coefficients" on page 115. Volume Shifts... See "Volume shifts" on page 115. Thermal Properties... See "Thermal properties" on page 115. LBC Viscosity Coefficients... See "LBC Viscosity Coefficients" on page 116 Split This opens the sub-menu of options for splitting fluid components. See "Splitting components" on page 116. Constant Mole Fraction... Whitson... Multi-feed... PNA Distribution
Group...
Samples This opens the sub-menu of sample entry and editing options. Names... See "Sample names" on page 118. Compositions... See "Sample compositions" on page 119. Salinities... See "Sample salinities" on page 119. Mix... See "Mixing samples" on page 119.
Properties Estimation (FPE)... See "Fluid Properties Estimation" on page 35. Experiments...
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See "Defining Experiments" on page 128. Observations... See "Defining Observations" on page 134.
View
The View menu provides facilities for plotting and reporting. To open this menu select View from the main PVTi window. Samples This option opens a sub-menu containing sample plot types. Phase plot See "Sample phase plot" on page 121. Fingerprint plot See "Sample fingerprint plot" on page 120. Ternary plot See "Sample ternary plot" on page 122. Observations... This allows you to plot an observations against calculated values, or any calculated values where corresponding observations do not exist. Library This option allows you to view the internal PVTi library. See "Library" on page 105. The View menu has the following options:
Library
The properties of library components are preset by the program. To display the current list of library components select View | Library... Table 6.1 Mnemonic H2 O H2 CO 2 C1 C3 iC 4 C5 List of library components Name
Water Hydrogen Carbon Dioxide Methane Propane Iso-Butane Pentane
Mnemonic N2 H2 S CO C2 C4 nC 4 iC 5
Name
Nitrogen Hydrogen Sulfide Carbon Monoxide Ethane Butane Normal Butane Iso-Pentane
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Mnemonic C6 C7 H8 C8 C 10 C 12 C 14 C 16 C 18 C 20 C 22 C 24 C 26 C 28 C 30 C 32 C 34 C 36 C 38 C 40 C 42 C 44
Name
Hexanes Toluene Octanes Decanes Dodecanes Tetradecanes Hexadecanes Octadecanes Eicosanes C22s C24s C26s C28s C30s C32s C34s C36s C38s C40s C42s C44s
Note
For components C 6 to C 45 , the properties stored in the internal library correspond to the grouped properties of Single Carbon Number Groups (SCN), [Ref. 5].
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Obvious candidates for the pseudoisation of components for use in large regressions or compositional simulation are iso-butane and normal butane, and iso-pentane and normal pentane, into single butane and pentane components. A study of many PVT reports [Ref. 19] has shown that the typical ratios of iC 4 : nC 4 , iC 5 : nC 5 are 0.67:0.33 and 0.60:0.40 respectively. The library also contains two other components, with the mnemonics C 4 and C 5 , whose properties are mole-weighted averages of the respective iso and normal component properties.
Run
The Run menu provides simulation and regression facilities. The following options are available: Check Fluid System This provides a consistency check of the current fluid, the results of which are posted to the log window. If there are a lot of fluid errors, the results are also displayed in a text window. Save As Samples If this option is turned on, any samples created by an experiment can be saved as additional project samples. Simulate This simulates all active experiments and then display the simulation results in a text editor. PVTi has intelligent simulation, which means that the results of the last simulation run are stored, and if no change has been made to the experimental data the simulation run is not repeated, the results from the previous run being used. This keeps the time spent running simulations to a minimum. Regression... This opens the Regression panel. See "Regression in PVTi" on page 137.
Utilities
The Utilities menu option provides access to miscellaneous information relating to the project and program set-up. Units... See "Units..." on page 155. Standard Conditions... See "Standard conditions..." on page 156. Program This opens the sub-menu of program configuration options. Options... This opens the Options panel which mimics the OPTIONS keyword in the PVI file. See "Program options" on page 156. Debug... See "Debug..." on page 161. Reference Section Run
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Text Editor This opens the text editor used for displaying simulation results, etc. It can be used to view any ASCII file.
Graph
The Graph menu provides options related to the plotting of graphs. Add New Graph... Adds a new graph to the existing plot windows. Superimpose When the superimpose option is switched on, indicated by a tick next to the menu option, subsequent graphs are superimposed on the current main graph. Tabulate... This option creates a table showing the values plotted in the current main graph. Remove All This option deletes all graphs from the window.
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Note
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Select the section you wish to load. If more than one section is found, the program offers the last section as the default, although you can read any of the sections.
Note
Hint
If you are uncertain as to the contents of the selected section, use File | View PVI Section to display the section to the screen.
The syntax of the external file is similar to that of ECLIPSE. The data file is free format, except for keywords, which must start in column 1. For further information on the keywords see "PVTi keywords" on page 177. An example of such a file for a trivial twocomponent CO 2 -isoButane system is as follows:
-----RUNSPEC section: ---RUNSPEC NCOMPS 2 / EOS PR /
------SYSTEM section: define hydrocarbon properties and composition ---SYSTEM ---Unit conventions UNITS METRIC ABSOL FRACTION / DEGREES KELVIN / ---Component names (library defaults) LNAMES CO2 IC4 / ---Overwrite default omega values by component OMEGAA 0.4572 0.4572 / OMEGAB 0.0778 0.0778 / ---Initial sample composition ZI 0.6 0.4 / ---Binary Interaction Coefficients BIC 2 1 1 0.13 / / ---------------END
This defines the fluid, EoS etc. COMB, SIMULATE, REGRESS, BLACKOIL sections may now follow See examples in Appendix C
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Note the following points: Any characters following ---- are taken as comments. The data is free format, apart from keywords which should start in column 1. You can split data over lines as required. The forward slash (/) characters terminate data for a keyword. You can specify repeat counts for any item. For example 3 * 1.0 implies three values of 1.0. You can enter defaults by specifying a repeat count alone, such as 1*, or by the early termination of a data list with a forward slash (/). You may enclose character data such as component or experiment names in quotes. This is optional and is only strictly required when the name contains embedded spaces or non-alphanumeric characters.
Equation of State
Hint The default Equation of State is the Peng-Robinson three-Parameter equation. This is suitable for most requirements, so generally you do not need to set the equation of state.
This panel allows you to choose one of five main equations of state, to specify the required viscosity correlation, and to decide whether or not to activate editing of specific heat capacities. The equations of state are described in "Equation of state" on page 330; the viscosity options are described in "Viscosity correlations" on page 345 and in [Ref. 5], [Ref. 7] & [Ref. 42]. The available equations of state are: Peng-Robinson Soave-Redlich-Kwong Redlich-Kwong Zudkevitch-Joffe Schmidt-Wenzel
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Select the appropriate equation of state. If you select either of the Peng-Robinson equations or the Schmidt-Wenzel equation, you must also select whether you wish to use the correction to the dependence of the a upon acentric factor. The default is the modified (thirdorder in ) Peng-Robinson form. Check the box for Yes, or leave it unchecked for No, as appropriate (see "Equation of state" on page 330).
The PR3 EoS is the default setting. Hint It has been our experience that the Peneloux et al. three-parameter equations of state, PR3 and SRK3, generally give much better predictions of liquid properties and saturations. They also allow you an additional set of regression parameters, namely the component volume shifts, making for an easier match to measured data.
Viscosity correlations
The Lohrenz-Bray-Clark, Pedersen and Aasberg-Petersen viscosity models are available. Select the appropriate viscosity model. Note You can re-select the equation of state or viscosity correlation at any stage. However, the default EoS parameters for each component are dependent upon the EoS, and the program re-initializes these if you change the EoS. Alternatively you can manually reset the parameters to the default values at any time.
Components
PVTi: Edit | Fluid Model | Components...
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Click on Apply. The other folders now have information in them: Complete shows all the properties of all components Library shows the properties that were retrieved from the internal library User shows user-defined properties Characterization allows definition of fluid-model properties by characterization.
Component types
Library
The PVTi program checks this against the internal library of names. If this exists in the internal library, it adopts the internal description. If it does not recognize the mnemonic from amongst the set described in the previous section, you must re-enter the mnemonic name or respecify the component as a Char or User type, see below.
User
This option allows you to define components. Enter the required properties into the panel: critical pressure and temperature, acentric factors, etc. You should enter the components in order of increasing molecular weight, and nonhydrocarbons before hydrocarbons: Non-Hydrocarbons
H2 H2 O CO N2 H2 S CO 2
Hydrocarbons
C1 C2
CN+ By selecting PVTi: Run | Check fluid system the fluid is re-ordered into increasing mole weights.
Hint
PVTi allows you to input a user component even if you know only the critical temperature and pressure. It calculates the other properties as follows:
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T b from T c and P c Riazi-Daubert. For further information see [Ref. 30] and [EQ 8.11], [EQ 8.12]. Sg from T c and T b Riazi-Daubert. For further information see [Ref. 30] and [EQ 8.11], [EQ 8.12]. Mw from T b , T b and Sg Riazi-Daubert. For further information see [Ref. 30] and [EQ 8.33], [EQ 8.34]. from P c , T b and T c Edmister. For further information see [Ref. 30] & [EQ 8.10]. P from Macleod and Sugden. For further information see [Ref. 14]. Vc & Zc Riazi-Dubert. For further information see [Ref. 12].
Use the Update button to calculate the other properties of the component.
Characterization
If you give a characterization, you must generally specify at least two out of the following (these are specified in the Characterization folder): molecular weight M w , specific gravity S g , normal boiling point temperature T b , Watson characterization factor K w , reference temperature K If you have more than two of the set M w , S g , T b and K w , we recommend that you enter the best two first, as the order of entry decides which pair the program selects. For example, if you enter M w , T b and K w then the program uses M w and T b .
Hint
Note
It is possible to perform a characterization by entering just the molecular weight, whereupon the program estimates the specific gravity from a look-up of Single Carbon Number (SCN) groups.
You can choose from the following correlations for estimating the physical properties and acentric factors: Critical properties Kesler-Lee. See [Ref. 10]. Cavett. See [Ref. 11]. Riazi-Daubert. See [Ref. 12]. Winn. See [Ref. 44].
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Acentric factors Kesler-Lee. See [Ref. 10]. Edmister. See [Ref. 14]. Thomassen. See [Ref. 30]. Pedersen. See [Ref. 44], [Ref. 42] and [Ref. 46]. When reading in a file the critical volumes (Vc) and critical Z factors (Zc) for each component must satisfy the relation PcVc=ZcRTc (where Tc, Pc, R are the critical temperatures, critical pressures and universal gas constant respectively). If this is not the case then PVTi will alter the values of the relevant critical Z-factors in order that this relation is satisfied.
Note
Volume shifts
Note Volume shifts are only available if you use a three-parameter Equation of State.
Use this option to enter the dimensionless volume shifts. The actual volume shifts in the equation of state are displayed beside them. 1 2 3 PVTi: Edit | Fluid Model | Volume Shifts... . This displays the Volume Shifts and Thermal Expansion Coefficient panel. Enter the volume shifts for the required components. Click on OK. If the "Temperature dependence for volume shifts" on page 158 option is set then you can enter a value for THERMX, the thermal expansion coefficient.
Note
Thermal properties
Note You can only use this option if the program option "Specify/Calculate density and molar volume units" on page 158 is switched on. It can be switched on in the Equation of State panel (see "Equation of State" on page 111).
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Specific heat capacity coefficients and calorific values for each component are the thermal properties used in PVTi. 1 2 3 PVTi: Edit | Fluid Model | Thermal properties.... This opens the Thermal Properties panel. Amend the thermal properties for the components, as required. Click on OK.
Use the option to view or edit the LBC viscosity coefficients. 1 2 3 PVTi: Edit | Fluid Model | LBC Viscosity Coefficients.... This opens the LBC Viscosity Coefficients panel. View or amend the coefficients as required. Click on OK.
Splitting components
This menu allows for the automatic splitting of the plus fraction into a required number of sub-fractions for subsequent use in a large regression or for output to a compositional simulator such as the one in ECLIPSE. Splitting is also used to accommodate different plus-fraction properties for different fluid samples. This process is often known as a multi-feed split. This option allows you to input data for splitting the plus fraction. There are three methods available from this option for splitting the plus fraction, which must be the last component: 1 Constant Mole Fraction splitting (CMF) Whitson Multi-feed split or Semi-Continuous Thermodynamic (SCT) splitting
To choose the splitting method, select PVTi: Edit | Fluid Model | Split and select the splitting option.
3 4 5
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Click on OK.
8 9
10 Specify the Critical Props Correlation and the Acentric Props. Correlation. 11 Select the grouping technique. 12 Choose whether you wish to plot a fingerprint of the Whitson split fractions. 13 Click on OK.
4 5 6
Note
PNA Distribution
This splits all components heavier than the library C6 component into paraffinic (P), naphthalenic (N), and aromatic (A) components. This is done according to the method outlined in "The PNA distribution of heavy components" on page 416. The critical properties assigned to the PNA components are those described in "Critical properties of PNA species" on page 417.
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Group
This menu allows for the automatic grouping of sub-fractions for subsequent use in a large regression or for output to a compositional simulator such as the one in ECLIPSE. This option allows you to choose components to group and perform the grouping operation. The default scheme for grouping is to group to the default sample ZI using the mole fraction weighting to group components. Other schemes of grouping include grouping by molecular weight and by mixing rule, see [Ref. 45]. Also the sample to group to can be changed to any in the defined set, or to an average of all samples. To group components, select PVTi: Edit | Fluid Model | Group... This displays the current component system, each component having an associated index. The first time you enter this option, all these indices are set to 0, indicating that they do not belong to any group. 1 2 3 To create a new pseudo component, give a new index of greater than zero to two or more components. Select the Grouping Technique. Give the group or pseudo-component a new component mnemonic, if required. You can perform several groupings from the same original component description by specifying the new components with ascending indices, 1, 2, etc.
Hint
4 5
Click on the Update button to automatically display any of these new component names. Click on the OK button to create the groups. Note that splitting is not necessarily the opposite of grouping. That is, splitting the plus fraction into two or more pseudo-components, followed by a regrouping of those pseudo-components back into a single plus fraction, generally results in a different set of critical properties, etc., from those originally possessed by the plus fraction.
Note
Defining Samples
Sample names
PVTi: Edit | Samples | Names... Defines sample names. Use this option to enter mnemonics for each component. You can enter more than one sample for later use; to do this, reference each sample by its mnemonic, of up to 8 characters. Note Note that the mnemonic for the default sample is ZI, for z initial.
For alternative samples, you may specify a line of text to give additional information. For example: from different depths in the hydrocarbon column, a saved calculated composition from a simulation, etc.
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Sample compositions
PVTi: Edit | Samples | Compositions.... Enter the compositions for each defined sample. PVTi ensures that they all add up to unity. If a sample does not add up to unity, a message appears asking whether or not the program should redistribute the difference across the components.
Sample salinities
PVTi: Edit | Samples | Salinities... This option allows you to enter sample salinities. If you have entered component then use this option to add the salinity of each sample. Note This information is used in the MFLASH experiment in the "Simulation using PVTi" on page 128.
H 2 O as a
Mixing samples
This option allows you to form a new sample by mixing any two existing samples. You can enter the amount of each sample to mix either as the mole fraction of the second sample in the resulting mixture, or as a volume of gas of the second sample as a ratio to the volume of the first sample at its P sat or other pressure at the specified mix temperature. The latter case is useful when considering lean gas injections into an oil. The program produces the required mix provided that: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 The two samples are different. The amount of the second sample to mix is greater than zero. The number of samples does not exceed the maximum allowed (50). The name of the new sample is unique in the set. To mix samples, select PVTi: Edit | Samples | Mix... This activates the Mix Samples panel. Select the Mixing Type. Choose the fluid samples you wish to mix. Enter the new sample name. Enter the temperature with its units, and the mole fraction. If you are mixing by GOR, give the GOR and the pressure for GOR oil volume calculation Click on OK. If the sample is mixed by recombination, the GOR is taken as the stock tank GOR, the conditions are separator conditions and the mixture is created such that the stock tank GOR matches the required value.
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Viewing samples
Sample fingerprint plot
This option allows you to generate fingerprint plots. This consists of plotting the logarithm of the component mole fractions against the component molecular weights. Hint Fingerprint plots give an idea of the nature, that is condensate or volatile oil, of a given fluid sample. Providing a reasonable split of the Heptanes plus is available, then a condensate typically has straight line or down-turning slope proceeding towards the heavier fractions, whilst a volatile oil has an upturning slope as it usually contains more heavy fractions.
To generate fingerprint plots, select PVTi: View | Samples | Fingerprint Plot This activates the Fingerprint Plot panel, which enables you to select the sample you require to be used for the plot from a drop-down panel. Select the sample you wish to plot and click on Apply. An example of a plot is shown in Figure 6.2.
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Figure 6.2 Fingerprint Plot
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Hint
Note
If depletion experiments or separators exist, they are plotted onto the phase plot too.
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Hint
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It is generally the case that for gas condensate and volatile oil samples, a constant volume depletion experiment (CVD) is performed as part of a laboratory analysis. Using material balance considerations, it is possible to calculate liquid compositions and hence K -values, molar masses, densities, etc. This can be very useful for two reasons: 1 2 With appropriate separator data, estimates of oil and gas recovery can be performed without recourse to an equation of state model. The consistency checks provide a measure of the quality of laboratory data and consequently its value or otherwise in any subsequent regression analysis.
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Modify
Report
This option performs the material balance calculation and produces a report on any current problems with the fluid.
Figure 6.5 Main display after performing material balance
Plot
Use this option to perform plots. The set of plots available from this option are: Vapor composition (input) Liquid composition K -values (1): log( K ) versus pressure Produced moles Vapor moles left in cell
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Liquid moles left in cell Produced mass Vapor compositions versus pressure Liquid compositions versus pressure Liquid volume in cell K -values (2): Hoffmann plot Initial and recovered compositions Final stage liquid composition Calculated and correlated liquid density Input and correlated vapor Z -factor
Modify
Use this option to modify data. Errors in the input data may become evident after you performed the CVD material balance. You can use this option to rectify these errors. You may consider changing the saturation pressure liquid saturations, Z -factors, etc. Hint You can avoid calculated liquid mole fractions remaining in the cell by changing the composition of the feed stream (well stream) or one or more of the removed gas streams.
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Negative calculated liquid moles Negative calculated liquid moles for a given component across a wide range of the sampled pressure stages probably indicate errors in the wellstream composition (which is usually a calculated recombination sample). Errors at a lesser number of stages or at just one or two specific stages probably indicate a measurement error on a given removed gas stream. In either case, you can modify the well stream or removed gas stream compositions by increasing (positive % or absolute value) or decreasing (negative % or absolute value) one or more component compositions. The program automatically re-scales the remaining (unmodified) compositions in the stream, according to their initial mole fraction, so that the total mole fraction for the stream sums back to 100%. If you require any of the compositions to remain fixed prior to the material balance calculation, type any character in the field immediately preceding the Modifier field for that composition.
Separator recombination
Use this panel to directly test the quality of recombinations. To open this panel, right-click on the separator experiment in the project-tree and select Material Balance... from the pop-up menu.
Report
Use this option to test recombinations. It generates the calculated and Standing's K values and provides a report on the results. Testing combinations If sufficient volumetrics data has been entered in the previous item the recombined sample is calculated and output to the report and PVP file. The output details the calculated feed to either separator using the given values of GOR, oil density and liquid and vapor compositions from each separator stage and is printed together with the given feed composition for comparison.
Plot
Use this option to plot the recombination results. It produces a Hoffmann-CrumpHocott plot, which gives a measure of the quality of the separator data.
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Rel. Perm.
Use this option to define liquid production. If oil is to be produced in the recovery calculations (using the method of Reudelhuber Hinds, [Ref. 37]), you must enter two points on the plot of relative permeability versus total liquid saturation.
Report
Use this option to perform recovery calculations. It allows you to estimate recoveries of vapor and liquid.
Plot
Use this option to produce a plot of the gas and oil recovered as a function of pressure.
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Note
Defining Experiments
1 2 PVTi | Edit | Experiments... This opens the Define Simulate Experiments panel. To add a new experiment select it on the Add menu. To edit an existing experiment, select its name from the drop-down list, which appears in the panel, and click OK.
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Once an experiment has been created for definition or selected for editing, you will see a customizable form that can be tailored to suit your data. The information is entered in a number of folders. In the first folder, General, you can select various single-valued pieces of information for entry. The required information is automatically selected and cannot be deselected, so an information line informs that this data is required. The second folder, Observations, shows a table where you can customize column headings to match your observation data. If you are editing an existing experiment, the observations in the currently defined set are already shown as column headings. In this way you can match the data entry panel to your own data-set. If you forget to enter a required quantity (for example Pressure in a Differential Liberation experiment - see "Differential liberation" on page 130) PVTi warns you and does not create the customized entry form. The third folder, Components, allows you to determine whether you enter component-base data or not. Typical options here are for Liquid Mole Fractions, Vapor Mole Fractions or K-values. The fourth folder, Other, is used for miscellaneous observations that do not fit any of the other categories. Currently this folder is only used by the Constant Volume Depletion experiment for the Final Liquid Mole Fraction. When other experiments are being entered, this folder does not appear. Click Apply.
A customized form is now created, with the same folders as described above. Now the folders contain data-entry fields and tables for observations. Once the data have been entered, click on Apply to submit the data and create or edit the experiment. Finally, Close becomes active and can be used to close the panel
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Note
When obtaining relative volumes the program uses saturation volume as a normalisation volume, if one exists, or the volume at the highest pressure, if not.
Note
The relative volume reported by the program is the fraction of the cell filled with liquid at the end of the constant volume step, that is after the original volume has been restored by removing vapor.
Differential liberation
For this experiment you must specify a temperature and a series of pressures. You do not need to give a value at the bubble point. PVTi provides this pressure point. The program also provides automatically the last step in the differential liberation process, the reduction to standard conditions. However, the program does not provide the pressure point at standard pressure (usually 14.7psia) and at reservoir temperature and the user must enter this for the final stage. Note You may only apply this experiment to a liquid (bubble point) system.
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Hint
The relative volume reported by the program is the ratio of the oil volume at each step to the oil volume at the final (standard conditions) step.
Note
There are alternative definitions of the GOR and the relative oil volume available using the program options "Definition of GOR in Diff. Lib." on page 159 and "Definition of Oil relative volume in Diff. Lib." on page 160.
Swelling test
A swelling test consists of adding increasing amounts of a lean gas to a reservoir fluid and determining the swelling of the mixture relative to the original fluid composition. For this experiment you must specify: The nature of the original fluid type, OIL or GAS. The composition of the lean gas to be added. The reservoir temperature. A set of either mole percentages of gas in the mixture or GORs (the volume of gas at STC, that is 14.7 psi and 60 F , per volume of oil at original saturation pressure or other specified pressure).
Separators
Separators consist of a set of connected equilibrium flashes at user prescribed pressures and temperatures. For this experiment you must specify: The composition of the feed stream from the defined sample mnemonics. A number of stages (up to seven) for which you must give a pressure and temperature.
Additionally, you must connect the vapor and liquid outputs of each stream to some subsequent stream. The default routing is to connect the liquid output of stage (j) to stage (j+1), and to take the vapor output to stock tank conditions (as defined by the STCOND keyword or by the Standard Conditions menu option under OPTIONS). Note A stage output can be fed back to any previous stage though not back to the current stage. No stock tank stage is defined automatically, and whereas it is customary to quote vapor properties at stock tank conditions, liquid properties will be quoted at the final stage conditions. Therefore, if liquid properties at stock tank conditions are required, this should be the final (additional) stage which must be defined by the user. For example if we have a separator with 3 stages with the last stage being stock tank conditions, then a liquid FVF at stage 1 of the separator will be the volume of liquid divided by the final liquid volume (stock tank conditions in this case) after flashing the liquid feed of stage 1 through the remaining 2 stages of the separator chain.
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Hint
The "Definition of Oil relative volume in Diff. Lib." on page 160 program option allows you to quote GORs as volume of gas at standard conditions per volume of stock tank oil as opposed to the default calculation of volume of gas at standard conditions per volume of separator liquid at separator conditions.
The program can calculate oil formation volume factors, that is the volume of reservoir fluid at initial or bubble point conditions per stock tank volume (SRELV) and, by separator stage, volume of separator liquid at separator conditions per stock tank oil volume (ORELV). To use this option tick the box in the panel or use the FVFREF keyword in batch mode.
If during the increment up and/or down, either a genuine gas-oil contact is found or a transition from gas to oil (or vice-versa) without passing through a contact (a critical transition), then the program reports this depth. Note The assumptions made in the performance of this experiment, that there are no asphaltenes and that the reservoir is in thermal, gravitational and diffusive equilibrium, are probably not achieved in any real reservoir. However, despite these reservations, this is a useful test of the depth-variation of a particular fluid.
Vaporization test
This is a somewhat specialised test performed for gas-injection on reservoir fluids, but in fact it is rather similar to a swelling test. For this experiment you must specify: The composition of the reservoir fluid and injection fluid from the currently defined sample mnemonics. The reservoir pressure and temperature The number of moles of injection gas to be added to the reservoir fluid.
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Note
The gas-oil ratio reported by the calculation is defined as gas volume at standard conditions divided by liquid volume at flash conditions. The gas volume is obtained using a Z -factor of unity. Note also no facility currently exists for comparing these against observed values.
Note
If the sample you select for the experiment contains water, you should enter the salinity in the PROPS section.
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For this experiment specify: The oil and gas samples The temperature and pressure of the test The drive to simulate (either condensing where the remaining oil is kept after each flash and contacted with the initial gas sample, or vaporizing where the remaining gas is kept after each flash and contacted with the original oil sample) The fractions of remaining oil/gas to be contacted with the original gas/oil at each stage. You can use this experiment in the REGRESS section. For further information see "Regression in PVTi" on page 137.
Hint
Defining Observations
Observations can be defined at the same time as the experiment; see "Defining Experiments" on page 128. 1 2 3 4 5 PVTi: Edit | Observations... This opens the Define Simulate Observations panel. Choose the index of the experiment Select abbreviation for the observation to be entered Enter the data for this observation If you are entering data for regression purposes, give weightings, either individual or global, for the observation types.
The observations available vary with experiment type, but will be from the following set: Table 6.1 Abbreviation
Liquid Z-Factor Vapor Z-Factor Liquid Density Vapor Density Vapor Mol. Wght Liquid Visc. Vapor Visc. Liquid Sat. Vapor Sat. Vapor Mol. Frac. Sat. Pressure
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Relative Vol. Ternary Plot Mole. wght. plus Rel. oil sat. K Values Liquid mol. frac. Vapor mol. frac. Total mol. frac. Spec. grav. plus Moles Recov. Liquid mol. vol. Vapor mol. vol. Final mol. wght. liq. plus Final spec. grav. liq. plus Final liq. mol. frac. Total rel. vol. Oil rel. vol. Gas Gravity Gas FVF Gas Vol. Ext. 2-phase Z Oil rel. FVF
Total Gas-oil ratio Cumulative separator GOR: (Gas at STC/final stage Oil)
K -values
Liquid mole fraction vapor mole fraction Total mole fraction Specific gravity of plus fraction (COMB Mat. Bal.) Moles recovered from depletion experiment (CVD,DL) Liquid molar volume (specific volume) vapor molar volume (specific volume) Mole weight of liquid plus fraction (COMB Mat. Bal.) Specific gravity of liquid plus fraction (COMB Mat. Bal.) Liquid mole fraction of final stage of CVD (COMB Mat. Bal.) Total (oil and gas) relative volume (DL) Oil relative volume (DL, SEPS, vapor) (also see RVSAT) Gas gravity (Differential Liberation) Gas formation volume factor (DL) Gas volume extracted (at STC) (DL) Two phase Z -factor (CVD) Oil FVF from p init p bub to p stock (SEPS)
Note
Note that not all the observed data types are available for all experiments.
Running a simulation
Note Simulations are automatically run on creation, so the results are immediately available.
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PVTi: Run | Simulate When the simulation is complete the program displays a text module detailing the success or otherwise of the runs. The PVTi main display window showing the experiment results will resemble the following:
Constant Composition Expansion
CCE :
Soave-Redlich-Kwong (3-Parm) on Z1 Lohrenz-Bray-Clark Viscosity Correlation Density units are KG/M3 Viscosity units are CPOISE Surface Tension units are DYNES/CM Specified temperature
Deg K
377.5944
-----------Vap Mole Frn -----------Calculated ----------------------Liq Density -----------Calculated -----------682.4368 676.7593 670.6133 663.9241 655.0453 653.4620 651.8460 650.1961
Liq Sat calc. is Vol oil/Vol Fluid at Sat. Vol ------------------- ----------------------Rel Volume Pressure Inserted ----------------------BARSG Point Observed Calculated ------------------- ----------------------344.739 0.9189 0.9485 310.265 0.9278 0.9565 275.791 0.9379 0.9652 241.317 0.9492 0.9750 199.948 0.9623 0.9882 193.053 0.9651 0.9906 186.159 0.9681 0.9930 179.264 0.9711 0.9955
Hint
PVTi recognizes which experiment simulations are up to date and then only performs necessary calculations. This means that to view the simulation results you should always use PVTi: Run | Simulate.
Hint
If you click on an experiment in the sample-tree using the right mouse button, and select Report... from the drop-down menu, you can see the report for that experiment on its own.
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Regression in PVTi
Introduction
Performing a regression
To perform a regression you must specify: The experiments to be used in the regression. You can choose from the experiments mentioned in "Defining Experiments" on page 128. The weighting for the observations associated with those experiments. You can use most of the observations given in a laboratory experiment as observations to match against predicted data. The Equation of State parameters you wish to vary to match predicted to observed quantities. Most of the Equation of State parameters are available as regression variables. The time taken for the regression operation rises rapidly with the number of variables chosen, and the use of the minimum possible set is suggested. That said, any combination of critical point data, a and b values, acentric factors, binary interaction coefficients, ij and volume shift parameters (if the PR3 or SRK3 forms for the Equation of State are being used) may be chosen to be modified. There is a maximum total of 50 regression variables.
Note
Regression function
The regression function to be minimized is the normalized root mean square (RMS) error of predicted experiment results to the given (weighted) observed experiment results. See "Details Folder" on page 142 for a description of the RMS value used. Note In order to run the regression, there must be at least as many observations as chosen regression variables.
Regression Panel
To open the Regression panel select PVTi: Run | Regression... Use this menu to set up and perform regression. To open this menu, select PVTi: Edit | Regression
Variables
The Variables section has the following options:
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Normal (component properties and BICs) Normal variables are individual fluid component properties and binary interaction coefficients. For further information see "Defining regression variables..." on page 138. Special (MW of characterized components etc.) The special variables available depends on the project settings and the fluid model properties. Typical special variables are the mole weight of the plus fraction or the Cheuh-Prausnitz coefficient for binary interaction coefficients. See "Setting special variables" on page 140. PVTi Selects This sets up the regression variables according to the rules given in "Physical selection of regression parameters" on page 408. Variables... Opens a panel specific to the selection of variable types (see above). Limits... Sets limits on regression variables. For further information see "Setting regression limits" on page 140.
Report
The Report section has the following buttons: Regression Opens the Regression Report panel. See"Regression Report" on page 142. Simulation Opens the simulation report of all experiments.
Regress
The Regress section is for running regressions. The buttons in this section are: Run Perform regression. For further information see "Performing a regression" on page 141. Accept Reject Accept or reject the last regression. For further information see "Accepting or reject regression results" on page 141.
Additional Information
Defining regression variables...
Use this option to define/re-define the set of variables for use in the regression. There may be two sets of variables available for use in regression, depending on the state of the "Program options" on page 156 and whether modified Whitson splitting (SCT) has been used on the plus fraction. The two sets are denoted normal and special.
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The normal variables are the component dependent ones, that is variables such as critical properties, acentric factors, etc. The special variables are system-wide or multi-component variables such as the thermal expansion coefficient or the Cheuh-Prausnitz A -factor for binary interaction coefficients.
Enter integers for the LBC viscosity parameters: b Vc Vc If you wish to vary the parameters as one or more groups of variables, you should give the required group members the same integer. This may be particularly useful when trying to vary V c values to match to viscosity data using the LBC correlation, for example.
Hint
Enter integers for the volume shifts: PR3 SRK3 All of these data fields can take an integer value, 0,1,2,..., and so on. The default of zero (or blank/null field) implies that the particular components EoS parameter is not to be used in any subsequent regression.
Note
Use the second panel to define the status of the lower half of the (symmetric, zerodiagonal) matrix of binary interaction coefficients.
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Note
Note that the rules regarding choice of groups for binary interaction coefficients are slightly different in that groups may be specified down columns or along rows of the lower half matrix but not both.
Regression target
The regression target is the size of the objective function at which the regression terminates as having achieved a match of calculated to observed values. Enter the regression target. The default value is 0.000001.
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Hint
Normally you do not need to change any of these limits, except for the maximum number of iterations (which might be reduced, especially for larger problems) and the limits on some variables (for example to prevent violation of monotonicity relationships).
Note
For all variables specified in the regression the program displays the lower and upper limits.
Note
For all the equation of state parameters, except the acentric factor and binaries, these lower and upper limits are scaled (to unity) variables, with default settings of 0.5 and 1.5. That is, the program allows the variable to decrease/increase by up to 50% before it terminates the regression.
Running a regression
Use this option to perform regression. Note This option is only available if you first define a set of experiments, observations and variables.
Performing a regression
1 PVTi: Run | Regression The program performs the regression after first checking that there are at least as many regression points as variables. The results of regression can be viewed in the Sensitivity Analysis panel. See "Regression Report" on page 142.
Hint
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2 3
Regression Report
The regression report contains detail of the current fit between the model and the observations. Also use this option to display the sensitivity matrix, that is the sensitivity of the programs predictions to each of the given regression variables. This panel also gives detailed descriptions of the current fit and the conditioning of the regression problem. All the information required to develop a mathematically sound regression problem is available through this panel. The hints provided in this section help you interpret the wealth of information contained within the folders of this panel. Hint In any regression, having a few very sensitive parameters is preferable to having hundreds of insensitive ones. Always look for parameters that can be discarded. This is called conditioning the problem - an ill-conditioned problem is difficult to solve.
Details Folder
The first folder, Details, shows the current fit. The numbers at the top of the folder show the Total (normalized) RMS fit and the Weighted (normalized) RMS fit. Hint The RMS values in PVTi are normalized (the difference between the observed and calculated values is divided by the observed value) so that, for example, pressures (which could be thousands of psi) are treated similarly to saturations (which are between zero and one). To calculate the weighted RMS, each normalized difference is multiplied by the assigned weighting. The default weight is 1 and so, initially, the two RMS values are the same.
The remainder of this first folder shows the observations, their weighting in the regression, and the percentage difference between the observed and calculated values.
Modifiers folder
The second folder, Modifiers, shows the selected regression parameters, the minimum and maximum allowed values for each modifier, and the percentage change made to the modifier during regression (initially this is zero as no regression has been run).
Sensitivities folder
The Sensitivities folder shows the sensitivity of each observation to changes in each regression variable. Hint A large sensitivity indicates that changing that regression variable has a large effect on the fit to that observation. Likewise, consider discarding regression variables to which the observations are insensitive, since a large modifier is needed to obtain a fit and, in general, large modifications lead to unrealistic fluid models.
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Hessian folder
The Hessian matrix is a good indication of the conditioning of the inversion problem (regression). Hint In a well-conditioned problem the leading diagonal of the Hessian matrix is dominant. Specifically, look at an element on the leading diagonal. If it is larger than the other values in that row (or column) of the Hessian, then it indicates that the regression is likely to succeed.
Covariance folder
The Covariance matrix shows the likely scale of variation in the regression variables that will occur during regression. The larger a value, the less well-determined the value of the regression variable will be.
Correlation folder
The Correlation matrix is very important as it can indicate links between regression variables that are not obvious on first inspection. If two variables are strongly correlated (correlation close to 1), they both move the fit in the same direction; and so changing one is similar, in effect, to changing the other. If two regression variables are strongly anti-correlated, changing one has the opposite effect to changing the other. This latter case can cause a difficulty in regression as the two variables could be changed an unlimited amount in opposite directions without having a noticeable effect on the fit. Hint Look at off-diagonal elements in the correlation matrix. If any are close to 1 or -1, consider removing one of the two regression variables that are correlated. This improves the likelihood of a good final fluid model being created. (If the variables are of the same type, for example if they are both Tcrit, you could consider combining them into a single regression variable.)
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Exporting keywords
General information
PVTi can be used to generated output for ECLIPSE BlackOil, ECLIPSE Gi option, ECLIPSE Compositional, ECLIPSE Thermal, VFPi and the API Tracking option in ECLIPSE BlackOil. The Export modules are used to produce models for the ECLIPSE simulators (see "Output for ECLIPSE simulators" on page 372 for background information). You can generate data files for exporting to ECLIPSE BlackOil , ECLIPSE Compositional, ECLIPSE Thermal, API Tracking and VFPi from PVTi. To open this menu, select PVTi: File | Export. The Export menu has the following options: ECLIPSE Compositional Fluid Model... See section entitled "Export for ECLIPSE Compositional". ECLIPSE Thermal Fluid Model... See section entitled "Export for ECLIPSE Thermal". API Tracking option in ECLIPSE BlackOil... See section entitled "Export for API Tracking option in ECLIPSE BlackOil". Oil reservoir... See section entitled "Export Oil Reservoir". Gas reservoir... See section entitled "Export Gas Reservoir". Equilibration... See section entitled "Export Equilibration" Water... See section entitled "Export Water". VFPi Use this option to generate VFPi tables. For further information see "VFP module" on page 149.
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Sample If a sample is selected, it will be exported in the ZI keyword. Hint If you are going to use COMPVD (recommended), you do not want a ZI keyword, so set the Sample to {none}
Sample
The sample for which the keywords will be exported for. Number of Flashes to be Performed This number is used when calculating the coefficients of Crookstons equation. You an usually leave this set as the default value of 20. Max/Min Pressure/Temperature You are recommended to enter the maximum and minimum values of pressure and temperature for your reservoir. Export Crookston Coefficients If the box is ticked then the coefficients of Crookstons equation will be exported. If not then Wilsons formula is used to calculate K-values. Units Allows you to export in the ECLIPSE unit set of choice. A detailed explanation of the workflow required for this export option is described in the "Compositional Data for ECLIPSE Thermal" on page 387. For a technical review of PVTis export facility for ECLIPSE Thermal see "ECLIPSE Thermal Export Module" on page 423.
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Hint
Write Gas Tables for each Sample? If exporting the PVDG (dry gas) or PVTG (wet gas) tables then you can specify whether to write out a gas table for each sample. Often a table for each sample is only required for the oil keywords in ECLIPSE. If No is selected then PVTi exports a gas table for the sample in the list with the median vapor density at surface conditions. Plot Results? You can tell PVTi not to plot the tables if you wish. PVTi only has room for 8 plots so if there are many samples in the list then it may be useful not to plot the tables. Write Values to Double Precision? You can ask for full double precision values if you wish, but the table columns may not be fully aligned if this option is used. Separator Experiment You can select a separator in your project if you wish instead of the default standard conditions separator (usually 14.7psia and 60F). Table Generation Method The algorithm used to generate the black oil tables. See "Output for ECLIPSE simulators" on page 372. Units Allows you to export in the ECLIPSE unit set of choice.
Write Values to Double Precision? You can ask for full double precision values if you wish.
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Separator experiment If creating tables for ECLIPSE BlackOil, the output from the Differential Liberation can be passed through any separator. The default is to use a single stage at standard conditions (that is, a stock-tank only - normally 14.7 psia, 60F). Table generation method See "Output for ECLIPSE simulators" on page 372.
Separator experiment If creating tables for ECLIPSE BlackOil, the output from the Constant Volume Depletion can be passed through any separator. The default is to use a single stage at standard conditions (that is, a stock-tank only). Table generation method See "Output for ECLIPSE simulators" on page 372. Injection fluid For the Gi option only, this provides the injection sample to be used in creating the pseudo-compositional keywords. See "Pseudo-compositional tables for ECLIPSE GI option" on page 380.
Export Equilibration
This panel exports keywords from a Composition versus Depth experiment. The keywords are suitable for the ECLIPSE BlackOil INIT section and ECLIPSE Compositional PROPS section. Units Allows you to export in the ECLIPSE unit set of choice. Properties Keyword This sets the keyword that are exported.
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Hint
Separator experiment If creating tables for ECLIPSE BlackOil, the output from the Composition versus Depth experiment can be passed through any separator. The default is to use a single stage at standard conditions (that is, a stock-tank only).
Export Water
Description
This panel exports water properties. The keyword PVTW or PVTWSALT can be exported for the ECLIPSE simulators. The keyword Hint All the keywords are described in the "ECLIPSE Reference Manual". WATPVT is described in the "VFPi User Guide".
Units Allows you to export in the ECLIPSE Unit set of choice. Reservoir temperature This sets the reservoir temperature to be used in generating the keywords. Reservoir pressure See above. Dissolved natural gas If this option is checked, the properties account for the presence of dissolved gas in the water. Brine If this option is checked, salt concentration(s) can be accounted for. VFPi If this option is checked, the exported keyword will be WATPVT. The low temperature and low pressure fields become active, these values correspond to the lower values to be used in the flow table (for example, the top of the pipe). For more information see "Water properties" on page 382.
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VFP module
Introduction
The VFP module generates blackoil tables for VFPi. To open this menu, select PVTi: File | Export | VFPi from the main PVTi window.
Figure 6.7 The VFP module
The VFP module has the following options: File This option allows you to read and display data from the PVI file. For further information see "File" on page 150. Edit This option allows you to add a new graph and copy items to the clipboard. View This option allows you to control the appearance of the plot workspace.
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Define This option allows you to define experiments and the method of calculation. For further information see "Define" on page 151. Generate This option allows you to generate tables. For further information see "Generate" on page 153. Options Allows the modification of the plot workspace. Help Gives you access to the on-line help for this module.
VFP toolbar
The module toolbar contains the following buttons: Display section from PVI file Use this option to display VFP sections from the PVI file. For further information see page 150. Read section from PVI file Use this option to load VFP sections from the PVI file. For further information see page 151. Experiments Use this option to define VFP experiments. For further information see page 152. Generate Use this option to select the method of generation for the VFPi blackoil tables. For further information see "Method" on page 152. Simulate Use this option to generate the tables. For further information see "Perform" on page 153. View results Use this option to review the tables. View plots Use this option to view plots of the tables. For further information see page 153.
File
Use this menu to read and display VFP sections from a PVI file. The File menu has the following options:
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Note
Print preview
Previews the printed plot in the main module area.
Print layout
Allows you to set the text styles and sizes for printing.
Print setup
Sets up the printer specifications. This option is specific to Windows.
Print
Prints the whole module print area, the main window and allows you to set the print type, for example color, postscript.
Close
Use this option to close the VFP module. To close the VFP module, select VFP | File | Close. Note The data is not lost. If you reselect the module all data that was previously set is available.
Define
This menu allows you to set up experiments and the method of calculation. To open this menu, select VFP | Define.
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The Define menu has the following options: Experiments... Defines experiments. For further information see "Experiments..." on page 152. Method... Defines the method of calculation. For further information see "Method" on page 152.
Experiments...
Use this option to define experiments.
Defining experiments
1 2 Select VFP | Define | Experiments... . This opens the Constant Composition Experiment panel. Define a Constant Composition Expansion (CCE) experiment. This is a depletion experiment where the moles entering the wellbore must leave the wellbore. For further information on defining experiments see "Data requirements for the experiments" on page 129. The first temperature you give for the CCE should be the highest temperature in the production string, which can safely be taken to be the reservoir temperature. The second temperature you give should be the lowest temperature in the production string, for example a sub-sea temperature of 4 C .
Hint
Note
You do not need to give a saturation pressure as the program gives this data. It also calculates undersaturated properties for all pressures. See "Output for ECLIPSE simulators" on page 372 for further details
Define the separator conditions that take the reservoir liquid and/or vapor to surface conditions to define the various ratios in the blackoil tables. Note that to comply with the blackoil definition strictly, the last stage in the separator train should be at standard conditions.
Note
4 5 6
Specify the composition of the injection gas using one of the currently defined sample mnemonics. Give the gas-oil ratios in which the lean gas is to be added to the reservoir fluid. Press OK.
Method
Use this option to select the method of calculation. You can choose from Coats, or Whitson and Torp method. The default is the Whitson and Torp method
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Generate
This menu allows you to generate blackoil tables for VFPi. To open this menu, select VFP | Generate. The Generate menu has the following options: Perform Generates the blackoil tables.
Perform
Use this option to generate blackoil tables. Note You must define a depletion experiment and the separator configuration (which only need be a one stage default system to standard conditions) to generate the blackoil tables.
Note
Note
Note each set of tables is repeated twice, for the set of pressure nodes defined on the CCE experiment, at the specified high (reservoir) and low temperatures.
Water properties
Click Yes when asked if you wish to generate water properties, using the VFPi keyword WATPVT. This opens a a series of data entry panels where you can enter the data necessary for the in-built correlations to generate the appropriate data.
Plot
Use this option to produce plots.
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Producing plots
1 Select VFP | View | Plot. You can generate any of the following plots: oil formation volume factor, B o gas formation volume factor B g oil viscosity o gas viscosity g oil R s
Help menu
Gives access to help with PVTi.
Help
Opens the context-sensitive on-line help panel.
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Utilities
Introduction
This menu allows you to change or redefine various program settings. It has the following options: Units... This allows you to set unit types. For further information see "Units..." on page 155. Standard Conditions... This allows you to set the standard temperature and pressure. For further information see "Standard conditions..." on page 156. Program Option This allows you to change the program options For further information see "Program options" on page 156. Debug... This allows you to set the debug flags. For further information see "Debug..." on page 161.
Units...
This option allows you to select various unit types. You can: Choose the unit type within PVTi. Choose the temperature unit type; this can be different from the one selected by the above. Set mole fractions or percentages. Select absolute or gauge pressures.
Choosing the unit type for PVTi Select from Metric, Field, Lab and PVT-Metric. Setting the temperature unit type Select the temperature unit type from Kelvin, Celsius, Rankine and Fahrenheit. Setting mole fractions or percentages Select the required option. Selecting absolute or gauge pressures Select the required option.
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Standard conditions...
This option allows you to set the standard temperature and pressure.
Program options
This option allows you to set various program options. Various options which cannot be set elsewhere in PVTi have been collected together under this option. 1 To set the program options, select Utilities | Program Option. This opens the Set PVTi Program Options panel. You can set the following: Table 6.2 Set PVTi Program Options panel Program Option
"Definition of Liquid Saturation in CCE" on page 157. See Treatment of Volume Shifts on page 157. "Separator GOR Calculation" on page 158. "Temperature dependence for volume shifts" on page 158 "Specify/Calculate density and molar volume units" on page 158 "Binary interaction coefficients for EoS" on page 158 "Specific heat capacity coefficients and calorific values" on page 158 "Calculated compositions" on page 158 "Component Library" on page 159 "Experiment compositions" on page 159 "Experiment results" on page 159
Available choices
Sliq = Vliq/Vsat Sliq = Vliq/Vtot Independent variables Dependent Separator Conditions Stock Tank Conditions None Linear expansion only Polynomial correlations user units gm/cc and cc/gm-mole Katz-Firoozabadi Cheuh-Prausnitz No Output of Values Output Values to Screen/PVP No save to samples Allow Optional Save to Samples Katz-Firoozabadi Old PVTi Library Output to Screen/PVP No Output to Screen/PVP Always Output to PVP Optionally Output to PVP Never Output to PVP No Output to file Output to Graf .VEC files
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Table 6.2
Set PVTi Program Options panel (Continued) Program Option Available choices
A4 format 132 characters wide Normal No Last Stage Incremental Volume of Oil at Pbub
"Print file output" on page 159 "Definition of GOR in Diff. Lib." on page 159
"Definition of Oil relative volume in Diff. Lib." on page 160 "Black oil table output" on page 160 "LBC viscosity coefficients" on page 160 "Flash calculations" on page 160 "Sample mole fractions when regressing" on page 160 "Phase Plot Algorithm" on page 160
Oil FVF = Voil(p)/Voil(stc) Oil FVF = Voil(p)/Voil(pbub) All Data Truncation at Saturation Pressure Keep Fixed Allow Change when Regressing E300 Flash Old PVTi Flash Keep Fixed Allow Change New Phase Plots Old Phase Plots
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Calculated compositions
Compositions calculated during an EoS simulation of an experiment can be saved to be used later as samples for further experiments, phase plots, etc. This might be useful in swelling tests, separator calculations or estimating the variation of composition with depth.
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Select the save samples option, if required. PVTi does not save these samples, by default.
Component Library
This option allows you to specify the component library to use. The choice is between the Katz-Firoozabadi and the Oil PVTi Library. The Katz-Firoozibadi is the default and recommended choice.
Experiment compositions
This option allows you to turn off lengthy output to the print file of liquid and vapor compositions calculated in experiments. Switch off the output of the liquid and vapor compositions if they are not required. PVTi prints the liquid and vapor compositions to the screen and PVP file, by default.
Experiment results
On definition of fluid properties, completion of experiments, etc., you can optionally choose to write all the data to the PVP print file. Select the appropriate output option. By default, PVTi always writes all the data to the PVP print file; however, you can choose to make this write optional or never done.
Plot vectors
For more advanced graphical manipulation of PVTi plots, you may choose to output data vectors to a file in GRAF user vector format. The vectors are written when the plots are performed. 1 Choose whether you wish to produce the vectors. PVTi does not produce these vectors by default.
See "Differential liberation" on page 356 for the precise definitions of these quantities.
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Flash calculations
This option allows the Flash and Psat algorithms to be changed from the default ECLIPSE Compositional algorithms to the old PVTi (pre-99B) algorithms. Choose to use the old PVTi algorithms for Flash and Psat.
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This option cannot be saved, which means every time you open a project it is disabled by default. The reason for this is that when this option is enabled it writes many more keywords than is necessary in interactive mode. You could easily forget that a project had this option enabled when opening an existing project meaning that many more keywords than necessary would continue to be written to the PVI file.
Debug...
This option sets the debug flags. Note This is a programmer test facility to request additional information from the program at a debug level. You do not need to set one or more of the debug flags unless help is required in tracing an apparent anomaly.
Monitor option
This is a programmer test facility to trace the root of a problem in the program at a subroutine level. Note You do not need to need to set this flag ON unless asked to do so.
Window
This menu allows you to control the size and appearance of the program windows. To select this menu, select Window from the main PVTi window.
Tile
This puts all the visible windows into a tiled formation.
Cascade
This puts all the visible windows into a cascade formation.
Minimize children
This option minimizes all windows except the main PVTi window.
Restore children
This opens all minimized windows so that they are visible.
Help
This menu gives you access to the help for PVTi. To select this menu, select Help from the main PVTi window.
Help
This opens the on-line help panels.
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ToolTips enabled
The ToolTips provide a single line of text about each toolbar button when the mouse pointer is stationary over the icon. This option turns the ToolTips feature on and off.
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General information
For the 2004A version of PVTi the batch mode has undergone a significant revamp. Over the last few years the user interface of PVTi has evolved rapidly and many of the PVTi sections are now no longer written out to the PVI file as they are no longer required when PVTi reads in a file. For example a BLACKOIL section is no longer written out by PVTi when black oil tables are exported using the user interface. Although they can be inserted into the file manually it was felt that a more user friendly way of constructing the .PVI files containing all the appropriate sections required for the batch mode was needed. The next section outlines how it is now possible to perform a workflow interactively in order for PVTi to be able to reproduce this workflow in batch mode at a later time. The way in which you run a file in batch mode has also changed. Pre-2004A you had to enter the keyword TESTCASE anywhere in the RUNSPEC section of the PVI file. You then launched batch mode the command line, for example using $pvti filename (if using a PC). This has changed for the 2004A release. It was felt that opening files and adding keywords and then remembering to remove them at a later data was cumbersome. The new way to run in batch mode is to launch PVTi from the command line and specify the word -batch before the filename in the line command instruction. Hint To launch the file TEST.PVI to run in PVTis batch mode on a PC use the command $pvti -batch TEST.PVI. On a UNIX machine @pvti batch TEST.PVI runs the file TEST.PVI in batch mode.
Sometimes users have more than 1 version of PVTi installed. It is also possible to specify which version of PVTi to use on the command line using the -ver command. Hint On a PC, to specify the 2004A version of PVTi to run the file TEST.PVI in batch mode, use the command $pvti -ver 2004a -batch TEST.PVI.
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1 2 3 4 5
Start PVTi in interactive mode with the file that you eventually wish to run in batch mode. Save the file concisely by doing File | Save (concise).... This erases the history of any workflows stored in the file. Open the Options panel using the File | Utilities | Program | Options.... In PVTi 2004A a new option has been added at the bottom called Write Keywords for Batch Mode. Select Yes and then close the panel. Perform the required workflow and, when finished, save the file (but not concisely) using the File | Save... option. The file must not be saved concisely as this would erase all the history in the .PVI file that PVTi uses to reproduce your workflow in batch mode.
Note
The final task is to actually run the file in batch mode. To do this on a PC launch PVTi from the command line using the statement $pvti -batch filename where filename is the name of your PVTi project, for example TEST.PVI. The word -batch can be put after or before the filename but it has to be somewhere on the command line in order to tell PVTi to run in batch mode.
Note
When you are running in batch mode the program automatically sends printed output such as experiment simulation results to a print file with the same root name as the input .PVI file. For example, if the input file is CRUDE.PVI, the print file is CRUDE.PVP. See "PVI file" on page 166 for further information. In batch mode all the experiments are automatically simulated in the project by default. If any regression is to be performed in the batch mode then the experiment simulation is performed after this has been done. If keywords are exported for ECLIPSE during the batch run then .PVO files are created as normal, but they are named using a convention that is outlined in the next section. A file is also created called BATCH_OUT.PVI. This is a saved version of your project after all the steps in the workflow have been performed. It can be useful to have this file after the batch run has finished if the fluid model has changed (for example during regression) in your project during the course of the workflow
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Regression
You are allowed a maximum of two REGRESS sections in the batch mode file. This is so that regression on both special and normal variables is possible. Any further regression sections are ignored by the batch mode.
Splitting/Grouping
You are allowed two GROUP sections and two SPLIT sections in the file. If there are REGRESS sections then one SPLIT and one GROUP section is allowed before the first REGRESS section and one SPLIT and one GROUP section is allowed after this REGRESS section.
Export
It is assumed that all exports would be performed at the end of the workflow. An unlimited amount of export sections (such as BLACKOIL, OUTECL3 sections) are allowed as long as they are after the last REGRESS section. Because multiple exporting is allowed a naming convention has been invented to stop PVTi just writing each exported .PVO file over the top off the last one that was written out. The naming convention depends on what kind of export is being performed: BLACKOIL If a BLACKOIL section has been read in the .PVI file then the naming convention of the .PVO file is filename_samplename_experimenttype_keyword1keyword2.PVO where: filename is the rootname of the project, samplename is the sample name used for the export, experimenttype is the type of depletion experiment used in the export, keyword1 is the name of the first keyword exported and keyword2 is the name of the second keyword exported. For example if the file CRUDE.PVI was used to export sample ZI based on experiment DL1 using Live Oil and Dry Gas keywords then the name of the produced file would be CRUDE_ZI_DLLIVEDRY.PVO. OUTECL3 If an OUTECL3 section has been read in the .PVI file then the naming convention of the outputted .PVO file is filename_samplename_FLUIDMODEL.PVO. APITRACK If an APITRACK section has been read in the .PVI file then the naming convention of the outputted .PVO file is filename_experimenttype_APITRACK.PVO.
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"PVI file" on page 166. "Keywords introducing sections" on page 167. "RUNSPEC section keywords" on page 167. "SYSTEM section keywords" on page 168. "SPLIT section keywords" on page 169. "GROUP section keywords" on page 169. "COMB section keywords" on page 170. "SIMULATE section keywords" on page 170. "REGRESS section keywords" on page 170. "BLACKOIL section keywords" on page 171. "PSEUCOMP section keywords" on page 171. "OUTECL3 section keywords" on page 172. "VFP section keywords" on page 172.
PVI file
The PVI file consists of a number of sections, each introduced by a section keyword. The first section must be RUNSPEC, which specifies the number of components, the equation of state option and the run title. The SYSTEM section must follow the RUNSPEC section. Other sections may be in arbitrary order, and may occur more than once.
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Details
See page 262 See page 276 See page 273 See page 216 See page 189 See page 271 See page 259 See page 184 See page 292 See page 257 See page 250
Keywords by section
Each of the main sections, for example the RUNSPEC section, has its own specific keywords. Note the following: The keywords UNITS, DEGREES and STCOND are normally be specified in the SYSTEM section, but can occur elsewhere, and can occur more than once. The keywords DEBUG and OPTIONS can be specified in the RUNSPEC section or in the SYSTEM, COMB, SIMULATE or REGRESS sections. The keyword MESSAGE can be specified anywhere, its function being merely to echo the argument to the print file at the time of a batch run.
Details
See page 203 See page 224 See page 240 See page 241 See page 255 See page 256 See page 281 See page 202
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Details
See page 243 See page 196 See page 195 See page 248 See page 291
Details
See page 198 See page 275 See page 284 See page 187 See page 227 See page 186 See page 269 See page 179 See page 180 See page 182 See page 185 See page 197 See page 200 See page 225, page 224 See page 238 See page 247 See page 247 See page 252 See page 253 See page 272 See page 274 See page 278 See page 279
Specifies thermal expansion coefficient for volume shifts. See page 280 Defines the reference temperatures. See page 283
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Details
See page 289 See page 301 See page 302 See page 303 See page 265 See page 267 See page 221 See page 263 See page 234
Defines critical volumes used in LBC viscosity correlation. See page 290 Specifies critical Z -factors. Defines critical Z -factors used in LBC viscosity correlation Defines sample composition (primary sample). Defines other samples, lean gas for swelling test. Defines long titles for other samples. Specifies hydrocarbon/Non-hydrocarbon. Defines the salinity of specified samples. Allows mixing of two samples to form a new sample.
Details
See page 191 See page 192 See page 212 See page 230 See page 239 See page 270 See page 269 See page 298
Details
See page 190 See page 219 See page 220 See page 218 See page 217
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Details
See page 205 See page 244 See page 245 See page 188 See page 254 See page 299
Sets the liquid production relative permeability for recoveries. See page 258
Details
See page 205 See page 244 See page 245 See page 214 See page 268
Details
See page 205 See page 244 See page 245 See page 285 See page 214 See page 211 See page 228
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Details
See page 229 See page 233 See page 260
Details
See page 284 See page 205 See page 188 See page 199 See page 213 See page 237 See page 226 See page 194 See page 297 See page 193 See page 293 See page 232
COATS WHITSON DIFFERENTIAL FRAGOR MOSES LIVEOIL DEADOIL WETGAS DEADGAS WAT100 MINDELP
Requests Whitson and Torps method for blackoil tables. See page 299
Details
See page 205 See page 215 See page 294
GI WAT200
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Details
See page 188 See page 299
Details
See page 284 See page 264 See page 261 See page 242 See page 295 See page 205 See page 222 See page 300 See page 300 See page 304
Requests equation of state data for ECLIPSE Compositional. See page 204
Requests K -value table for ECLIPSE Compositional. Requests XMFVP and YMFVP tables for ECLIPSE Compositional. Requests XMFVP and YMFVP tables for ECLIPSE Compositional. Requests ZMFVD table for ECLIPSE Compositional.
Details
See page 205 See page 188
COATS
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Details
See page 299 See page 296 See page 282
Details
See page 284 See page 205 See page 266 See page 188 See page 199 See page 213 See page 237 See page 226 See page 194 See page 297 See page 193 See page 181
SAMPLES COATS WHITSON DIFFERENTIAL FRAGOR MOSES LIVEOIL DEADOIL WETGAS DRYGAS ALLDRY
Requests Whitson and Torps method for blackoil tables. See page 299
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Error handling
Keyword errors
If an error occurs during keyword input, the program displays the offending line with ? characters under the field that is causing difficulties. The error numbers given by the program may be of two types: Up to and including 100 These are errors detected within the PVTi data parser. Descriptions of these errors are given in Table 6.16. Above 100 System data errors, usually caused by internal read operations used to convert a character to its value. Error codes Description
Unable to read next line from data file. Length of current line is zero. Quote misplaces in stack or data field. / character found in the wrong place. Data field length greater than 24. End of file reached. Invalid character found. Zero length stack found. Stack length 1 with illegal character. Incorrect stack pointers. Failed to find * character in repeated data field. Multiplier for repeated data field has more than 24 characters. Error after internal read of multiple value. Negative multiplier for repeated data field. * character found as first token in stack. Unrecognisable character for number in repeated data field. Single field has the wrong data type. Empty token next on stack. Unknown data type. Data read which is not of the type expected and which cannot be easily converted. Error in internal read to convert character data to number. Repeated data has field length of more than 24 characters. Error in internal read of repeated data multiplier. More than one exponential character found.
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Keywords Chapter 7
PVTi keywords
This chapter contains details of all the keywords in PVTi. The keywords are listed in alphabetical order. "Keywords A-D" on page 178 "Keywords E-K" on page 201 "Keywords L- O" on page 223 "Keywords P- S" on page 251 "Keywords T - Z" on page 277.
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Keywords A-D
This section contains the A-D keywords. "ACF "ACHEUH "ALLDRY "BIC "BLACKOIL "CALVAL "CHARACT "CNAMES "COATS "COMB "COMBINE "CORRACF "CORRCP "DEADOIL "DEBUE "DEBUG "DEFBIC "DEGREES "DREF "DRYGAS Acentric factors" on page 179 A-coefficient for Cheuh-Prausnitz BICs" on page 180 Dry Gas Tables for Each Sample" on page 181 Binary interaction coefficients" on page 182 Start of the BLACKOIL section" on page 184 Specify calorific values" on page 185 Components to be characterized" on page 186 Component names" on page 187 Blackoil tables" on page 188 Start of the COMB section" on page 189 Group existing components" on page 190 Splitting correlation for ACFs" on page 191 Splitting correlation for critical properties" on page 192 Dead oil tables" on page 194 Select output to debug file" on page 195 Select output to debug file" on page 196 Default binary interaction coefficients" on page 197 Temperature convention" on page 198 Reference densities" on page 200. Dry gas tables" on page 193
The other PVTi keywords are listed as follows: "Keywords E-K" on page 201 "Keywords L- O" on page 223 "Keywords P- S" on page 251 "Keywords T - Z" on page 277.
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ACF
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Acentric factors
Specifies the acentric factors for the components in the system. The keyword is followed by N c values, and terminated with a slash character (/), where N c is the number of components specified in the RUNSPEC section.
Example
ACF .22500 .20100 .34540 .57400 .80160 / .40000E-01 .22230 .38610 .61270 .84160 .13000E-01 .25390 .42510 .64860 .88300 .98600E-01 .30070 .46220 .68550 .92410 .15240 .27420 .49840 .72460 1.0590 .18480 .30560 .53420 .76340
Keywords ACF
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ACHEUH
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
--Default value:ACHEUH 0.15 /
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Keywords ACHEUH
ALLDRY
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP X APITRACK
Keywords DEADOIL
181
BIC
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
First format
The keyword should be followed by up to (N c -1) lines of data followed by a forward slash character (/). Each line should consist of three integers followed by the set of binary interaction coefficients between two specified components, terminated with a forward slash character (/). The first integer specifies the index of the first component and the second and third integers the lower and upper indices of the other component.
Second format
The program uses this format when saving. This format in effect displays the lower triangle of the BIC matrix, and there is no need for the first three columns informing the program of the component and the lower and upper indices. PVTi assumes the coefficients are read in as second, third component, etc., by row with the columns as the first, etc., component. Note For both formats the interaction coefficient between any given component and itself must be zero. PVTi always ensures that this is the case.
Examples
First format
Binary interaction coefficients for a six component system.
BIC 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 /
/ / / 2*0.0600
Here there are zero binary interaction coefficients between components 4 to 3, 5 to 3,4 and 6 to 2,3.
182
Keywords BIC
Second format
The same system of BICs appears as follows:
BIC -0.02000 0.10000 0.13000 0.13500 0.12700 /
2*0.0600
Keywords BIC
183
BLACKOIL
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS X BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
This section is used to generate blackoil tables for any of the currently defined fluid samples by simulating reservoir depletion with a constant volume depletion or differential liberation. Tables are generated that can then be input into ECLIPSE BlackOil.
184
Keywords BLACKOIL
CALVAL
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
For a two component C1/I-C4 system, using PVT-Metric units:
-- Calorific Values kJ/kgmol CALVAL 8.130000000E+02 2.659000000E+03 /
Keywords CALVAL
185
CHARACT
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Components to be characterized
Specifies the components that are to be defined by characterization. This keyword is followed by up to N c lines (or as many non-blank components as in the CNAMES keyword, below), each terminated with a / character. The last line of data is followed by a / character. Each line begins with the mnemonic of the component to be characterized, followed by five items of data: Molecular weight M w Specific gravity S g Normal boiling point temperature T b Watson characterisation factor K w Reference temperature T ref Two strings which specify the characterisation procedure required for: Critical properties. Kesler-Lee (K), Cavett (C), Riazi-Daubert (R), Winn (W) or Pedersen (P) Acentric factor. Kesler-Lee (K), Edmister (E), Thompson (T) or Pedersen (P).
Generally, you must provide two out of the four data items M w ,S g ,T b and K w to characterize a component. If more than two items are available, give the best two items since the order of entry dictates which two are used. It is possible to perform a characterization with a minimum data entry of M w ; the program estimates the specific gravity from a Single Carbon Number (SCN) table look-up. See [Ref. 18]. Note If no reference temperature is specified it is given the value of the standard temperature.
Example
Characterizes two plus fractions, the first of which has known specific gravity and normal boiling point temperature, the second of which has only molecular weight. Riazi-Daubert critical properties and Edmister acentric factor correlations to be used:
CHARACT C7+1 1* C7+2 200.0 /
0.7500 /
390.0
2*
If more than two of the four items, M w ,S g ,T b and K w are available, then the program uses the first two, that is given data for M w ,T b and K w , then PVTi uses M w and T b .
186
Keywords CHARACT
CNAMES
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Component names
Specifies the mnemonics associated with the components in the system that are either to be characterized or fully user defined. This keyword is followed by N c component names, where N c is the number of components specified in the RUNSPEC section. It is terminated with a / character. Define library components using the LNAMES keyword. Any system containing both library and characterisation/user defined components should contain both LNAMES and CNAMES with the default specification 1*, where appropriate. The program translates the component names into upper case on input. The length may be up to 72 characters, but a limit of four is suggested to fit into the program output formats.
Example
For a nine-component condensate system, the first five being from library, the last four to be user defined:
CNAMES 5* LNAMES CO2 N2
Keywords CNAMES
187
COATS
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Blackoil tables
Specifies that the Coats method for the generation of blackoil tables is used in preference to the Whitson and Torp method. By default, the program uses the Whitson and Torp method. The keyword COATS has no arguments.
X X X
188
Keywords COATS
COMB
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP X COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
This section is used for data and consistency checking of laboratory data of gas condensates and volatile oils. Material balance is performed on any Constant Volume Depletion data, to calculate liquid compositions, K-values, densities, etc. Additionally, tests of separator recombination data are available, as well as estimates of recovery, and generation of blackoil tables without recourse to the equation of state.
Keywords COMB
189
COMBINE
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT X GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
You may enter a name for the new fractions. By default the program uses GRP1, GRP2 and GRP3 as the group names. The form of the keyword is:
COMBINE icl1 icu1 ifr1 zfr1 icl2 icu2 ifr2 zfr2 /
/ /
where: icl1 is a lower existing component index; icu1 is an upper existing component index; ifr1 is a group index; zfr1 is the mnemonic for a fraction.
Example
In a 19-component system, group the components 10 to 14 inclusive, and the components 15, 17 and 18. Accept default names for the fractions:
COMBINE 10 14 1 15 15 2 17 18 2 /
/ / /
190
Keywords COMBINE
CORRACF
RUNSPEC SYSTEM X SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
Edmister correlation required:
CORRACF E /
Keywords CORRACF
191
CORRCP
RUNSPEC SYSTEM X SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
Cavett correlation required:
CORRCP C /
192
Keywords CORRCP
DRYGAS
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS X BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP X APITRACK
Keywords DEADGAS
193
DEADOIL
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS X BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP X APITRACK
194
Keywords DEADOIL
DEBUE
X RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
p sat routines
Critical point routines Phase plot generator
Example
Request debug from Newton and p sat routines:
CORRCP C /
Keywords DEBUE
195
DEBUG
X RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
Request debug from Flash and Michelsen routines only:
DEBUG 9* 10 2* 13 /
196
Keywords DEBUG
DEFBIC
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Keywords DEFBIC
197
DEGREES
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Temperature convention
Specifies the temperature convention to use. The keyword is followed by a character string identifying the convention, which may be one of the following four: KELVIN Degrees Kelvin CELSIUS Degrees Celsius RANKINE Degrees Rankine FAHRENHEIT Degrees Fahrenheit.
Only the first character is significant, and may be lower or upper case. The default temperature convention is degrees Kelvin. Note This keyword must follow the UNITS keyword.
Example
Set to degrees Fahrenheit:
DEGREES F /
198
Keywords DEGREES
Specifies that differential black oil tables are generated. By default, the Whitson and Torp method of composite black oil table generation is used. The keyword DIFFERENTIAL has no arguments.
Keywords DIFFERENTIAL
199
DREF
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Reference densities
Specifies the reference densities for the components in the system. The keyword is followed by N c values, and terminated with a forward slash (/) character, where N c is the number of components specified in the RUNSPEC section. Note These reference densities are only required if the Zudkevitch-Joffe or threeparameter Peng-Robinson equations have been selected (although it is good practice to always enter them), and are associated with the reference temperatures specified with the TREF keyword.
3
UNITS:
Example
For a two-component CO2/I-C4 system:
DREF 777.00
557.00
200
Keywords DREF
Keywords E-K
This section contains the E-K keywords. "ECHO "EOS "EOSOUT "EXP "EXPIND "FIT "FRAC "FRAGOR "FVFREF "GI "GROUP "GRBYALL "GRBYMIX "GRBYSAM "GRPBYWGT "HYDRO "KVTABLE Insert PVI file into PVP file" on page 202 Defines the required Equation of State" on page 203 EoS data for ECLIPSE 300" on page 204 Experiments" on page 205 Set Status of Experiments" on page 210 Perform fit by regression" on page 211 Specify plus fraction data" on page 212 Blackoil tables" on page 213 FVF reference conditions" on page 214 Define GI nodes for E200 tables" on page 215 Start of the GROUP section" on page 216 Start of the GROUP section" on page 217 Start of the GROUP section" on page 218 Start of the GROUP section" on page 219 Grouping by molecular weight" on page 220 Define component as hydrocarbon or non-hydrocarbon" on page 221 Request K-value table for ECLIPSE 300 output" on page 222
The other PVTi keywords are listed as follows: "Keywords A-D" on page 178 "Keywords L- O" on page 223 "Keywords P- S" on page 251 "Keywords T - Z" on page 277.
201
ECHO
X RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
202
Keywords ECHO
EOS
X RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
EOS PR3 /
Keywords EOS
203
EOSOUT
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP X OUTECL3 VFP
204
Keywords EOSOUT
EXP
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Experiments
Specifies the experiments to be performed. Up to 100 experiments plus one set of BLACKOIL calculations can be defined. The form of the keyword and associated data is:
EXP <no>1 <no>2 :
X X X X X X X
<samp>1 <samp>2
<type>1 <type>2
<data>1 <data>2
/ /
where: <no> specifies the experiment number, usually increasing sequentially from 1; <samp> specifies the mnemonic of the required sample composition for this experiment; <type> specifies the experiment type. One of: FLASH, BUBBLE, DEW, CCE, CVD, DL, SWELL, SEPS, COMPG, TERN, vapor, MFLASH, CRIT, TSAT, FCMP, MCMP, PSAT, MCT.
In the above, a forward slash (/) character terminates entry of experiments, and the form of the <data> depends on the particular experiment type: Table 7.3 Experiment
FLASH BUBBLE DEW CCE CVD DL SWELL SEPS (option 1) T T IRT FLUID FLUID T FLUID X1... T1 T2 . TN SEPS (option 2) T1 T2 . TN COMPG TERN VAPOR FLUID T IG2... FLUID T T T P YMF ...XN P1 P2 . PN P1 P2 . PN T P ...IGN YMF T P M1... ...MN L1 L2 . LN FL11 FL21 . LN P ZG1 V1 V2 . VN FV11 . FVN1...FLN N D ZG2 FV1N . FVNN D1 ZG3 IG1 FV21...FL2N FV2N T P P1 P2... P2... P2... [PRESS P] ...PN ...PN ...PN STYPE P
Keywords EXP
205
ICORV XI MI TI LI VI
FLIJ
Fraction of liquid output from stage I to stage J. Default is 1.0 to the next stage.
206
Keywords EXP
Example
Consider the following experiments: 1 2 Dew point pressure at 200 F , no pressure estimate given; Swelling test at 200 F , injection gas composition specified in SAMPLES with mnemonic ZINJ, four stage addition with given mole percentage of gas in reservoir fluid; Constant composition expansion of condensate (GAS) at 200 F , pressures in psi; Constant volume depletion of condensate at 200 F , pressures in psi; 2-stage separator at 500 psi, 125 F and 50 psi, 90 F with second stage fed from liquid output of stage one; Composition with depth: a volatile oil (OIL) at reference conditions of 220 F , 4000 psi and 7500 ft. Require compositions and pressures at 7000, 7100,..., 8000 ft; Ternary diagram calculation for an eight component system, explicit grouping; Ternary diagram calculation for an eight component system, default grouping; First contact miscibility pressure at 160 F on ZI, injecting ZINJ;
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 Multiple contact miscibility pressure at 160 F on ZI, injecting ZINJ, vaporizing drive; 11 Multiple contact miscibility pressure at 160 F on ZI, injecting ZINJ, condensing drive; 12 Multiple contact test at 121.1 F and 2738 psi on ZI, injecting ZINJ, condensing drive. At each stage all of the remaining oil from the flash is contacted with one mole of ZINJ.
Keywords EXP
207
EXP 1 ZI 2 ZI 3 4 ZI ZI
/ 200.0 0.1271 6000.0 2000.0 3000.0 500.0 50.0 C6+ 0.3046 5000.0 1000.0 2400.0 2 0 0 0 / / 0.5384 4000.0 1800.0 0.6538 3000.0 1200.0 / / /
-- old format for SEPS 5 ZI SEPS 125.0 90.0 7 8 9 10 11 12 / ZI ZI ZI ZI ZI ZI TERN N2C1 TERN / FCMP ZINJ MCMP ZINJ MCMP ZINJ MCT ZINJ C2C5
1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3
Note
At pressures above the saturation pressure where no compositional changes take place, the Constant Volume Depletion (CVD) and the Differential Liberation (DL) are effectively a Constant Composition Expansion (CCE) experiment.
Restrictions
The EXP keyword arguments are subject to restrictions in the BLACKOIL, COMB, OUTECL3, REGRESS and VFP sections: Table 7.5 Section
BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP COMB OUTECL3 REGRESS VFP
BLACKOIL section
In the BLACKOIL section, to generate blackoil tables you must define a depletion experiment and a separator network. Number these experiments; 1 (CVD or DL) and 2 (SEPS).
208
Keywords EXP
COMB section
In the COMB section, you are restricted to the above experiments for the material balance (CVD), recombination of separator data (SEPS) and recovery calculations (CCE). Number these experiments 1 to 3, in any order.
OUTECL3 section
In the OUTECL3 section, you are restricted to a CVD for the purposes of generating either KVTABLE or XMFVP and YMFVP tabular data. Note Only two pressures should be entered, the maximum and minimum pressures required in the table. The other pressures are calculated by interpolation (up to 50 pressures in all).
You can also specify a COMPG experiment for the purpose of generating ZMFVD tables for ECLIPSE Compositional. Note Only two depths should be entered, the maximum and minimum depths required in the table. The other depths are calculated by interpolation (up to 50 depths in all).
VFP section
In the VFP section, to generate blackoil tables you must define a depletion experiment and a separator network. Number these experiments 1 (CCE) and 2 (SEPS).
Keywords EXP
209
EXPIND
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
X X X X X X X
Example
We have 20 experiments in total in our project and wish that they all be turned on during regression except the 5th, 10th, 14th, 16th and 18th, which will be turned off:
OPTIONS 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1/
210
Keywords OPTIONS
FIT
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE X REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Keywords FIT
211
FRAC
RUNSPEC SYSTEM X SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
Split the plus fraction into three sub-fractions:
FRAC 3 0.72
0.23
0.05
C7+1
C7+2
C7+3
212
Keywords FRAC
FRAGOR
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS X BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Blackoil tables
Specifies that the Fragor method for the generation of composite from differential blackoil tables is used. By default, the program uses the Whitson and Torp method of composite black oil table generation. The keyword FRAGOR has no arguments.
Keywords FRAGOR
213
FVFREF
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB X SIMULATE X REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
FVFREF 2 220.0 4 200.0 7 210.0 / 4000.0 0.0 / / /
214
Keywords FVFREF
GI
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL X PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
Inject sample ZINJ at GIs of 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 mscf/rb:
GI ZINJ
0.1
0.2
0.3
Keywords GI
215
GROUP
RUNSPEC SYSTEM X SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
This section is used to define data necessary for the grouping of components into pseudo-components.
216
Keywords GROUP
GRBYALL
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT X GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Keywords GRBYALL
217
GRBYMIX
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT X GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
218
Keywords GRBYMIX
GRBYSAM
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT X GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
Group to sample ZINJ
GRPBYSAM ZINJ /
Keywords GRBYSAM
219
GRPBYWGT
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT X GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
220
Keywords GRPBYWGT
HYDRO
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Flag in HYDRO
N H P C A
By default, all components are assumed to be hydrocarbons, except for specific nonhydrocarbons in the LIB set, that is, CO 2 ,H 2 S ,H 2 O ,N 2 ,H 2 and CO .
Example
An 11 component system consisting of CO2, N2, C1, C2, C3, IC4, NC4, IC5, NC5, C6, C7+:
HYDRO N N 9*H
Keywords HYDRO
221
KVTABLE
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP X OUTECL3 VFP
Note
Your must also define a Constant Volume Depletion (CVD) experiment with the EXP keyword and associated data in order that the KVTABLE can be generated. Note, also, that only two pressures need be defined in the CVD; these should be the maximum and minimum required.
222
Keywords KVTABLE
Keywords L- O
This section contains the L-O keywords. "LBC "LBCCOEF "LIVEOIL "LNAMES "MAXIT "MAXSTEP "MDP "MESSAGE "MINDELP "MINSTEP "MIX "MODSPEC "MODSYS "MOSES "MW "MWS "NCOMPS "NEWPVI "NEWPVO "NOECHO "OBS "OBSIND "OPTIONS "OUTECL3 Lohrenz-Bray-Clark viscosities" on page 224 Set non-default LBC coefficients" on page 225 Live oil tables" on page 226 Specify library names" on page 227 Max. number of regression iterations" on page 228 Maximum step size allowed in regression" on page 229 Data for Whitson splitting" on page 230 Echo message to file and screen" on page 231 Minimum pressure difference" on page 232 Minimum step limit allowed in regression" on page 233 Mix samples" on page 234 Denotes start of the run specification section" on page 235 Start of the MODSYS section" on page 236 Blackoil tables" on page 237 Specify molecular weights" on page 238 Define plus fraction mole weight for CMF splitting" on page 239 Specify number of components" on page 240 Request new output PVI file" on page 241 Request new output PVO file" on page 242 No insertion of PVI file into PVP file" on page 243 Specify observations" on page 244 Specify observation weights" on page 245 Specify EoS omega values" on page 247 Set various program options" on page 248 Start of the OUTECL3 section" on page 250
"OMEGAA,OMEGAB
The other PVTi keywords are listed as follows: "Keywords A-D" on page 178 "Keywords E-K" on page 201 "Keywords P- S" on page 251 "Keywords T - Z" on page 277.
Keywords Keywords L- O
223
LBC
X RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Lohrenz-Bray-Clark viscosities
Specifies that the Lohrenz-Bray-Clark viscosity correlation is to be used, rather than the Pedersen method. The LBC correlation is the default and is used if neither of the LBC or PEDERSEN keywords is used. The keyword LBC has no arguments.
224
Keywords LBC
LBCCOEF
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
Reset two of the LBC coefficients
LBCCOEF 1* 0.025 1* -0.04 0.01 /
Keywords LBCCOEF
225
LIVEOIL
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS X BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP X APITRACK
226
Keywords DEADOIL
LNAMES
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
For a nine-component condensate system, with the first five from library and the last four user-defined:
CNAMES 5* C4-6 C7+1 C7+2 C7+3 / LNAMES CO2 N2 C1 C2 C3 4*
Keywords LNAMES
227
MAXIT
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE X REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
MAXIT 40 /
228
Keywords MAXIT
MAXSTEP
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE X REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
MAXSTEP 0.2 /
Keywords MAXSTEP
229
MDP
RUNSPEC SYSTEM X SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
Change to 92.0, leave unchanged:
MDP 1* 92.0
230
Keywords MDP
MESSAGE
X X X X X X X X X X X RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
MESSAGE Message to echo goes here
Keywords MESSAGE
231
MINDELP
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS X BLACKOIL X PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
The default is one atmosphere. The record is terminated with a slash (/).
Example
MINDELP 14.7 /
232
Keywords MINDELP
MINSTEP
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE X REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
If the step size limit falls below a minimum value, for any reason, the regression terminates, as further progress is unlikely to be made. This minimum value may be reset with the MINSTEP keyword. Note This is not the minimum step that may be taken; it is the minimum upper limit imposed on a step.
Example
MINSTEP 0.000001 /
Keywords MINSTEP
233
MIX
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Mix samples
This keyword allows two samples to be mixed to form a new one. The inputs are the two sample names, the new sample name, the type of mixing and the amount of mixing. The types of mixes are as follows: MOL specifies that the mixing amount given is the mole fraction of sample two in the mixture with sample 1. If the mixing method is GOR, then the amount is given as the gas volume at standard conditions of sample two as a ratio of the volume of the initial sample. The latter is useful for consideration of mixing of lean gases in oil samples. Mixing is only performed if: - the two samples are different - the amount to mix is greater than zero - the name of the new sample is different from any other sample - the mixing does not take the number of samples over the program limit.
Note
For the GOR option, the volume of the initial sample is usually the volume at its
Examples
Example 1
Mix sample Z1 with Z2 to form Z3. The amount to mix is such that sample Z2 is 0.45 of the mole fraction in the new sample Z3.
MIX Z1 /
Z2
Z3
80.000 MOL
0.45
Example 2
Mix sample T1 with T2 to form T3. The amount to mix is represented as a GOR of 5.0 MSCF/stb, and the volume of the first sample T1 is measured at a pressure of 5000 PSI at the mix temperature of 670 F . If the saturated volume of T1 was required then the PRES could be set as 0.0, or those two items removed from the keyword.
MIX T1 /
T2
T3
670.0
PRES 5000.0
GOR 5.0 /
234
Keywords MIX
MODSPEC
x RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Keywords MODSPEC
235
MODSYS
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
236
Keywords MODSYS
MOSES
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS X BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Blackoil tables
Specifies that the Moses method for the generation of composite from differential blackoil tables is used. By default, the program uses the Whitson and Torp method of composite black oil table generation. The keyword MOSES has no arguments.
Keywords MOSES
237
MW
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
Molecular weights for 15-component system:
MW 44.010 58.124 209.26
30.070 86.178 /
44.097 106.09
58.124 152.68
238
Keywords MW
MWS
RUNSPEC SYSTEM X SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
Plus fraction mole weight of 140.0:
MWS 140.0
Keywords MWS
239
NCOMPS
X RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
NCOMPS 20 /
240
Keywords NCOMPS
NEWPVI
X RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
Write out new PVI file with name SAVE:
NEWPVI SAVE /
Keywords NEWPVI
241
NEWPVO
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP X OUTECL3 VFP
Example
Write a PVO file with name SAVE:
NEWPVO SAVE /
242
Keywords NEWPVI
NOECHO
X RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Keywords NOECHO
243
OBS
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP X COMB X SIMULATE X REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Specify observations
Specifies the observations associated with experiments performed individually or as part of a regression analysis. Note This keyword can only be specified if the EXP keyword and associated experiments have already been defined.
In the SIMULATE section, this keyword provides the means of supplying experimentally determined data for comparison purposes in output. In the REGRESS section, this keyword provides the experimental data to be regressed against.
where: no mnem weight specifies the experiment number given in the EXP keyword specifies the observation mnemonic (see below) global weight to be given to subsequent data.
Several observations can be associated with a given experiment, each of which must be terminated with a forward slash (/) character. The entry of observations for a particular experiment is then terminated with a forward slash (/) character. A forward slash character (/) also terminates the entry of all observations.
244
Keywords OBS
OBSIND
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP X COMB X SIMULATE X REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
If no OBSIND keyword is used the individual observation weights take the value of the global observation weight defined for each mnemonic in OBS. The form of the keyword and its associated data is:
OBSIND no
data data
/ /
/ no data data / /
/ /
where: no mnem data specifies the experiment number given in the EXP keyword (page 205); specifies the observation mnemonic (see OBS keyword, page 244); individual weights to be given to each point described in the previous OBS keyword.
Example
Observation weights for the experiments defined for the EXP keyword (compare with example in OBS keyword description): 1 2 3 4 5 Saturation pressure and vapor Z -factor of dew point Saturation pressure and swelling factor (relative volume) at each stage of swelling test Relative volumes at each stage of CCE, vapor Z -factors at pressures above saturation pressure only Liquid saturation, vapor Z -factor and gas mole fractions at each stage of CVD (nine component system) GOR at each stage and stock tank GOR (in Mscf/stb) from two stage separators.
Keywords OBSIND
245
OBSIND
/ /
2 PSAT 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 RELV / 3 RELV 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
/ /
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 / /
ZV / 4 SL ZV YMF
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
/ /
246
Keywords OBSIND
These keywords specify non-default a and b values for the components in the system. Each keyword is followed by N c values, where N c is the number of components in the system, and is terminated with a forward slash (/) character. You need only specify these keywords if you wish to override the default equation of state values, which are as follows: Table 7.7 Equation
RK SRK ZJ PR
OMEGAB
0.08664035 0.08664035 0.08664035 0.07776074
Example
a and b values for two component system:
OMEGAA 0.457 0.456 /
247
OPTIONS
X RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
To subsequently turn any option ON, specify an the integer 1 (but be careful of the special options below). The vector of integers is terminated with a / character.
Option 11
Optional printing of results to the PVP file also takes specific arguments: 0 - ALways print; 1 - OPTionally print (that is user prompted); 2 - NEVer print.
Option 14
Alternative definitions of GOR in differential liberation experiments also takes specific arguments: 0 - Default definition; 1 - Last stage removed and oil volume at its bubble point pressure; 2 - Incremental GOR; 3 - As default but volume of oil at its bubble point pressure rather than stock tank conditions.
248
Keywords OPTIONS
Example
Separator liquid volumes to be output at stock tank conditions. Cheuh-Prausnitz BICs required. Optional printing of results to PVP file:
OPTIONS 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 /
Keywords OPTIONS
249
OUTECL3
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP X OUTECL3 VFP
The section is used in generating output data for inclusion into the ECLIPSE compositional model. Either equation of state or pressure-dependent tabular data can be generated.
250
Keywords OUTECL3
Keywords P- S
This section contains the P-S keywords. "PARACHOR "PCRIT "PEARCE "PEDERSEN "PRCORR "PSEUCOMP "RECOVERY "REGRESS "REGTARG "RTEMP "RUNSPEC "SALINITY "SAMPLE "SAMPLES "SAMPLES "SAMTITLE "SAVCOMP "SCT "SG "SIMULATE "SPLIT "SSHIFT "STCOND "SYSTEM Define parachors" on page 252 Critical pressures" on page 253 Blackoil tables" on page 254 Specify Pedersen viscosities" on page 255 Peng-Robinson correction" on page 256 Start of the PSEUCOMP section" on page 257 Liquid production for recovery estimates" on page 258 Start of the REGRESS section" on page 259 Regression target" on page 260 Reservoir temperature for ECLIPSE Compositional" on page 261 Denotes start of the run specification" on page 262 Specify sample salinity" on page 263 Specify fluid sample" on page 264 Specify fluid samples" on page 265 Specify fluid samples" on page 266 Specify titles of fluid samples" on page 267 Save compositions" on page 268 Defines Semi-Continuous Thermodynamics split" on page 269 Specify specific gravity" on page 270 Start of the SIMULATE section" on page 271 Specify specific heat capacity coefficients" on page 272 Start of the SPLIT section" on page 273 Dimensionless volume shifts for PR3" on page 274 Standard conditions" on page 275 Start of the SYSTEM section" on page 276
"SPECHA,B,C,D
The other PVTi keywords are listed as follows: "Keywords A-D" on page 178 "Keywords E-K" on page 201 "Keywords L- O" on page 223 "Keywords T - Z" on page 277.
Keywords Keywords P- T
251
PARACHOR
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Define parachors
Specifies the parachors for the components in the fluid system. The keyword is followed by up to N c values (the number of components specified in the RUNSPEC section) and terminated by a forward slash (/) character.
Units
Should be consistent to obtain surface tensions in dyne/cm.
Example
Parachors from [Ref. 18] for N2, C1, C2 and C3:
PARACHOR 41.0 77.0 108.0 150.3 /
252
Keywords PARACHOR
PCRIT
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Critical pressures
Specifies the critical pressures for the components in the system. The keyword is followed by N c (the number of components in the system) values, and terminated with a forward slash (/) character. UNITS: bars (METRIC), psi (FIELD), atm (LAB), atm (PVT-M).
Example
For a two-component system, using atm:
PCRIT 72.90
36.00
Keywords PCRIT
253
PEARCE
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP X COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Blackoil tables
Specifies that the Pearce method for generating blackoil tables is used in preference to the Whitson and Torp or Coats method. By default, the program uses the Whitson and Torp method. The keyword PEARCE has no arguments.
254
Keywords PEARCE
PEDERSEN
X RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Keywords PEDERSEN
255
PRCORR
X RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Peng-Robinson correction
This keyword requests that a modified form of Peng-Robinson equation of state is to be used. This changes the usual form of the a value as a function of the component acentric factor. The keyword PRCORR takes no arguments, and has no effect on equations of state other than the Peng-Robinson.
256
Keywords PRCORR
PSEUCOMP
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL X PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Keywords PSEUCOMP
257
RECOVERY
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP X COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
RECOVERY <RPMIN> <RPMAX> <SRPMIN> <SRPMAX> /
258
Keywords RECOVERY
REGRESS
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE X REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
This section is used to perform a regression of the equation of state parameters such as to minimize the difference between observed and calculated results of the following experiments: equilibrium flash bubble and dew point evaluation saturated pressure constant composition expansion constant volume depletion differential liberation swelling test vaporization test multi-stage separator networks the multi-contact test.
Keywords REGRESS
259
REGTARG
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE X REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Regression target
This quantity allows the default regression target to be changed. The regression target is applied to the sum of squares of the differences between the calculated and observed values. If a solution is found for which the residual approaches zero, the regression returns successfully when the sum of squares falls below this value. If there is a nonzero residual minimum this limit is applied to the derivatives of the residual at the minimum. DEFAULT: 0.000001. The record is terminated by a forward slash (/) character.
Example
RETARG 0.1D-8 /
260
Keywords REGTARG
RTEMP
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP X OUTECL3 VFP
Example
Specify a reservoir temperature of 200 F :
RTEMP 200.0
Keywords RTEMP
261
RUNSPEC
X RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
262
Keywords RUNSPEC
SALINITY
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
RTEMP 200.0 /
Keywords SALINITY
263
SAMPLE
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP X OUTECL3 VFP APITRACK
264
Keywords SAMPLES
SAMPLES
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Thus, each line consists of the composition mnemonic followed by up to N c mole fractions, which should sum to unity, followed by a forward slash (/) character. The last composition should be followed by another forward slash (/) character. The composition of the lean gas injection fluid used in a swelling test should be defined under this keyword.
Example
Lean gas composition for swelling test:
SAMPLES ZINJ 2* /
0.9468
0.0527
0.0005
4*
Keywords SAMPLES
265
SAMPLES
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP X APITRACK
266
Keywords SAMPLES
SAMTITLE
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
Second sample from deeper in the column. Lean gas composition for swelling test:
SAMTITLE Z2 Second sample from deeper in the column / ZINJ Lean gas composition for swelling test / /
Keywords SAMTITLE
267
SAVCOMP
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB X SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Save compositions
If you have turned on the OPTIONS switch for saving compositions calculated during experiments, this keyword may be used in the SIMULATE section to save compositions to named samples. Each line in this section contains the experiment number, the fluid type required (from XMF, YMF, ZMF, for liquid, vapor and total compositions), the stage of the experiment if it is a multi-stage experiment, and the sample name required. The stage index should be omitted if the experiment is not a multi-stage experiment. In the particular case of the stock tank stage of a SEPS experiment, you should enter ST for the stage indicator. Each record is terminated by a forward slash (/) character. The set of records must be ended by a blank record, containing only a slash.
Example
Save the total composition for experiment 4, a COMPG experiment, at stage (here depth) 4, and label it Z80. Save the liquid output from stage 3 of experiment 2, a SEPS experiment, and label it S23, and the stock tank vapor output of the same experiment, labelling it ST2:
SAVCOMP 4 ZMF 4 Z80 / 2 XMF 3 S23 / 2 YMF ST ST2 / /
268
Keywords SAVCOMP
SCT
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM X SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
The default and one alternative sample from different depths in the hydrocarbon column, and therefore different mole weights and specific gravities for the C7+ plus fraction. Different compositions are on the ZI and SAMPLES keyword, sample ZALT, which preceded this keyword and data. Three pseudo-component split requested with minimum and maximum mole weights of 90.0 and 300.0. Different skewness parameters reflects compositional grading in fluid from top (ZI - low Alpha) to bottom (ZALT - high Alpha).
SCT C7+ 3 ZI ZALT /
/ 0.75 0.80
/ /
Keywords SCT
269
SG
RUNSPEC SYSTEM Z SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
SG 0.86 /
270
Keywords SG
SIMULATE
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB X SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
This section is used to define any of the following experiments: equilibrium flash bubble and dew point evaluation constant composition expansion constant volume depletion differential liberation swelling test vaporization test multi-stage separator networks multiphase flashes ternary diagrams saturated pressure and temperature critical point compositional gradient minimum miscibility pressures
Keywords SIMULATE
271
Specifies the specific heat capacity coefficients for the components in the system. The keywords are followed by N c values, and terminated with a / character, where N c is the number of components specified in the RUNSPEC section. Note The values are output only in EoS data for ECLIPSE Compositional input files and only if OPTION number 7 is turned on.
Example
For a two component system, in PVT-Metric units:
-- Specific Heat Coefficients A kJ/kgm/K SPECHA 5.409000000E+00 -4.224000000E+00 /
-- Specific Heat Coefficients B kJ/kgm/K SPECHB 1.781000000E-01 3.063000000E-01 / -- Specific Heat Coefficients C kJ/kgm/K SPECHC -6.938000000E-05 -1.586000000E-04 / -- Specific Heat Coefficients D kJ/kgm/K SPECHD 8.713000000E-09 3.215000000E-08 /
272
Keywords SPECHA,B,C,D
SPLIT
RUNSPEC SYSTEM X SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
This section is used to define data necessary for the splitting of the plus fraction, assumed to be the last component.
Keywords SPLIT
273
SSHIFT
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
SSHIFT 0.15 0.05 -0.05 -0.03 -0.01 0.01 0.05 0.12 /
274
Keywords SSHIFT
STCOND
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Standard conditions
Specifies the current standard conditions. This is followed by the standard temperature and pressure values. The record is terminated by a forward slash (/) character.
Example
Standard conditions in degrees Fahrenheit and psia:
STCOND 60.0 14.7
Keywords STCOND
275
SYSTEM
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
276
Keywords SYSTEM
Keywords T - Z
This section contains the T-Z keywords. "TBOIL "TCRIT "THERMX "TITLE "TLOW "TREF "UNITS "VAR "VCRIT "VCRITVIS "VFP "WAT100 "WAT200 "WAT300 "WATVFP "WETGAS "WHIT "WHITSON "ZCRIT "ZCRITVIS "ZI "ZMFVD Specify boiling points" on page 278 Specify critical temperatures" on page 279 Thermal expansion coefficient for volume shifts" on page 280 Specify run title" on page 281 Define lowest temperature for VFP tables" on page 282 Specify reference temperatures" on page 283 Specify unit conventions" on page 284 Specify regression variables" on page 285 Specify volumes" on page 289 Specify volumes for LBC viscosity calculations" on page 290 Start of the VFP section" on page 292 Output water properties" on page 293 Output water properties" on page 294 Output water properties" on page 295 Output water properties" on page 296 Wet gas tables" on page 297 Defines Whitson splitting" on page 298 Blackoil tables" on page 299 XMFVP and YMFVP ECLIPSE tables" on page 300 Specify critical Z-factors" on page 301 Specify critical Z-factors for LBC calculations" on page 302 Specify sample composition" on page 303 Composition versus depth table" on page 304
"XMFVP/YMFVP
The other PVTi keywords are listed as follows: "Keywords A-D" on page 178 "Keywords E-K" on page 201 "Keywords L- O" on page 223 "Keywords P- S" on page 251.
Keywords Keywords U- Z
277
TBOIL
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
For a two component CO2/I-C4 system, using degrees K :
TBOIL 194.70
261.30
278
Keywords TBOIL
TCRIT
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
For a two component CO2/I-C4 system, using degrees K :
TCRIT 305.6 408.1 /
Keywords TCRIT
279
THERMX
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
Default value with temperature in degrees Centigrade, that is THERMX in C
THERMX 0.0005 1
280
Keywords THERMX
TITLE
X RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
TITLE 18 component condensate test
Keywords TITLE
281
TLOW
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 X VFP
Example
Production string runs through deep sea-water at 40 F
TLOW 40.0 /
282
Keywords TLOW
TREF
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Note
Example
For a two component CO2/I-C4 system, using degrees K : TLOW 40.0
Keywords TREF
283
UNITS
X RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP APITRACK
X X X
Metric unit system Field units Laboratory units PVT-metric units (metric units with pressures in atm). PVT-metric. Absolute pressure Gauge pressure. ABSOLute pressures. Compositions as fractions of unity Compositions as percentages of a hundred. FRACtions.
Only the first character is significant, and case is not significant. The pressure switch is one of the two following strings: ABSOL: GAUGE: DEFAULT:
The mole composition switch is one of the following strings: FRAC: PERC: DEFAULT:
Example
Set to field units:
UNITS F /
284
Keywords UNITS
VAR
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE X REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
J1 J2 J3 :
K1 K2 K3 :
L1 L2 L3 :
The strings S1,S2... identify variables for regression, the indices I1, J1 (and K1, L1 for binaries) identify component ranges, lower and upper. Possible strings identifying variables (that is, S1, S2 etc.) are: TCRIT Critical temperatures PCRIT Critical pressures VCRIT Critical volumes in LBC viscosity correlation ZCRIT Critical Z -factors in LBC viscosity correlation ACF Acentric factors OMEGAA a values OMEGAB b values SSHIFT Volume shift parameter BIC Binary interaction coefficients
In all cases except BIC, the lower and upper component indices should be specified. In the case of BIC, lower and upper index ranges should be given, that is, in four values. For example BIC 1 3 7 8 contains the BICS for (1, 7), (1, 8), (2, 7), (2, 8), (3, 7) and (3, 8). The indices IND1, IND2, etc., specify the variable index as applied to the particular variable.
Keywords VAR
285
Special regression variables are available and are: SCTALF SCT Splitting parameter SCTMW SCT plus fraction weight SCTKW SCT Watson K factor THERMX Thermal expansion coefficient CHEUHA Cheuh-Prausnitz BIC coefficient CHARMW Molecular weights of characterized components CHARMF Mole Fractions of characterized and/or user components for any sample MIXING The mixing factor between two samples when using the MIX keyword. In the case of SCTKW, THERMX, CHEUHA and MIXING the component and variable indices are redundant as the variable applies to all components. In the case of SCTALF and SCTMW, the I1 and K1 indices refer to the sample rather than component range. For the CHARMF two other sets of indices are needed to indicate the range of samples over which the particular variable applies. This follows the syntax of the BIC keyword. For example, CHARMF 1 2 4 5 contains the mole fractions for components 4 and 5 for samples 1 and 2.
Note
The quantities LL and UL specify limits imposed on the variables during the regression. All variable limits are applied as a percentage of the current value, scaled to unity. Thus a maximum value of 1.5 corresponds to allowing a 50% increase in any variable; a negative value implies that the variable is allowed to change sign (restricted set!). Defaults are as follows: Table 7.8 Variable pc Tc Vc Zc a b Default limits for variables Lower limit
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Upper limit
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
286
Keywords VAR
Upper limit
2.0 +5.0 5.0 5.0 1.1 1.25 1.25 5.0 1.1 1.25 1.25
si
SCTALF SCTMW SCTKW CHEUHA THERMX CHARMW CHARMF MIXING
Grouped regression variables can be defined by giving them the same variable index.
Examples
Example 1
Regression variables are the critical temperature for component 1, the a values for components 2 and 3, the binary interaction coefficient for components 1 and 10, and the volume shift parameters for components 4 and 6 to 10 as a first grouped variable, and components 1 to 3 and 5 as a second grouped variable. Default limits are taken for all components except the binary, which is restricted to a lower limit of 30% and an upper limit of 200% of the current value:
VAR TCRIT 1 1 1 1 / / /
OMEGAA 2 3
Keywords VAR
287
Example 2
The default settings for the first five special regression variables with a system of three samples is as follows:
VAR SCTALF SCTALF SCTALF SCTMW SCTMW SCTMW SCTKW CHEUHA THERMX / 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 0.750000 0.500000 -5.000000 0.500000 0.500000 0.500000 0.900000 0.900000 0.900000 1.250000 / 1.500000 / 5.000000 / 5.000000 5.000000 5.000000 1.100000 1.100000 1.100000 / / / / / /
Note
The special regression variables SCTALF and SCTMW cannot be grouped into one variable and must be entered in the manner shown above, that is one variable for each sample.
288
Keywords VAR
VCRIT
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Specify volumes
Specifies the critical volumes for the components in the system. The keyword is followed by N c values, where N c is the number of components specified in the RUNSPEC section, and terminated with a forward slash (/) character. The critical volumes are in volume per mole at critical pressure and temperature.
UNITS:
VCRIT values may be entered as an alternative to ZCRIT values - that is one of VCRIT or ZCRIT should be entered. If VCRIT values are entered, critical Z -factors are obtained internally using the usual relationship: p crit V crit Z crit = --------------------- , RT crit where R is the gas constant.
[EQ 7.1]
Example
For a 20-component system, in field units:
VCRIT 1.5057 4.0847 7.8058 13.779 /
Keywords VCRIT
289
VCRITVIS
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
UNITS:
VCRITVIS values may be entered as an alternative to ZCRITVIS values; that is, one of VCRITVIS or ZCRITVIS should be entered. If VCRITVIS values are entered, critical Z -factors are obtained internally using the usual relationship: p crit V critv Z critv = ----------------------- , RT crit where R is the gas constant. Note If VCRITVIS or ZCRITVIS is not entered then values entered with VCRIT or ZCRIT are used in the viscosity correlation. The form of VCRITVIS is the same as that of VCRIT.
[EQ 7.2]
Example
For a 20-component system, in Field units:
VCRITVIS 1.5057 4.0847 7.8058 13.779 / 1.4417 4.9337 8.8374 14.759 1.5698 4.9817 9.8465 15.684 2.3707 5.8948 10.830 16.018 3.2037 6.0710 11.799 16.018
290
Keywords VCRITVIS
VERSION
x RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Version of PVTi
This keyword indicates the version of PVTi that created the PVI file. Caution Files in FIELD units containing Differential Liberation (DL) experiments that have Gas Formation Volume Factor (GFVF) observations must be updated to the current version. See "Converting old projects to the current version" on page 97 for a tutorial on converting old-version PVI files.
VERSION 2001A /
Keywords VERSION
291
VFP
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 X VFP
This section is used to generate blackoil tables for VFPi, for any of the currently defined fluid samples, by simulating phase and volumetric changes in the wellbore with a constant composition expansion and separator flash at high (reservoir) and low temperatures. Tables are generated that can then be input into VFPi.
292
Keywords VFP
WAT100
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS X BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Examples
Example 1
For PVTW output, salt present of salinity 10000 ppm, with gas dissolved. Temperature 200 F , pressure 5514.7 psi.
--Water properties requested for E100 WAT100 200.00000 5514.70000 Y S P Y 10000.0000 /
Example 2
For PVTWSALT output, salt present with salinities 10, 20 and 30 gpl, with no gas dissolved. Temperature 200 F , pressure 5514.7 psi.
-- Water properties requested for E100 WAT100 200.00000 5514.70000 Y M G N 10.0000 20.0000 30.0000 7* /
Keywords WAT100
293
WAT200
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL X PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Examples
Example 1
For PVTW output, salt present of salinity 10000 ppm, with gas dissolved. Temperature 200 F , pressure 5514.7 psi.
--Water properties requested for E200 WAT100 200.00000 5514.70000 Y S P Y 10000.0000 /
Example 2
For PVTWSALT output, salt present with salinities 10, 20 and 30 gpl, with no gas dissolved. Temperature 200 F , pressure 5514.7 psi.
-- Water properties requested for E200 WAT200 200.00000 5514.70000 Y M G N 10.0000 20.0000 30.0000 7* /
294
Keywords WAT200
WAT300
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP X OUTECL3 VFP
Example
For PVTW output, salt present of salinity 10000 ppm, with gas dissolved. Temperature 200 F , pressure 5514.7 psi.
--Water properties requested for E300 WAT300 200.00000 5514.70000 Y P Y 10000.0000 /
Keywords WAT300
295
WATVFP
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 X VFP
Example
For PVTW output, salt present of salinity 10000 poem, with gas dissolved. Calculated at temperatures 200 F and 80 F , pressure 6000.0 psi.
--Water properties requested for VFP WATVFP 200.00000 / 6000.00000 80.00000 6000.00000 Y P Y 10000.0000
296
Keywords WATVFP
WETGAS
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS X BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP X APITRACK
Keywords DEADGAS
297
WHIT
RUNSPEC SYSTEM X SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
Split C 7+ with z 7+ = 0.1 , M 7+ = 140.0 , 7+ = 0.85 into three pseudo-components:
WHIT 7 0.10
140.0
0.85
298
Keywords WHIT
WHITSON
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Blackoil tables
Specifies that the Whitson and Torp method for the generation of blackoil tables is used in preference to the Coats method. By default, the program uses the Whitson and Torp method. The keyword WHITSON has no arguments.
X X X
Keywords WHITSON
299
Requests that XMFVP and YMFVP tables, consisting of the liquid and vapor mole fractions of each component at a set of pressures, be output to the PVO file. The XMFVP and YMFVP keywords have no arguments. Note You must also define a Constant Volume Depletion (CVD) experiment via the EXP keyword and associated data in order that the XMFVP and YMFVP tables can be generated. Only two pressures need be defined in the CVD, which should be the maximum and minimum required.
300
Keywords XMFVP/YMFVP
ZCRIT
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
For a CO2/Methane/Ethane/I-C4 system:
ZCRIT 0.2709
0.2809
0.2808
0.279
Keywords ZCRIT
301
ZCRITVIS
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
For a CO2/Methane/Ethane/I-C4 system:
ZCRIT 0.2709
0.2809
0.2808
0.279
302
Keywords ZCRITVIS
ZI
RUNSPEC X SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP OUTECL3 VFP
Example
For a two-component CO2/I-C4 system, 60/40 mixture:
ZI 0.6
0.4 /
Keywords ZI
303
ZMFVD
RUNSPEC SYSTEM SPLIT GROUP COMB SIMULATE REGRESS BLACKOIL PSEUCOMP X OUTECL3 VFP
304
Keywords ZMFVD
Overview
This section of the manual contains information on the following: "Theoretical background of PVT" on page 306. "Analysis techniques" on page 392. "Regression in PVT analysis" on page 408 "Wax and asphaltene precipitation in PVTi" on page 416 "Cleaning samples contaminated with oil-based mud" on page 420 "Mixing and recombination of samples" on page 422
305
General background
Both in the fully compositional and extended black oil formulations of reservoir simulation, an accurate description of the hydrocarbon system and its properties is important. In the compositional case the phase behavior of the hydrocarbon system is an integral part of the simulation. Equal phase fugacity conditions or flash calculations are used to determine the phase split and composition.
306
In the black-oil and extended black-oil formulations averaged properties of the oil and gas phases such as B o (oil volume factor), R s (solution gas-oil ratio), B g (gas volume factor) and R v (condensate gas ratio) are obtained through laboratory experiments or by using an equation of state description of the hydrocarbon system.
Laboratory tests
Information on oil and gas properties is normally obtained through laboratory tests upon oil and gas samples. These yield: 1 2 3 The mole fraction distribution of lighter components The mole fraction, molecular weight and specific gravity of the residual Pressure-volume relationships obtained through depletion and expansion experiments.
The mole distribution of the lighter components is usually obtained through gas chromatography, providing a quantitative separation of the lighter components into pure compounds with known properties. The heavier components are then lumped into pseudo-components, for example a C7+ fraction containing hydrocarbons with carbon numbers from seven upwards. Beside this simple laboratory analysis more complex methods for analyzing oil and gas samples are coming into use. In these methods the residual (C7+ fraction) is split up into sub-fractions through a distillation of the residual. The boiling point of each of these sub-fractions is then used to assign pseudo component properties through empirical correlations. Expansion experiments are often carried out on oil and gas samples from the reservoir to evaluate volume factors in conditions that reflect the depletion process in the reservoir as closely as possible. On the basis of these experimental data, a model composition of the hydrocarbon mixture can be developed and used in combination with an equation of state model to calculate additional oil and gas properties at reservoir conditions and at surface conditions. The oil and gas volume factors used in black oil type models depend on the process facilities and configuration. The equation of state model allows black oil tables to be evaluated for various process facilities and configurations. An excellent summary of many of the features required to build up an understanding of fluid phase behavior from sampling considerations through laboratory techniques to the use of Equations of State can be found in the text of Pedersen et al., and McCain, [Ref. 33].
307
"Pure components" on page 308. "Pure component properties" on page 310. "Multi-component mixtures" on page 311.
Pure components
The natural gas and crude oil found in underground natural deposits are mixtures of a large number of different hydrocarbon components and some additional nonhydrocarbons such as CO 2 , H 2 S , N 2 , H 2 and CO .
Hydrocarbon groups
Hydrocarbons are usually divided into groups based on characteristics in molecular structure. The most important of these groups are: Alkanes or paraffins Alkanes or paraffins are very stable chemical compounds. The chemical formula for compounds in the group is C n H 2n + 2 . The group contains hydrocarbon components such as: Table 8.1 Formula C1H4 C2H6 C3H8 C 4 H 10 C 5 H 12 C 6 H 14 C 7 H 16 C 10 H 22 Alkanes Name
Methane Ethane Propane Butane Pentane Hexane Heptane Decane
Each of these molecules can exist as a single straight chain of carbon atoms attached to three (end carbons), or two (non-end carbons) hydrogen atoms (except Methane, which has four attached hydrogens). Isomers For molecules containing four carbons or more, additional structures other than the straight chains are possible. The number of these branched molecules or isomers increases with increasing carbon number. Butane has one isomer in addition to the straight-chained normal-Butane, the branched molecule iso-Butane.
308
Pentane has two isomers in addition to the normal-Pentane, known as iso- and neo-Pentane. The neo- isomer (cross-shaped) is rarely found in naturally-occurring petroleum. Most fluid analyses include the iso- and normal- components of Butane and Pentane. Hexane (six carbon atoms) has four isomers in addition to the normal-Hexane. The number of isomers increases rapidly with carbon number making the identification of the increasingly small concentration of these isomers impossible.
Note
Napthenes or cycloparaffins Napthenes are characterized by the chemical formula C n H 2n . Important members in this family are: Table 8.2 Formula C3 H6 C 5 H 10 Napthenes Name
Cyclopropane Cyclopentane
They share the same formula as the alkenes, which are the same as the alkanes except that one or more pairs of carbon atoms are linked by double bonds with the consequent loss of one or more hydrogen atoms. Note Alkenes and their triple bond equivalents, the alkynes, are rarely found in naturally occurring petroleum.
Any one of the hydrogens can be replaced by a methyl-( CH 3 ) or higher group, for example C 7 H 14 , Methylcyclohexane. Aromatics The third family of hydrocarbons are aromatics. These are ring-type structures. Some of the best known members of this family are: Table 8.3 Formula C6 H6 C7 H8 Aromatics Name
Benzene Toluene
309
SCN groups
All of napthenes, aromatics, more complicated hydrocarbons (polynuclear molecules), hydrocarbons compounds containing other species, namely Nitrogen, Sulphur, Oxygen and certain trace metals, are all capable of existing as isomers. Identification of even a relatively small number of the possible isomers within a petroleum mixture is a complicated and therefore expensive task. It is standard practice within the petroleum industry to lump all isomers together on the basis of the boiling point of the molecule. Single Carbon Number (SCN) groups are defined for components, for example hexanes, heptanes, etc. Components are pure hydrocarbon components with normal boiling point temperatures, that is at one atmosphere pressure, between consecutive normal-paraffin boiling points. For example, the SCN hexanes group consists of those hydrocarbons that boil between the normal boiling points of n-pentane and n-hexane.
The component library in PVTi contains properties for some of the more common pure components.
310
Multi-component mixtures
As mentioned previously, natural gas and crude oil contains literally thousands of different components. No attempt is usually made to identify all the hydrocarbons beyond C 5 : rather, SCN groups denoted hexanes, heptanes, etc., are used. Even so, you may be left with ten or more components in any given petroleum mixture. To describe a multi-component system thermodynamically using an equation of state model, the system must be defined in terms of the properties of the components and their mole fractions in the mixture. The terms and nomenclature used to characterize multi-component mixtures may be summarized as follows, where the subscript i denotes the i Table 8.5 Term n T c, i p c, i Multi-component (ii) mixtures Nomenclature
Number of components in the mixture Critical temperature Critical pressure th
component:
Note
The thermodynamic behavior of a multi-component mixture depends strongly on composition, pressure and temperature.
311
Phase diagrams In terms of a phase diagram plotted against pressure and temperature, the upper part of the phase envelope, up to the critical point, represents the bubble-point curve. From the critical point the phase envelope continues as dew point curve. The phase envelope encircles the two phase region in the phase diagram. A phase diagram is often characterized by the maximum pressure, the cricondenbar, and the maximum temperature, cricondentherm. The area within the phase envelope bounded by a vertical line through the critical point and the line represented by the cricondentherm is the retrograde area. A reduction of pressure into this area results in retrograde condensation. For the RK and ZJ equations of state the critical point calculation implements the theory developed in [Ref. 51]. For the PR and SRK equations of state the calculations use the theory developed in the follow-up paper in [Ref. 48].
Components
All components in PVTi are labeled as being one of three possible types: LIB: CHAR: USER: Library Characterization User defined
LIB components
Lib components are the commonly occurring hydrocarbons C 1 , C 2 ,..., C 45 and the specific non-hydrocarbons H 2 O , H 2 S , CO 2 , N 2 , H 2 and CO .
CHAR components
Components designated as CHAR are typically the last component in a PVT report and as such comprise the plus fraction, that is, contains all remaining hydrocarbons. For such fractions, a laboratory would typically measure only the mole weight and specific gravity, denoted here by M N+ , N+ , where N is the number of the first carbon group in the fraction.
User components
User components are those for which you must supply all the data necessary to define the equation of state parameters, that is T c , p c , V c , M w and .
312
Characterization
Clearly, correlations are required that are capable of generating the critical properties and acentric factors from just the mole weight and specific gravity. In general, any p - V - T report gives at least the mole weight of the plus fraction. If this is the only information available, PVTi estimates a value of the specific gravity from known (SCN) distributions. Otherwise, any two out of the four of M w , , T b , K w is sufficient to characterize a component. PVTi employs five sets of correlations for generating critical properties by: Kesler and Lee [Ref. 10] Cavett [Ref. 11] Riazi and Daubert [Ref. 12] Winn [Ref. 43] and [Ref. 44] Pedersen [Ref. 42]. Lee and Kesler [Ref. 13] Edmister [Ref. 14] Thomassen [Ref. 30] Pedersen [Ref. 42].
component.
Splitting
The plus fraction often has an importance that appears to far outweigh its relatively small mole fraction of a fluid sample. In particular, saturation pressure calculations can be extremely sensitive to the mole fraction and properties of the plus fraction. More accurate predictions requiring less regression of equation of state parameters can be achieved if a thorough description of the plus fraction can be made. Ideally, a complete true-boiling-point distillation (TBP) should be made that yields not only the detailed composition of the plus fraction but also the boiling points, specific gravities and molecular weights of the constituent components. However, this analysis is rarely performed and so a general procedure to describe the distribution of components and properties within a plus fraction is required.
313
Three techniques are available within PVTi for the splitting of the plus fraction into sub-fractions: Constant Mole Fraction (CMF); Whitson. Semi-Continuous Thermodynamics (Modified Whitson)
All of these techniques rely on a probability density function (PDF) to relate mole fraction to mole weight. This approach is due to Whitson [Ref. 4].
[EQ 8.2]
where: , , are parameters defining the distribution is the gamma-function gives a measure of the shape of the distribution is the lowest mole weight in the plus fraction is a normalization condition that can be determined from the condition:
[EQ 8.3]
p ( x ) dx
+j
[EQ 8.4]
j=0
y ----------------------------( + j + 1)
[EQ 8.5]
where y = ( x ) The frequency, f i of a component i having mole weight boundaries M i 1 , M i is given by the integral: fi =
Mi
i1 [EQ 8.7]
p ( M ) dM
[EQ 8.6]
314
zi = zN + fi The average mole weight in the same interval is given by: P ( M M i , + 1 ) P ( M M i 1 , + 1 ) M i = + ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------P ( M M i , ) P ( M M i 1 , )
[EQ 8.8]
[EQ 8.9]
where the P ( X x ) functions all use the same value of regardless of the value of , (that is or + 1 ) and where z N + is the total mole fraction of the plus fraction. In the absence of any other data, you should assume that is unity. The parameter is the minimum mole weight that occurs in the plus fraction, therefore if the plus fraction were C 7+ , then a good estimate to is 92.0. Generally, Whitson recommends: = 14n 6 where n is the first SCN group in the plus fraction, for example 7. Note Both splitting techniques available in PVTi use the Whitson PDF to define the mole fraction/mole weight distribution of the plus fraction, however, they differ slightly in the way they sub-divide into the required number of pseudocomponents.
[EQ 8.10]
Generally, you may consider skewing the distribution thus: highest mole fraction for the lightest pseudo-component to smallest mole fraction for the heaviest pseudocomponent. Hint If you have evidence on the shape of the plus fraction distribution, it may be prudent to manually change the skewness parameter , that is less than unity for a condensate and greater than unity for a crude oil.
The value of the minimum mole weight in the plus fraction rarely needs changing from its (calculated) default value. Knowing the required mole fraction split, PVTi then integrates the PDF from up to some mole weight M 1 such that integral gives the correct first mole fraction, and then similarly for the remaining pseudo-components. Knowing the mole weight boundaries, the program can calculate the average mole weights of the pseudo-components, estimate the specific gravities from the SCN distributions and calculate the critical properties, etc., from the various correlations currently in force.
315
Whitson
The Whitson technique consists of splitting the plus fraction into SCN groups N (the first in the plus fraction) to some high number, for example 45. The mole weight boundaries are estimated from the user specified plus fraction mole weight and specific gravity from which one can calculate a plus fraction Watson factor: K w, N+ = 4.5579M w, N+ N+
0.15178 0.84573
[EQ 8.11]
Assuming that an average Watson factor K w, N+ can be applied to each individual SCN groups, the SCN groups specific gravities can be estimated from equation (1), namely: T b, i i = ---------------K w, N+
13
[EQ 8.12]
where the T b, i are the normal boiling point temperatures of the SCN groups, which in fact define the SCN groups. That is SCN C 6 is all hydrocarbons that have normal boiling point temperatures between those of normal- C 5 and normal- C 6 , etc. Then, with known boiling points and specific gravities, mole weights can be estimated using the Riazi-Daubert correlation, which is of the general form: = aT b
b c
[EQ 8.13]
where is the property to be evaluated, say M w and ( a ,b ,c ) are tabulated coefficients, see [Ref. 4]. With average mole weights for the SCN groups, the boundary mole weights are estimated from: 1 M i = -- ( M i 1 + M i ) 2
[EQ 8.14]
These can then be used to integrate the PDF to give mole fractions for each of the SCN groups. Hint Generally, you will not want to work with 20-30 additional components. Therefore the SCN groups are pseudoised down into Multi-Carbon Number (MCN) groups. A method for estimating the required number of MCN groups is that due to Sturges, discussed in [Ref. 4]. However, this often predicts the use of four or five pseudo-components. It has been our experience that two or three pseudo-components is sufficient for most purposes.
Multi-carbon number (MCN) groups In evaluating the properties of the MCN groups from the basis SCN groups, simple mole weighted averages are taken, that is.:
i = lN
1 M l = --zl
i = l1
zi Mi
[EQ 8.15]
316
where the summation is performed over the SCN groups i in the MCN group l and z l is the mole fraction of the l
th
MCN group.
0 f ( x )e
N x
dx =
i=1
wif ( xi ) ,
[EQ 8.16]
where the weighting factors w i and quadrature points x i are determined from a class of Laguerre polynomials for a given order N , see [Ref. 31]. For our mole weight/mole composition model, we can associate the quadrature points x i with pseudo-component mole weights M i = + x i and the mole fractions zi = wi f ( xi ) . To account for compositional variations with depth, Whitson extended the standard model to account for these variations, or plus fraction mole weight and skewness parameter. Since different plus fraction mole weights and skewness parameters lead to different parameters, the following modification was introduced: 0 = -------------------------[ 1 + ln ( ) ]
[EQ 8.17]
where 0 and are parameters in the modified distribution function p 0 ( M ) given by: (M ) ( M ) ( 1 + ln ( ) ) p 0 ( M ) = ---------------------------------- exp --------------------- --------------------------------- = p ( M ) [ ( M ) 0 ] 0 0 ( ) that is numerically identical to the original function p ( M ) , see[EQ 8.2]. To determine the mole fraction, we integrate the PDF by Gaussian quadrature by making the following transformation: M x 0 = ------------0 with dM = 0 dx to give: e x0 ---------------------------------------------------- dx 0 = 1 0 x ( ) 0 ( 1 + ln ( ) ) Comparing with [EQ 8.16], we have:
( 1 ) x0
[EQ 8.19]
( 1)
[EQ 8.18]
[EQ 8.20]
317
x0 ( 1 + ln ( ) ) f ( x 0 ) = ------------------------------------------------x ( ) 0 z i = w i f ( x 0i ) M i = + 0 x 0i Procedure
( 1)
[EQ 8.21]
and thus the mole fraction and mole weight are given by:
[EQ 8.22] [EQ 8.23]
The procedure for using this method is particularly attractive. Firstly we choose the number of pseudo-components required, N , which is normally in the range 2 N 5 : this then fixes the values of weights and points, w i and x i . The minimum mole weight is chosen as before. Next we specify 0 which is done by selecting the maximum mole weight component to be used: Whitson recommends M N = 500.0 but we prefer 2 M N+ . Either way we now have: MN 0 = ----------------x 0N
[EQ 8.24]
Next we estimate a value for the skewness parameter, which as before is taken as unity in the absence of any other information. Then to satisfy the total number of moles and mass, we calculate: 0 = exp ----- 1
[EQ 8.25]
and calculate the mole fractions and mole weights. Finally, the average plus fraction mole weight is checked:
N
zi Mi
[EQ 8.26]
--------------------M N+ = i = 1
i=1
zi
and the is adjusted if [EQ 8.26]does not equate to the measured value. The appeal of this model is it allows a variable plus fractions mole weight and skewness parameter by sample composition. That is different plus fraction mole weight and mole fraction, but allows us to use a common set of pseudo-components with fixed mole weights and hence critical properties.
318
Hint
Having used this procedure to characterize the plus fraction(s), you can then use the special regression facility, which allows the sample plus fraction mole weights and skewness parameters to be variables. In particular, where there is a known variation of composition with depth and you have at least two samples from different depths in the hydrocarbon column, this technique can be used with some success, see [Ref. 32].
Special regression facility An additional special regression facility has been added to this model to allow different characterizations of the split pseudo-components from this technique. Having obtained mole fractions and mole weights from the above method, a variant on the Watson K factor may be derived, denoted F c . This is then used to estimate specific gravities and hence critical properties, acentric factors, etc., as per the original Whitson model. The additional feature is the new characterization factor, F c , which can be regressed, that is: Fc
tot
= Fc Fc
cal
cal
reg
[EQ 8.27]
where F c
reg
and F c is the potentially regressable function which defaults to unity. This allows you to make your fluid more or less aromatic with respect to the standard distribution (equivalent to a K w 12.0 ), which in turn yields different critical properties, etc., and hence different fluid behavior.
Grouping
Grouping of components is performed by one of three techniques: Molar averaging Weight averaging Mixing rule.
All of these are explained in the comprehensive text of Joergensen and Stenby [Ref. 45].
319
Consistency tests
Most fluids that show some form of compositional behavior, namely gas condensates and volatile oils, are subject to a constant volume depletion experiment (CVD) as part of their analysis. For further information see "Compositional material balance" on page 320. A material balance calculation can be performed using the data that is generated from such an experiment from which quantities such as liquid compositions, K -values, molecular weights and densities of vapor and liquid, etc., can be evaluated. This data can then be examined to look for any inconsistencies, such as lack of monotonicity. Additional data often given in a laboratory PVT report are separator compositions for the liquid and vapor streams. If such data is available, then K -values can be constructed and plotted against theoretical fits, again as a test of consistency. Finally, estimates of recovery of gas and oil from the reservoir can be made as well as generation of blackoil tables, without recourse to the use of the equation of state model.
Note
A typical laboratory CVD report might be as follows [Ref. 6]: Table 8.7 CVD Report Equil Liquid 714.7
.59 .01 12.42 3.36 2.92 .91 2.50 0.34 79.33 7.92 3.41 .64 2.53 0.34 79.62 8.04 3.53 .66 2.57 0.34 78.9 8.40 3.74 .72 2.60 0.33 77.8 8.70 3.91 .78
320
Table 8.7
This gas condensate with an assumed reservoir composition equal to composition at the first pressure, which corresponds to the saturation pressure of the fluid, p sat = 6764.7 psia is put through the stages of the CVD. The CVD consists of reducing the pressure to the required stage pressure, and then removing gas so that the volume remaining in the cell is equal to volume at the saturation pressure. At each stage, the composition, mole weight and specific gravity of the plus fraction (denoted Mw and Sg), the vapor Z -factor (denoted Zvap), the number of moles produced (denoted Nprod) and the liquid saturation (denoted Sliq), are measured. The subsequent analyses used to generate liquid compositions, K -values, volumes, masses and densities follow those of Whitson and Torp [Ref. 6].
321
Starting with one mole of fluid at the saturation pressure (first stage in the reported CVD), the number of moles remaining the cell after the j
j th
stage is:
n tj = 1
k=2
n pk
[EQ 8.30]
where n pk is the number of moles of gas produced at stage, denoted Nprod in the table above, so that n pk is the incremental gas recovered during the k reducing the pressure from p k 1 to p k . Similarly, the mole fraction of the i stage is:
j th th
th
n tj z ij = z i1
k=2
n pk y ik
[EQ 8.31]
Cell volumes
To convert moles and mole fractions to volumes, one must have some reference volume, such as the volume of the cell. For a gas condensate, the cell volume, for one mole, can be calculated from the real gas law: Z 1 RT V cell = ------------p1 where: Z 1 and p 1 are the vapor Z -factor and pressure at the first (saturation) pressure R is the universal gas constant T is the temperature at which the CVD is performed, assumed constant throughout the experiment.
[EQ 8.32]
For a volatile oil, a CVD report gives the molecular weight and density of the bubble point liquid, M w1 and 1 , and thus the cell volume, again for one mole, is calculated as: M w1 V cell = ----------1 Knowing the cell volume and the liquid saturation at the j
th
[EQ 8.33]
stage, S lj (denoted Sliq in the table above), the volume of the cell occupied by liquid is: V lj = S lj V cell and thus the volume of the cell occupied by gas is: V vj = ( 1 S lj )V cell
[EQ 8.35] [EQ 8.34]
322
[EQ 8.36]
stage can be
[EQ 8.37]
Equilibrium K-values
The K -values can now be estimated from the ratio of the vapor and liquid mole fractions: y ij K ij = ----x ij
[EQ 8.38]
The best test of the consistency of the CVD data is to plot the logarithm of the p j K ij product against the characterization factor F , [Ref. 20], where: 1 1 - F = b i ------- -- T bi T
[EQ 8.39]
where T is the reservoir or CVD experiment temperature and b i is the HoffmannCrump-Hocott b -factor for the i ( log ( p ci ) log ( p ref ) ) b i = ---------------------------------------------------1 1 ------- ------ T bi T ci Here: Plots As pointed out by Bashbush, [Ref. 19], the curves should plot in a parallel-like trend, that is, there should be no humps in any individual curve or crossing of any pair or pairs of curves. The highest curve should belong to nitrogen, followed by methane and carbon dioxide. Then depending on the fluid composition, either ethane or hydrogen sulphide should be plotted followed by the curves for the remaining hydrocarbon components in order of increasing molecular weight. Technical Description Theoretical background of PVT T ci and T bi are the critical and normal boiling point temperatures p ci is the critical pressure (in psia) p ref is the reference pressure, usually 14.7 psia.
th
323
Finally, it should be noted that the iso- components of butane and pentane should plot above their corresponding normal components. This plot is available from PVTi. Other useful plots consists of fingerprint plots of the liquid composition remaining in the cell at the end of the CVD (the last column in the above table) and the equivalent calculated liquid composition, and the calculated liquid compositions as a function of pressure. Both of these plots are available from PVTi.
Physical properties
As well as performing material balances on moles and mole fractions, material balance can be done on the total, liquid and vapor masses: m tj = m lj + m vj The total mass remaining the cell at the j
j th
[EQ 8.41]
m tj = M s
k=2
n pk M vk
[EQ 8.42]
where M s and M vk are the initial or saturation pressure molecular weight and the vapor molecular weight at the k from Kays rule:
Nc th
M vj =
i=1
y ij M i
th
[EQ 8.43]
component.
Vapor molecular weight is calculated from: m vj = n vj M vj And liquid molecular weight from the mass balance: m lj = m tj m vj
[EQ 8.45] [EQ 8.44]
Now, knowing the masses and volumes of liquid and vapor in the cell at each stage, one can calculate densities from = m V Plots of these quantities are available from PVTi.
Correlations
Alani-Kennedy liquid densities
The liquid molar volume of a pure hydrocarbon component is given by the smallest real positive root of the Van der Waals equation: a RT = p + ----- ( V b ) 2 V
[EQ 8.46]
324
that contains the two unknown parameters ( a ,b ) . Alani and Kennedy, [Ref. 20], inserted known values of T , p and V into [Ref. 16] for two pressures for a variety of hydrocarbons. Thus they were able to observe the variations of ( a ,b ) from which they derived: a = K exp ( n T ) b = mT + C where: ( n ,K ,m ,C ) are tabulated constants for the hydrocarbons C 1 , C 2 ,..., C 6 : the coefficients for the plus fraction C 7+ can be calculated from given correlations in molecular weight and specific gravity of the plus fraction and temperature (see [Ref. 22]). The ( a ,b ) coefficients for a hydrocarbon mixture are given by Kays rule:
C N+ C N+
[EQ 8.47] [EQ 8.48]
a mix =
C1
xi ai
b mix =
C1
xi bi
[EQ 8.49]
where x i are the liquid mole fractions. Note The non-hydrocarbons N 2 , CO 2 and H 2 S are added into the C 1 fraction.
Vapor Z-factor
The vapor Z -factor, Z vap , can be estimated from the correlation due to Dranchuk, Purvis and Robinson [Ref. 21]: 0.27p r Z vap = --------------r Tr
[EQ 8.50]
where T r and p r are the reduced temperature ( = T T c ) and reduced pressure ( = p p c ) , and r is the pseudoreduced density, which is found by iteratively solving: f ( r ) = 0 where: f ( r ) = A r + B r + C r + D r + E r ( 1 + F r ) exp ( F r ) G and: A = 0.06423 B = 0.5353T r 0.6123
[EQ 8.53] [EQ 8.54] [EQ 8.51]
[EQ 8.52]
325
0.5783 C = 0.3151T r 1.0467 --------------2 Tr D = Tr 0.6816 E = --------------2 Tr F = 0.6845 G = 0.27T r with the initial estimate for the pseudoreduced density of: 0.27p r r0 = --------------Tr
[EQ 8.55]
[EQ 8.56]
[EQ 8.57]
[EQ 8.60]
Kays rule has been stated already, being a mole fraction weighted sum of the appropriate quantity. The correlations due to Wichert and Aziz, [Ref. 22], correct for the presence of the socalled sour gases, CO 2 , H 2 S and N 2 . The pseudo-critical temperature and pressure of the hydrocarbon portion of a condensate is given by: Tc pc
HC
= 187 + 330 g
HC
71.5 ( g )
HC 2 HC 2
[EQ 8.61]
HC
= 706 + 51.7 g
HC
HC
11.1 ( g )
[EQ 8.62]
where g g
mix
is the hydrocarbon gas gravity that is related to the mixture gas gravity,
by:
mix
[EQ 8.63]
with: g
mix
[EQ 8.64]
326
The pseudo-critical temperature and pressure for the mixture, including nonhydrocarbons, is: T pc = ( 1 y N y CO y H S )T c 2 2 2 and p pc = ( 1 y N y CO y H S )p c 2 2 2
HC HC
[EQ 8.65]
[EQ 8.66]
The correction to T pc and p pc in the presence of sour gas ( CO 2 and H 2 S ), due to Wichert and Aziz, is: = 120 ( y CO + y H S ) 2 2 to give: T pc = T pc and p pc ( T pc ) p pc = -------------------------------------------------------T pc + y H S ( 1 y H S )
2 2 [EQ 8.69] [EQ 8.68]
0.9
( y CO + y H S ) 2 2
1.6
0.5 4.0 + 15 y H S y H S 2 2
[EQ 8.67]
Gas viscosity
The dynamic gas viscosity of a hydrocarbon gas at a temperature T can be estimated from a correlation due to Lee, Gonzalez and Eakin, [Ref. 24]: g = A exp ( B ) where: 10 ( 9.4 + 0.02M w )T A = -----------------------------------------------------------( 209.0 + 19.0M w + T ) B = 3.5 + 986.0 + 0.01M w -----------T C = 2.4 0.2B and: pM w = ----------ZRT where is measured in g/ cm .
3
[EQ 8.74]
[EQ 8.70]
1.5
[EQ 8.71]
327
Generally, the separator is operating at some pressure and temperature above what would be considered as standard conditions, such as 60 F , 14.7 psia, in which case the separator oil is almost certainly not be stable at standard conditions since it probably still contains dissolved gas. The best laboratory analyses contain a mole fraction analysis of the separator oil and gas and the stabilized, standard conditions, oil and gas. Any available gas and oil compositional analysis can be used to generate a set of K values. These K -values can be plotted using the Hoffmann-Crump-Hocott construction, see [Ref. 20] and"Correlations" on page 324. An analysis of sets of K -values from many fluid samples by Standing, [Ref. 25], indicated that for pressures less than 1000 psia, compositional dependency in K values, usually indicated by the apparent convergence pressure of the log ( K ) versus log ( p ) plot, is small and can often be neglected. Noting this, Standing fitted the following form: 1 ( a + cF ) K = -- 10 p with: a = 1.20 + 4.5 10 c = 0.89 1.7 10
4
[EQ 8.75]
p + 15.0 10
8 2
p 3.5 10 p
8 2
where F is the Hoffmann et al. characterization factor, refer to [EQ 8.39]. As most separators are operated at pressures less than 1000 psia, the so-called Standing K -values provide a reasonable test of the quality of the calculated separator data and can be used as an alternative for blackoil table generation etc., when no such actual data is available. The feed to each stage of the separator can be calculated given the compositions of liquid and vapor resulting from the separator flash, the GOR and the liquid density. It can be shown that the phase split is given by F ( 1 + F ) where: ( GP std M ) F = --------------------------( RT std oil ) where: G is the GOR (gas at STC, oil at stage conditions) M is the molar weight of oil, that is
[EQ 8.78]
xi Wi
i
328
Recovery calculations
For reservoirs whose initial pressure, p init , is greater than its saturation pressure, p sat , estimates of fluid recovery can be made if the Z -factors in the range p init p p sat are known. Note Above the saturation pressure, no compositional changes in the fluid take place so for a unit volume of the fluid at isothermal conditions:
n1 Z1 n2 Z2 ----------- = ----------p1 p2
[EQ 8.79]
Starting with 100 moles of fluid at the initial reservoir pressure, the number of moles at some pressure p j above the saturation pressure is: nj
left
= 100 n j
rem
[EQ 8.80]
where: nj
rem
[EQ 8.81]
At pressures below the saturation pressure, the produced moles are known from the CVD experiment. The fluid at each stage can then be flashed to surface conditions, using separator or Standings K -values to get the volumes of liquid and vapor that could be expected at the surface, assuming 100% efficiency in the separators. An option exists to produce liquid along with gas, in a ratio defined by input relative permeabilities, using the technique described in Reudelhuber and Hinds, refer to [Ref. 37].
329
Equation of state
General information
PVTi allows you to fit data to an Equation of State. See "The fluid model" on page 109 and "Batch system and keywords" on page 163 for further information on how to define Equations of State in PVTi. This section of the manual contains information on: "Material balance" on page 330. "Flash calculations" on page 330. "Equation of state formulation" on page 331. "Surface tensions" on page 334. "Three-parameter equation of state" on page 335. "Binary interaction coefficients" on page 353.
Material balance
We consider a hydrocarbon system consisting of one mole of mixture or feed of composition z i . In general, this consists of: L moles of liquid of composition x i V moles of vapor of composition y i at some pressure and temperature, p and T .
xi
i
yi
i
zi
i
= 1
[EQ 8.83]
Lx i + Vy i = z i
[EQ 8.84]
Flash calculations
For a thermodynamic system to be in equilibrium it is further required that the fugacities in the liquid and vapor phases must be equal for each component: f iL = f iV
[EQ 8.85]
The equations [EQ 8.82] to [EQ 8.85] in the unknowns L , V , x i and y i may be solved to find the equilibrium state of a system of known composition z i .
330
The fugacities are functions of temperature, pressure and composition (see "Equation of state formulation" on page 331), f i = f i ( T , p, x i) The fugacities can be calculated directly from an equation of state. Defining equilibrium constants K i for each component as: y K i = ---i xi the mole fractions of each component in the liquid and vapor phases are defined as: zi x i = ------------------------------------[ 1 + ( K i 1 )V ] and Ki zi y i = ------------------------------------[ 1 + ( K i 1 )V ]
[EQ 8.87] [EQ 8.86]
The flash calculation determining the equilibrium conditions in the two-phase region is performed in two stages: Use Michelsens stability criterion, [Ref. 16], to establish how many phases are present. The stationary condition used to determine the Gibbs energy minimum is obtained using successive substitution accelerated with the general dominant eigenvalue method, [Ref. 8], switched to BFGS minimization near the minimum, [Ref. 9]. If two phases are present, solve the phase split calculation to obtain equal fugacity liquid and vapor states. The solution variables used are J i = log ( K i ) and the vapor mole fraction. The stability check provides an initial set of values, which are refined using accelerated successive substitutions, and finally solved using a full NewtonRaphson method. In the case of finding a saturation pressure, that is a bubble point for an oil or a dew point for a condensate, the same N -fugacity equations are used, [EQ 8.85], and a constraint based upon the difference in the sum of vapor and liquid mole fractions, [EQ 8.83]. Rather than iterating to find the vapor fraction, V , or liquid fraction L = 1 V , from [Ref. 1], V is set to 0 (zero - bubble point) or 1 (one - dew point) and we vary pressure until the set of conditions is satisfied.
331
The equations of state listed above are implemented using the formulation presented by Martin, [Ref. 2], and Coats, [Ref. 3]. The equation of state for a real fluid is: PV = nRTZ
[EQ 8.88]
where P is the pressure, V the volume, n the number of moles, R the universal gas constant, T the temperature and Z is obtained from the solution of the cubic equation: Z + E2 Z + E1 Z + E0 = 0 with E 2 = ( m 1 + m 2 1 )B 1 E 1 = A ( 2 ( m 1 + m 2 ) 1 )B ( m 1 + m 2 )B and E 0 = [ AB + m 1 m 2 B ( B + 1 ) ] The coefficients m 1 and m 2 depend upon the equation used:
2
[EQ 8.92] [EQ 8.90]
[EQ 8.89]
[EQ 8.91]
m 1 value
0 0 0
m 2 value
1 1 1
1+
The cubic equation for the Z -factors may be solved to obtain Z -factors for liquid and vapor phases. Generally three solutions are obtained. The distinction between the liquid and vapor phase is then made by choosing the smallest root as the Z -factor for the liquid phase and the largest root as the Z -factor for the vapor phase. Fugacity coefficients are calculated using: ( Z + m2 B ) Bi 2S i B fi A ln ------ = ln ( Z B ) + ---------------------------- ------- ----i ln ------------------------- + ---- ( Z 1 ) ( m 1 m 2 )B A ( Z + m1 B ) B B px i where Si =
[EQ 8.93]
Aij x j
n n
[EQ 8.94]
A =
j = 1k = 1
( x j x k A jk )
[EQ 8.95]
332
B =
j=1
( xj Bj )
1 -2
[EQ 8.96]
A jk = ( 1 k jk ) ( A j A k )
[EQ 8.97]
and k jk are binary interaction coefficients, normally between hydrocarbons and nonhydrocarbons. These four equations, [EQ 8.94] to [EQ 8.97], express the mixing laws used in all the equations of state. The variables A j and B j are defined by the following equations: p rj A j = A ( T, j ) -----2 T rj and p rj B j = B ( T, j ) -----T
rj
[EQ 8.99] [EQ 8.98]
A ( T, j ) and B ( T, j ) used in equations [EQ 8.98] and [EQ 8.99] are functions of the acentric factor and the reduced temperature T rj .
For Redlich-Kwong
1 -2 A ( T, j ) = A T rj 0
[EQ 8.100]
B ( T, j ) = B 0
[EQ 8.101]
For Soave-Redlich-Kwong
1 2 -- 2 2 A ( T, j ) = A 1 + ( 0.48 + 1.57 j 0.17 j ) 1 T rj 0
[EQ 8.102]
B ( T, j ) = B . 0
[EQ 8.103]
For Zudkevitch-Joffe
1 -2 A ( T, j ) = A F aj ( T )T rj 0
[EQ 8.104]
B ( T, j ) = B F bj ( T ) 0
[EQ 8.105]
333
For Peng-Robinson
1 2 -- 2 2 A ( T, j ) = A 1 + ( 0.37464 + 1.54226 j 0.2669 j ) 1 T rj 0
[EQ 8.106]
B ( T, j ) = B 0
2 3
[EQ 8.107]
The normal PR form can be optionally modified for large acentric factor, using the factor ( 0.379642 + 1.48503 j 0.164423 j + 0.016666 j ) rather than ( 0.37464 + 1.54226 j 0.2699 j ) for j > 0.49 . This correction is invoked by use of the PRCORR keyword or interactively from the Equation of State panel. For further information see "The fluid model" on page 109. A and B are constants depending upon the equation of state: 0 0
2
0.4274802 0.457235529
0.086640350 0.077796074
Note
In the program, these default values may be over-written on a component basis either interactively, or by the use of the OMEGAA and OMEGAB keywords.
Zudkevitch-Joffe equation
The Zudkevitch-Joffe equation contains additional temperature factors, denoted F aj ( T ) and F bj ( T ) , multiplying the usual RK temperature dependence. These are adjusted to match the pure-component fugacity values along the vapor pressure line, and to observe the correct component liquid density. In the program the required variation of component saturation pressure and liquid density with temperature are obtained using correlations of Reidel, and Gunn and Yamada. These correlations require the input of the normal boiling point and the reference liquid density at a specified reference temperature.
Surface tensions
The surface tension between the liquid and vapor phase of a multi-component mixture can be estimated by the Macleod-Sugden relationship, [Ref. 18]:
1 -4 mix = Nc
i=1
[ Pi ] ( m xi m yi )
Liq
Vap
[EQ 8.108]
334
where [ P i ] is the parachor of the i component, see [Ref. 18], which has a liquid and vapor mole fraction of x i and y i respectively, and the liquid and vapor molar densities are m
Liq
th
and m
Vap
[Ref. 18] and the molar volumes are expressed in gmoles/ cm then the surface tension have units of dynes/cm.
i=1
zi ci
[EQ 8.109]
where: V mol,p is the molar volume of the phase p = (liquid, vapor) predicted by the traditional (two-parameter) Equation of State z i = ( x i ,y i ) are the liquid and vapor mole compositions c ri constitute a set of volume corrections.
EoS
The component corrections are usually related to the set of dimensionless shift parameters, s i , by: c ri s i = -----bi where: RT ci b i = b, i ---------- . p
ci
[EQ 8.111] [EQ 8.110]
335
Shift parameters
No Temperature Dependence (None) In the simplest case, where the Volume Shift dependence is None, the Shift parameters for the inorganic and light hydrocarbon components are calculated using the temperature-dependent correlations given by Sreide, [Ref. 34]. The functional form of these polynomials depends on whether the PR or SRK EOS is being used and on whether the reduced temperature, Tr (= T T crit ) is less than or greater than 1. For this simple case, where there is no temperature dependence on the Volume Shifts a value of Tr=0.7 is used in the equations. In the case of the PR EOS the equation take the form:
s i = T r 0.741
1.355
[EQ 8.112]
s i = T r 0.904
3.713
[EQ 8.113]
where, for each component, s i is the dimensionless Volume Shift, factor and, as mentioned above,
i the acentric
T r =0.7.
For heavier components ( M w > 90 ) the shifts are estimated on a component by component basis as the difference in the calculated single component molar volume using the two-parameter Equation of State at the components reference pressure and temperature (often 60 F and 14.7 psia), and the reference molar volume (mole weight divided by reference density). The shift parameters of the heavier components are potential regression variables and are added to the allowed set if you request either the PR3 or the SRK3 Equation of State. Experience has shown that simultaneous matches to saturation pressure and density can be achieved more easily as a result, and therefore the use of these Equations of State in PVTi is recommended. One obvious deficiency of this model is that the shift coefficients, c i , are only valid at one temperature. If one attempts to model the change of molar volume of a pure component, such as Hexane, with temperature using, say, the PR3 Equation of State, and compares that against the known thermal expansion coefficient, see [Ref. 18], one will find a discrepancy. In an attempt to overcome this deficiency, two options have been added to PVTi whereby temperature-dependence is introduced using differing methods which are now outlined. Linear Expansion Only In this model, the volume shifts of all the components are modified with a linear thermal expansion coefficient, , using the equation: c i ( T ) = c ri ( T ri, P ri ) [ 1 + i ( T T ri ) ]
[EQ 8.114]
336
where c ri ( T ri, P ri ) for a particular component is the dimensional volume shift specified in equation [EQ 8.109]. Physically these c ri coefficients correspond to the difference in volume of 1 mole of a particular component at temperature T and pressure P (pressure at standard conditions - usually 60F), and 1 mole of that component at its reference temperature and pressure, T ri and P ri . The i coefficients are determined using a formula which is a fitted functional (of mole weights) of the first ten paraffins from [Ref. 17] and is given by: i = 0.9 0.002MW i, MW i < 200 i = 200, MW i 200 is a special regression function in PVTi, and takes the default value of 0.0005 C , determined from a fit to a crude oil. Physically, it represents a thermal expansion factor, and has keyword THERMX within PVTi. Polynomial Correlations If the temperature dependence of the Volume Shifts is set to Polynomial Correlations then the equations of Soreide are used which were introduced in the case of Tr<1 in equations [EQ 8.109] and [EQ 8.109]. When the None option was set we always set Tr=0.7 and so these equations were fine. However, if a temperature above Tc is supplied to the algorithm with the Polynomial Correlations option set so that Tr>1, then PVTi chooses from a set of equations depending on the mole weight of the component. These equations can be found in [Ref. 34]. Note The Soreide correlations only cover light components up to C 6 .
1
[EQ 8.115]
For heavier components ( M w > 90 ) the thermal expansion scheme outlined in the "Linear Expansion Only" on page 336 is applied. However, since the scheme is now applied to regions where the fitted functional i is no longer valid, i is set to unity, and the thermal expansion factor, , applies directly. For this reason it is often a good choice as a regression variable for heavy hydrocarbon components if one is finding difficulty matching liquid densities. The Linear Expansion Only model has some advantages in that since the modification to volume shifts is linear, the volume shifts may be regressed for all components. For the Polynomial Correlations model, since the correlations of Sreide are not linear, you cannot regress the shift parameters of lighter components to which the correlations have been applied. Hint However, an inspection of the behavior of volume shifts with temperature, as given in [Ref. 36], shows that volume shifts generally do not obey a linear relation with temperature, and for this reason, the second method often gives better results and is the recommended choice.
337
Note
If the volume shifts are Dependent, then they are calculated so that the calculated reference density (the density at the reference temperature and standard conditions pressure) is guaranteed to match the observed value. This means that the volume shifts are dependent on the critical properties and acentric factor of the component. If the volume shifts are Independent this guarantee is broken and the volume shifts can be varied during regression. In this situation they are not affected by changes in the critical properties or acentric factors.
Multiphase flash
Standard algorithm
The conventional two phase flash calculation starts with a stability test for the feed composition, based on Michelsens (1982) stability criterion, . If unstable, a flash phase split calculation is performed to determine the two phase compositions. The multiphase flash continues in a step-wise fashion: if any one of the current N phases exhibits instability, an N+1 phase flash split calculation is performed, the resulting tested for stability. The maximum allowed number of phases is five, after that is reach no more phases are split off.
338
Stability analysis
The stability of each phase present in a multiphase regime can be tested with the Michelsen analysis, [Ref. 16], precisely as for the two phase case, using the Gibbs energy tangent plane distance criterion. However, the initial estimates for phases that will be split off are not limited to the vapor/liquid equilibrium phases characterised by the Wilson K-values: additional estimates are chosen from the following phases: Each inorganic component Lightest hydrocarbon Heaviest hydrocarbon Ideal gas Arithmetic mean of existing phases. Wax - prediction of cloud point - SPE 27629
The solutions method used for Michelsen stability criterion is a Successive substitution with GDEM (general dominant eigenvalue method) follow by BFGS if that does not work. These trial phases are tested in turn until one indicates instability, in which case the whole system is unstable, and the algorithm proceeds to split of that phase, provided that phase does not already exist. If none of the trial phase indicates instability, the state is assumed to be stable.
Systems of Equations
Material Balance, Mass conservation equations or consistency equations Consider a hydrocarbon system consisting of one mole of mixture or feed of composition { z i }. In general, this will consist of { m } moles from each of the M phases, with composition { z im }, at some pressure P and temperature T. Mass conservation gives:
m
m
= 1
[EQ 8.116]
zim
i
= 1
[EQ 8.117]
m zim
m
= zi
[EQ 8.118]
These consistency rules can be checked at the end of the multiphase flash calculation. Defining the multiphase equilibrium K-values as:
339
z ij K ij = ----------z ir ( i )
Where r ( i ) is the reference phase index chosen for component i, usually so that the largest amount of component i is in the reference phase. Gibbs Energy Stationary Conditions The solution of the multiphase flash satisfies the consistency equations and is the absolute minimum of the Gibbs free energy. The reduced Gibbs energy of an M phase system is written as:
Gg = ------ = RT
m zim ln ( fim )
i m
[EQ 8.119]
th where f im is the fugacity coefficient in the i component and the the fugacties are calculated from the equation of state. The first derivative with respect to the scaled mole numbers written in various forms:
th
phase. Where
jk = k z jk z j can be
[EQ 8.120] [EQ 8.121] [EQ 8.122]
g = z j ( ln f jk ln f jr ( j ) ) = z j ( ln z jk ln z jr ( j ) + ln jk ln jr ( j ) ) = z j ( ln K jk + ln jk ln jr ( j ) )
where
the Gibbs energy is at a minimum, and the first order stationary condition thus implies fugacity balance between like components in all phases. The second derivative of the Gibbs free energy is:
coefficient derivatives are calculated from the Equation of State being used.
340
J = ln ( K ) values
solve the multiphase flash equation for new beta-values update the compositions. Checking to see solution is consistent, that is mole fractions have to add up to one.
The algorithm has two attempts at converging to a local minimum. First method updates with direct or successive substitution with GDEM of the J-values. If it does not converge that is the fugacity balance equation residuals fails to meet a specified tolerance, it proceeding to a try continuing the convergence with NewtonRaphson/Murray method. Successive Substitution (SS) The SS part incorporates the General Dominant Eigenvalue Method (GDEM) acceleration algorithm. For details see Crowe and Nishio. The variable used are the Jvalues themselves, updated from the second form of the first derivative given in equations [EQ 8.120], [EQ 8.121] and [EQ 8.122]. The reference phase for each component is chosen as the phase with the highest mole fraction of that component, so as to scale each K value close to and below one. Newton-Raphson (NR) The NR part uses a Murray decomposition of the Gibbs Hessian to ensure positive definiteness of the Jacobian, and therefore progress towards a minimum. Occasionally, a cubic trace back augmented line search in the Newton direction indicated is required when the Gibbs free energy is found not to decrease. The variables used are the scaled mole numbers, and the reference phase is the same as in the SS, that is, the phase with the highest mole fraction.
Trace Elements
If a phase possesses a near-zero component composition, then the variable for that component and phase can be dropped from the variable list (that is not changed in the SS or NR) and its value calculated after each iteration by invoking fugacity balance between it and the fugacity of a variable that was update in the usual way. In doing so, the trace element fugacity coefficient is calculate by setting its composition to zero. If the component transcends the numerical zero boundary, its variable is reintroduced into the variable set ready for the next iteration.
341
There are various initial guesses that can be implemented. Wilson initiation, proposed by Wilson ([Ref. 1]) Wilson and Antonie NISA (Non-Iterative Stability Analysis) Wilson and Stability NISA and Stability Liquid-Liquid Initiation Trebbles Vapor-Liquid-Liquid Initiation Liquid-Vapor and Wax Wax and Liquid-Liquid-Vapor Initiation. Five phase initial guess.
It was found that for a flash with wax that the wax initial guess did give a lower Gibbs free energy some of the time. For the wax initial guess we assume the composition of the liquid phase is the same as the feed. We then workout based on the wax, heavier liquid and vapor K values by:
ln y i = ln x i + ln i, V ( x i ) ln i, L ln x 2i = ln x i + ln i, L ( x i ) ln i, L ln x 3i = ln x i + ln i, W ( x i ) ln i, L
where o o o
[EQ 8.123]
[EQ 8.124]
[EQ 8.125]
denotes pure fugacity, L,V and W denote liquid, vapor and wax. y i
component in the vapor phase. x i , x 2i and x 3i are the components in the lightest liquid, the heavier liquid and the wax phase. Both result using the initial guess and standard algorithm can pass the stability test, so in the multiphase where it is possible for wax to form, we do both the four phase wax initial guess and the standard multiphase flash and compare results, taking the one with the lowest Gibbs free energy. In the case of the debug option switching on all the initial guesses and in the case for the wax possible case fail to give an answer which pass the stability test, then all initial guesses are tried and compared and the result with the minimum Gibbs free energy taken as the answer.
342
Lattice-gas models and local composition models have attracted attention through their strong theoretical basis, incorporating hydrogen-bonding and electrolyte thermodynamics respectively. Relaxation of the commonly used symmetry condition for ij s yielding different mixing rules, is attractive for similar reasons. As yet though, these approaches have found little application, and are not easily incorporated into existing Equation of State packages. Henrys Law, based essential on look-up fugacites for given solutes and solvent, has had a longer history of application to engineering rule-of-thumb problem, but is difficult to incorporate in a GEM multiphase algorithm, requires significant amounts of data, uses non-exact models for pressure and salinity corrections, and is restricted to specific solvents and solutes. The Valderrrama-Patel-Teja Equation of State is a 3 degree Equation of State that has extra terms involving the compressibility factor, and has had some success in dealing with water systems. Again, this has not had wide use, and again, has still to be corrected for salinity. The most common approach in the literature is to use the more popular Equations of State, but with some modification, particularly to the ij s used. The Peng-Robinson Equation of State has received this treatment, using T-dependent
ij s between water and most SCN groups. The PRW Equation of State is used here
details are given in "Peng-Robinson and Water Equation of State" on page 344. The multiphase flash allow three separate treatments for systems containing water that produce a water phase, each based on the PRW Equation of State: maintain the water phase as pure allow
CO 2 only to dissolve
If the given system contains water the stability analysis attempts specifically to split off a water phase before any other. A full Michelsen stability analysis is not required:- each of the above options describe a water-dominated phase, so it is enough to compare the activity of water in a pure water phase with that in the feed mixture, and reintroduce the impurities required by the option at a later stage. In terms of fugacities, a pure water phase will split off if and only if fugacity of water in the feed is greater than fugacity of a pure water (
) or:
ln ( w )
feed
where the w denotes the component index of the water. The difference between the options is then implemented in the bring-back treatment for trace components used in the phase split calculations, either none,
CO 2 only, or all.
343
Water- CO 2 bic-fitting
A particular modification to the use of PWR Equation of State is made when only CO2 is dissolved in water, in allowing for salinity effect
salinity, but the PRW Equation of State makes no allowance for this. It has been possible, however, to establish a polynomial form for the H 2 O adjusting (with a NR scheme) the
the flash calculation matches experimentally determined solubilities. With a set of such
xi xj ( 1 ij ) ( ai a j )
i j
12
b =
xi bi
i
a i = a ci i R T ci a ci = 0.45724 ---------------P ci
12 2 2
= 1 + ( 1 Tr
12
)
2
Two modification are made for water systems. Firstly, for the water component in any phase, a correction is made to improve predicted water vapor pressures:
344
12
= 1.0085677 + 0.82514 ( 1 T r Tr
12
12
when
< 0.85
Secondly, in the aqueous liquid phase, a temperature-dependent interaction parameter is used, so that the mixing rules change slightly to:
a =
when
xi xj ( 1 ij ( T ) ) ( a i a j )
i j
12
T r 0.85 , or the phase is not the aqueous liquid phase, the original PR
Equation of State is used. The temperature ij s required may be found from the published curves given by Peng & Robinson. The following forms have been derived:
C H O = 1.659T r P rw 0.761 1 2 C H O = 2.109T r P rw 0.607 2 2 C H O = 18.032T r P rw + 0.9441T r P rw 1.208 3 2 C H O = 2.800T r P rw 0.488 4 2 T c C H O = 0.4 ----- T r P rw 0.8 , n > 4 n 2 P c N H O = 0.402T r 1.586 2 2 H S H O = 0.22T r 0.19 2 2 CO H O = 0.074T r + 0.478T r 0.503 2 2
The general 2 2 2
Viscosity correlations
Three correlations are available in PVTi for the estimation of viscosities, namely that due to "Lohrenz, Bray and Clark" on page 345, [Ref. 7], the method due to "Pedersen et al." on page 347 (PED), [Ref. 5] and [Ref. 36], and also that of "Aasberg-Petersen et al" on page 349, [Ref. 64].
345
The viscosity being related to a fourth-degree polynomial in reduced density, r = c : [ ( ) + 10 where a 1 = 0.1023000 a 2 = 0.0233640 a 3 = 0.0585330 a 4 = 0.0407580 a 5 = 0.0093324 and is the low-pressure gas mixture viscosity. is the viscosity-reducing parameter, which for a fluid mixture is given by:
N 16 N 1 2 N 2 3
[EQ 8.127]
4 1 4
= a1 + a2 r + a3 r + a4 r + a5 r
[EQ 8.126]
i=1
z i T ci
i=1
z i M wi
i=1
z i p ci
[EQ 8.128]
i = 1, i C 7+
1 ( z i V ci ) + z C V cC 7+ 7+
[EQ 8.129]
= 21.573 + 0.015122M wC
7+
27.656 C
7+
+ 0.070615M wC
7+ C 7+
[EQ 8.130]
The dilute gas mixture viscosity is as given by Herning and Zippener, [Ref. 28]:
N
i=1
12 z i i M wi
1 12 z i M wi
[EQ 8.131]
i=1
where the dilute gas viscosities of the individual components, i are derived from expressions due to Stiel and Thodos, [Ref. 29]: i = 34 10
5 1 0.94 --- T ri i 5 1
T ri < 1.5
0.625
[EQ 8.132]
i = 17.78 10 where i = T ci M wi
16
T ri > 1.5
[EQ 8.133]
1 2 2 3 p ci
[EQ 8.134]
346
Hint
By making the viscosity a function of the fourth power of density, results are very sensitive to small differences in estimation of density. It is not unusual for this technique to predict a viscosity only 50% of the measured viscosity. Small changes in critical volumes or critical Z -factors remedy the error but it is recommended that they are changed as a single group, from [EQ 8.130].
Pedersen et al.
Viscosities can be calculated from a modified form of the corresponding states method. A group of substances obey the corresponding states principle if the functional dependence of the reduced viscosity, r , say, on reduced density and temperature, r and T r , say, is the same for all components within the group, namely: r ( , T ) = f ( r ,T r )
[EQ 8.135]
in which case comprehensive viscosity data is only needed for one component of the group, which is denoted as the reference substance, to be given the subscript ( o ) all other components are identified with the subscript ( x ). Generally, the critical viscosity, c , is not known but it can be estimated from the inverse of [EQ 8.135]), r ( , T ) = ( , T )T c
1 2 2 3 1 2 Vc Mw
[EQ 8.136]
Thus, the viscosity of component x at temperature T and a pressure with density , is given by: T cx V cx M wx r ( ,T ) = ----------- -------------- ------------- o ( o ,T o ) T co V co M mo
1 2 2 3 12
[EQ 8.137]
where o = co cx , T o = TT co T cx and o is the viscosity of the reference substance at T o and o . Oil mixtures contain a range of components with molecular weights ranging from 16 (Methane) to about 1100 ( C 80 ). It cannot be expected for C 1 and C 80 to belong to a group where a simple corresponding states principle applies. Generally, a third parameter must be added to account for the shape of the molecules, such as the acentric factor. Pedersen et al., [Ref. 5], presented a corresponding states principle depending on reduced temperature and reduced pressure, r = f ( p r, T r ) where: r = = ----------------------------------------1 6 2 3 1 2 pc Mw Tc
[EQ 8.138]
The deviation from the simple corresponding states principle is expressed in terms of a rotational coupling coefficient, denoted , to give:
347
T c, mix p M w, mix - c, mix - mix mix ( p, T ) = ---------------------------- ------------------------- ---------------------------- ----------- o ( p o, T o ) T co p co M wo o where p co o p o = p ---------------------------p c, mix mix T co o T o = T ----------------------------T c, mix mix
1 6
23
12
[EQ 8.139]
[EQ 8.140]
[EQ 8.141]
The critical temperature and volume for unlike pairs of molecules are given by: T c, ij = ( T c, i T c, j )
12
[EQ 8.142]
13 3 1 13 V c, ij = -- ( V c, i + V c, j ) 8
[EQ 8.143]
where the critical volume of a component can be expressed in terms of the critical temperature and pressure using the real gas law and the critical Z -factor. Assuming a constant Z c for all components,[EQ 8.143] becomes: T c, i 1 3 T c, j 1 3 3 1 -- constant --------- V c, ij = + --------- 8 p c, i p c, j The mixture critical temperature is found from:
N N
[EQ 8.144]
z i z j T c, ij V c, ij
N
[EQ 8.145]
T c, mix = i = 1 j = 1 -------------------------------------------------------
i = 1j = 1
z i z j V c, ij
Combining [EQ 8.143] and [EQ 8.145] gives: T c, i 1 3 T c, j 1 3 3 12 z i z j --------- [ T c, i T c, j ] --------- p c, i p c, j ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------T c, mix = i = 1 j = 1 N N T c, i 1 3 T c, j 1 3 3 z i z j --------- --------- p c, i p c, j
i = 1j = 1 N N
[EQ 8.146]
and the mixture critical pressure is evaluated from: T c, i 1 3 T c, j 1 3 3 12 z i z j --------- [ T c, i T c, j ] --------- p c, i p c, j i = 1j = 1 p c, mix = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2 N N T c, i 1 3 T c, j 1 3 3 z z -------- --------- i j p c, i p c, j i = 1j = 1 8
N N
[EQ 8.147]
348
M w
2.303
Mn
2.303
+ Mn
[EQ 8.148]
where M w and M n are the weight average and number average mole weights, respectively. This mixing rule is derived empirically on the basis of available viscosity data and assigns a larger influence to heavier components. The -parameter for the mixture is found from: mix = 1.0 + 7.378 10 r
3 1.847
M w, mix
0.5173
[EQ 8.149]
where the of Methane, the reference substance, is given by: 0 = 1.0 + 0.031 r Note
1.847
[EQ 8.150]
The constants and exponents in equations [EQ 8.149] and [EQ 8.150] have been found from fitting to experimentally determined viscosity data.
It has been our experience that the method of Pedersen gives much better prediction of viscosities than does the method of Lohrenz, Bray and Clark. Neither method is particularly good but typical errors based on un-regressed Equation of State data are, LBC 50 % and PED 90 % of the reported values. However, you should treat experimentally measured viscosities with some caution, as viscosities are often calculated.
Aasberg-Petersen et al
The Aasberg-Petersen model is also based on the principle of corresponding states, but uses two references fluids, methane and decane, instead of just the one (methane) in the case of the Pedersen et al. model. The usual problem with the Pedersen model is that inaccurate predictions occur for fluids with components that are significantly different in molecular weight to the reference component (methane). The idea of this model is to use a heavier second reference component and effectively create an optimum reference component by using the molecular weight of the fluid as an interpolation parameter between the two reference components. Decane is chosen as the second reference component because it is the heaviest alkane for which a significant amount of experimental viscosity data is known. Methane is a natural choice as the first reference component because of its presence in large mole fractions in most reservoir fluid mixtures The interpolation law is used to calculate the reduced viscosity of the optimum reference component (denoted with the subscript x) using the reduced viscosities of methane and decane and is obtained using the following expression:
MW x MW 1 r2 ln rx = ln r1 + ------------------------------- ln ------- MW 2 MW 1 r1
[EQ 8.151]
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MW is the molecular weight and subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the reference components. The functional form of equation [EQ 8.151] was originally suggested by Teja and Rice (1981), [Ref. 65], using the acentric factor instead of MW. This is not possible in the present work, since the acentric factor decreases with increasing molecular weight for heavy oil fractions. The reduced properties are determined from:
EE r = ----- , E = T, P, Ec
[EQ 8.152]
Subscripts r and c indicated reduced and critical properties respectively. The following expression is used to evaluate the critical viscosity (Pedersen et al. 1989):
c = C
1 2 1 -- -- -- 2 3 6 MW P c T c
[EQ 8.153]
C is a constant. From equations [EQ 8.151] and [EQ 8.142][EQ 8.142] the following equations may be derived for determination of the viscosity:
[EQ 8.154]
[EQ 8.155]
1 and 2 are evaluated at conditions corresponding to the reduced temperature and pressure of component x:
T ci T T i = ---------- , i = 1, 2 T cx P ci P P i = -----------, i = 1, 2 P cx
[EQ 8.156]
[EQ 8.157]
The model outlined in the above is extended to mixtures using the same mixing rule as the Pedersen et al. model, that is equations [EQ 8.146] and [EQ 8.147]. The mixture molecular weight is calculated using the formula:
MW mix = MW n + 0.00867358 ( MW w
where N
1.56079
MW n
1.56079
z i MW i
--------------------------MW w = i = 1
z i MW i
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MW n =
i=1
z i MW i
[EQ 8.160]
The constants in equation [EQ 8.142] are determined by regression using experimental viscosity data for binary mixtures and oils. The following equations are used for determination of the viscosity of the reference components:
0 = k ( T ) + 1 ( T ) + 2 ( , T )
9
[EQ 8.161]
k ( T ) =
i=1
GV i T
(i 4) -------------3
[EQ 8.162]
2
[EQ 8.163]
[EQ 8.164]
[EQ 8.165]
[EQ 8.166]
( c ) = ------------------c
These equations were originally developed by Hanley et al. (1975), [Ref. 66], to correlate the methane viscosity. For methane the values of the GVi parameters in equation [EQ 8.152] given by Hanley et al. were maintained. For decane GV4-GV9 are equal to zero and GV1-GV3 were taken from the DIPPR tables (1985). All the parameters in equations [EQ 8.59]-[EQ 8.165] were estimated. In Table 8.10, data of the parameter estimation are given and Table 8.11 lists all parameters for the pure component viscosity correlation. Of the parameters in Table 8.11 are used the viscosity is obtained in
Table 8.10
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Table 8.11
GV1 GV2 GV3 GV4 GV5 GV6 GV7 GV8 GV9 A.100 B C F j1 j2 j3 j4 j5 j6 j7
-209097 264276 -147282 47164 -9491.9 1220.0 -96.28 4.274 -0.0814 23946 343.79 0.4487 168.0 -22.768 30.574 -14929 1061.5 -1.4748 290.62 30396
The density of the reference components as a function of the pressure and temperature is also required in equations [EQ 8.48] and [EQ 8.165]. For methane, as with the Pedersen model, the 33-parameter MBWR-equation given by McCarthy (1974), [Ref. 67], was used to calculate the density. For decane we decided to used the flash available within PVTi to obtain the density at a given pressure and temperature.
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Finally, the following physical properties for methane and decane were used in Table 8.12 below when required. Table 8.12 Physical Properties of Methane and Decane Methane Tc Pc MW
190.55 45.39 16.043 0.008 0.1649
Decane
617.40 20.18 142.284 0.484 0.2269
The predictions of the Aasberg-Petersen model have been shown to agree well with experimental data over large pressure and temperature ranges. In particular this model is able to handle mixtures with CO2, paraffinic and aromatic components with better accuracy than the Pedersen model. A better match is also obtained than the Pedersen model for heavier oils, where the size and shape of the molecules differ substantially from the single reference component (methane). Note It should be noted that the Aasberg-Petersen model is not recommended for fluids with large concentrations of napthalenic components.
Eitherway, they might be thought of as the fiddle-factors for the equation of state. Strictly, they should be determined for all possible binary mixtures of hydrocarbons and non-hydrocarbons by tuning their value to get a match between experimental and theoretical (Equation of State) behavior. Thus, each new Equation of State requires that a completely new set of binaries be developed: a laborious task indeed. This is the main reason why the Soave-Redlich-Kwong and Peng-Robinson Equations of State tend to dominate in reservoir applications. Caution Many authors have suggested that binaries are the obvious Equation of State parameter to adjust to match Equation of State to laboratory results, especially the Methane to plus-fraction binary. However, Pedersen et al., [Ref. 30], have shown that this is problematic.
Given that our preferred Equation of State is the Peng-Robinson, we derive binaries from one of two sources.
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The current default is to assume they are zero for all hydrocarbon-hydrocarbon interactions except for Methane to heavier hydrocarbons that vary like: K C , j = 0.14 j 0.06 1
[EQ 8.168]
where j is the (liquid) specific gravity of the heavier component. In addition, the hydrocarbon to non-hydrocarbon interactions take certain fixed values, see [Ref. 4]. The alternative set, activated by the appropriate option switch is a set due to Cheuh and Prausnitz, see [Ref. 32]. The hydrocarbon to non-hydrocarbon interactions are as above but the hydrocarbon to hydrocarbon binaries are given by: 2 ( V V ) 1 6 6 c, i c, j K i, j = A 1 ------------------------------------- 13 13 V c, i + V c, j
th
[EQ 8.169]
where V c, i is the molar volume of the i component and A is a special regression variable which is generally in the range 0.15 A 0.25 . There is some appeal in using the pre-multiplying coefficient to regress all binaries together. This preserves symmetry, which might be lost using the Methane to plus fraction binary approach of [EQ 8.169], which (see [EQ 8.169] and [Ref. 28]) can lead to strange results. These particular binaries are also given a temperature dependence by the use of an additional multiplying factor that has the form: 1.0 + TC ( T T std ) where TC has the fixed value of 0.0025.
[EQ 8.170]
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Blackoil systems
Essentially two experiments are performed on black or crude oil systems: "Bubble point evaluation" on page 355 "Differential liberation" on page 356 (sometimes referred to differential expansion).
PVTi
1 PVTi finds the bubble point by taking one mole of the reservoir fluid and using estimates for the K -values, constructs vapor compositions at a set of pressures, testing for the stability of the second (vapor) phase using the method of Michelsen [Ref. 16].
355
Once the highest-pressure, two-phase state has been found, the N equal fugacity conditions and the one mole fraction constraint (see "Material balance" on page 330 and "Flash calculations" on page 330) are used to solve for the N + 1 unknowns of N K -values and the bubble point pressure by iteration.
Differential liberation
Having found the bubble point pressure, the crude oil would normally then be subject to this experiment.
Laboratory experiment
1 Starting from the bubble point pressure, the pressure is dropped by several hundred psia, whereupon a volume of gas is evolved that is removed from the cell at the (new) constant pressure. This process is repeated several times noting the volume of gas evolved (at reservoir and surface conditions) and the volume of liquid remaining. The volume of liquid remaining at the last stage, which should be at standard or atmospheric pressure, is then reduced to standard or atmospheric temperature and re-measured. This liquid is discharged and its density is obtained. The density of the liquid at the other pressure (and temperature) stages can be calculated from mass balance knowing the volumes and molecular weight of the removed gas streams. The data usually quoted is: B o Oil formation volume factor B g Gas formation volume factor R s Gas-oil ratio o Oil density g Gas gravity (density) Z g Gas deviation factor o Oil viscosity g Gas viscosity
[EQ 8.172]
356
Here, V o , V g are volumes of oil and gas, M g , M air are mole weights of hydrocarbon gas and air, the superscript std implies standard conditions, and the summation for the gas-oil ratio is taken over the volumes of evolved gas from the current pressure, p to the final pressure at std .
PVTi
1 In PVTi, the experiment is simulated by firstly locating the bubble point pressure, as above. Then one mole of bubble point fluid is dropped in pressure and a flash calculation is performed to determine the phase split and the volumes of oil and gas. All the gas is removed and the liquid composition forms the feedstream for the next pressure depletion stage, etc. The "Definition of GOR in Diff. Lib." on page 159 program option allows three further definitions of the GOR.
Note
The first removes the stage to standard conditions and normalizes gas volumes to the volume of oil at reservoir conditions, that is:
i = p last
1 R s ( p ) = ---------------------------V o ( T, p bub )
i=p
Vg ( i )
std
[EQ 8.175]
where T is the temperature of the depletion experiment, and p last is the last pressure stage specified. 2 The second definition specifies the GOR as an incremental one, that is: Vg ( p ) R s ( p ) = ----------------std Vo 3
std
[EQ 8.176]
The third definition is the same as the default but the volume of oil is at its bubble point pressure rather than at stock tank conditions, that is:
i = std
1 R s ( p ) = ---------------------------V o ( T, p bub )
i=p
Vg ( i )
std
[EQ 8.177]
The program option "Definition of Oil relative volume in Diff. Lib." on page 160 allows an alternative definition of the oil relative volume where the volume of oil is normalized to the initial volume of oil at reservoir rather than standard conditions:
357
Vo ( p ) B o ( p ) = ---------------------------V o ( T, p bub )
[EQ 8.178]
Hint
Note
PVTi
In PVTi, this experiment is simulated in much the same way as the bubble point evaluation except that the trial second (liquid) phase is heavier than the original fluid. 1 2 The same stability test is done to find the highest two phase state and the same set of equations and variables iterated to solution. As an alternative to this high-pressure dew point, usually referred to as the retrograde dew point, the low-pressure or normal dew point can be found by starting low in pressure and iterating higher.
358
It consists of varying the pressure and measuring the resulting volume of the single phase fluid above saturation pressure, and volumes of vapor and liquid (and total) phases below it. For the single phase state, the vapor Z -factor or liquid density can be calculated from the other fluid properties.
These data items are reported along with the relative volume, being the volume of the fluid at any given pressure per the volume of the fluid at the saturation pressure.
PVTi
In PVTi, the CCE is simulated by: 1 2 3 Finding the saturation pressure which for one mole of feedstream defines the cell or control volume. Then at pressures above the saturation pressure it is sufficient to find the single phase liquid or vapor Z -factor to calculate the volumetric behavior. Below the saturation pressure, the feedstream is flashed at each required pressure stage to determine the phase split and other volumetric properties.
Generally reported is: S liq : N pro : Z gas : Liquid saturation; Moles of vapor removed; Z -factor of removed vapor;
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y i, j : x i, N : M N+ : N+ :
vap vap
and occasionally: Composition of liquid stream left in cell at last pressure stage; Mole weight of removed vapor plus fraction; Specific gravity of removed vapor plus fraction.
PVTi
In PVTi this experiment is simulated by: 1 2 3 4 First finding the saturation pressure. The volume occupied by one mole of fluid at its saturation pressure then defines the cell or control volume. At some pressure less than the saturation pressure, the fluid is flashed into two phases and any excess gas is removed to return the volume to the control volume. The number of moles of vapor and its properties are noted. The composition of the remaining fluid is calculated by volumetric balance and this forms the feedstream for the next pressure stage, and so on.
Process simulation
For the purposes of process-type simulation and/or for the definition of blackoil tables for reservoir modeling, separator tests are performed to see what phase splits are achieved when a fluid is flashed at a series of pressures and temperatures in some prescribed sequence.
Laboratory experiment
1 Most laboratory analyses consist of the reservoir fluid being flashed in a cell at some specified pressure and temperature, and (generally) the liquid output being fed to a second (and possibly third) cell at some reduced pressure and temperature: the last stage cell usually being at standard conditions. Volumes of gas evolved from each stage are generally collected together and the properties of the resulting mixture are quoted/evaluated at standard conditions.
PVTi
1 In PVTi this process is simulated by a set of flash calculations at the required set of pressures and temperatures, taking the reservoir fluid as the feedstream and routing the liquid and vapor outputs to other stages. The default output streams are liquid to the next stage and vapor to the stock-tank accumulation, but PVTi is capable of solving feedback loops, where, for example, vapor output is routed back to an earlier stage. In addition, a user option allows the output streams to be split and directed to more than one other stage.
360
Optimized separators
In the Fluid Properties (FPE) workflow, PVTi offers the automatic generation of the optimum separator configuration for a fluid. The optimum separator configuration is defined as the two-stage separator for which the stock-tank formation volume factor (Bo) is minimized. Given the reservoir temperature and the maximum separator pressure, the following separator chain is constructed: 1 2 3 A separator stage at some temperature below the reservoir temperature and some pressure below the highest separator pressure. This stage is optimized. A second stage at standard conditions, the liquid output from Stage 1 passes into this second stage. The stock tank. The vapor output from Stages 1 and 2 both pass into the vapor stock tank and the liquid output from Stage 2 passes into the liquid stock tank.
A special regression procedure is used to determine the optimum temperature and pressure for Stage 1, such that Bo is minimized in the stock tank. This point coincides with minimum Total Gas-Oil Ratio and minimum stock tank vapor Gravity. Note If no maximum pressure is supplied, it is assumed that the maximum separator pressure available is 1440 psia (source: Oil Phase).
For more information on fluid properties estimation see "Fluid Properties Estimation" on page 406.
In addition, PVTi has available: a ternary diagram, and first and multiple contact minimum miscibility pressure experiments by one-cell simulation. Note These have no equivalent in the laboratory.
Swelling test
Laboratory experiment
1 2 The swelling test consists of finding the saturation pressure and hence volume of a reservoir fluid. Followed by adding, in a series of steps, prescribed volumes (or moles) of lean injection gas, re-pressuring the resulting mixture to return to a single phase system and measuring the new saturation pressure and volume.
361
The data quoted is the set of saturation pressures for the original fluid and the mixtures and the ratio of the saturation volume of the mixtures to the saturation volume of the original fluid, usually referred to as the swelling factor.
PVTi
In PVTi this is simulated by: 1 2 Firstly finding the saturation pressure of one mole of the required reservoir fluid and hence the saturation volume. Then prescribed volumes of a lean injection gas are added as a GOR (volume of injection gas at standard conditions per volume of original reservoir fluid at its Psat or other prescribed pressure) or a mole% (moles of lean gas per moles of mixture) to give a new fluid composition. The saturation pressure and volume of the new mixture are found, and hence the swelling factor.
Vaporization test
This is similar to the swelling test, except that it is performed at constant volume and pressure.
Laboratory experiment
1 A volume of reservoir fluid at some pressure and temperature, usually below the saturation pressure and hence two phase, is contacted by a series of lean gas injections. After each contact, a volume of (enriched) gas and/or liquid is removed to return the system to the original volume. The composition of the removed gas is measured.
The experiment seeks to measure the extent of vaporization of intermediate and heavy components from the reservoir liquid phase by stripping into the injected gas stream. In PVTi, the procedure is as follows. 1 2 One mole of reservoir fluid at a prescribed pressure and temperature is flashed to calculate the phase split and volumes of liquid and vapor. Lean gas is then added in a series of steps of moles, to give a new mixture composition which is flashed at the same pressure and temperature, and any excess fluid volume removed. The composition of the removed stream is noted and the resulting mixture is then subject to further lean gas injections.
362
The vaporizing drive follows the same procedure as that of the condensing drive except that it is a specified fraction of the resulting gas from each flash that is contacted with one mole of reservoir oil. A special ternary plot is available for this experiment that plots the compositions at each stage of the oil and gas resulting from each flash, and these points effectively mark the boundary of the two-phase region at the specified conditions.
Assuming thermodynamic equilibrium in the fluid at some reference height h 0 (namely the equal fugacity conditions and mole composition constraints of "Material balance" on page 330 and "Flash calculations" on page 330), the N equations, defined in [EQ 8.179], and a further mole constraint equation can be used to determine the N -compositions and pressure, z i , p , from the reference composition and pressure, z i, 0 , p 0 .
Note
However, the compositional gradient experiment assumes many conditions: namely thermal, gravitational and diffusive equilibrium. Any or all of these conditions can be violated in a given reservoir, thus invalidating the use of [EQ 8.179]).
Note
The existence in some reservoirs of a temperature gradient indicates a lack of global thermodynamic equilibrium, but may still allow a steady-state situation, in which the mass flux is zero (that is hydrostatic equilibrium), whilst the energy flux is not. As yet, there is no consensus on how to treat such temperature gradients, and thus PVTi does not attempt to model them at the moment.
With the above caveats, the experiment may still be of use in the prediction of the existence and possible location of either gas-oil contacts or so-called critical transitions. This latter transition consists of the grading of a fluid from an oil to a gas, or vice-versa, without passing through a gas-oil contact. This occurs when an over-pressured reservoir has a fluid composition at some depth whose critical temperature is equal to the reservoir temperature at that depth. There is evidence that such behavior exists in some North Sea fields.
363
FCMP experiment
Refer to Jensen and Michelsen [Ref. 38] and Pedersen et al. [Ref. 30] for detail.
MCMP experiment
Refer to Jensen and Michelsen [Ref. 38] and Pedersen et al. [Ref. 30] for detail.
Tsat experiment
Refer to Michelsen [Ref. 15] for further details.
364
Regression
Introduction
This section of the manual contains information on: "Practical considerations" on page 365. "Theoretical model" on page 369.
Practical considerations
There are no set rules for how to do regression of an equation of state model to match to laboratory measurements. The paper by Coats and Smart, [Ref. 27], contains an appendix on the choice, selection and range limits of regression variables. However, the Coats and Smart model is limited in its choice of regression variables to the a s, b s and the binary interaction coefficients. Another limitation of their model is the use of the standard two-parameter equation of state. It is well known that the two-parameter Equation of State is in error in prediction of liquid properties by as much as 10%. Therefore, to get matches to saturation pressures and densities it becomes necessary to change the properties of welldefined components, say a ( C 1 ) and b ( C 1 ) . Such a problem is avoided in PVTi by use of the PR3 or SRK3 Equation of State, which allows the volume shift parameter to be a possible regression variable. Additionally, rather than varying just the a s and b s, PVTi allows you to change the critical pressures and temperatures. This has the advantage in that monotonicity tests can readily be applied to the set of T c s, p c s,..., etc., for the hydrocarbon components to ensure that critical temperatures increase with increasing mole weight, critical pressures decrease (except C 1 , C 2 , C 3 ) etc. For further information on performing a regression in PVTi see "Regression in PVTi" on page 137 and "REGRESS section keywords" on page 170. The present section also contains information on: "Consistency and quality of measured data" on page 365 "Plus fraction" on page 366 "Performing regressions in PVTi" on page 367.
365
Poor sampling and/or collection Bad laboratory procedures Simple typing mistakes in reporting (for example a composition does not add up to 100).
It is most likely to be a combination of all these effects. However, an equation of state model cannot be used in isolation from measured data as no two fluids are ever likely to be the same. PVTi provides you with the ability to check the consistency of CVD reports in the COMB section. For further information see "COMB - Compositional Material Balance" on page 123 and "COMB section keywords" on page 170. This test should always be done if the data is available; the results may be surprising. Simple tests like checking compositions sum to 100% often reveal errors. Another useful check is to plot pressure-dependent data, for example liquid dropout from a CVD, relative volumes from a CCE, etc., to see if they are smoothly varying. One way this can be done is to enter this and other data as OBS to compare with the Equation of State predicted values from the experiments in the SIMULATE section. For further information see "Simulation using PVTi" on page 128 and "SIMULATE section keywords" on page 170. Generally, the properties of the multi-stage experiments vary smoothly (apart from discontinuities in vapor/liquid properties across a saturation pressure boundary), so that vapor Z -factors, etc., that decrease, increase and decrease again as pressure drops in a CVD, probably indicates data error. Check the definitions of measured data. It has been our experience that what one laboratory may call liquid saturation in a CCE experiment, for example liquid volume divided by volume of the fluid at the saturation pressure, may be different to that from another laboratory, say liquid volume divided by the current cell volume. Check that a consistent set of units is being used. The saturation density of a crude oil is often quoted as a specific volume in units of ft /lb , for example.
3
Plus fraction
Having determined that the data is reliable, or having rejected either poor data or adjusted it to be consistent, one will usually find that the Equation of State predictions differ from the measured data. Most of this error can probably be associated with the incomplete fluid description, namely the failure to fully characterize the plus fraction, for example C 7+ , although some error has to be associated with the inadequacies of a cubic Equation of State. Clearly, the plus fraction, consisting as it does of many hundreds or possibly thousands of components, cannot be represented by just one component without some modification. Even then, just to represent a C 7+ of a condensate or volatile oil, which may be 5-20 mole percent of the fluid, by a single component with regressed properties may be insufficient for describing a multi-pressure process. On some CVD analyses the mole weight and specific gravity of the produced gas plus fraction are measured and reported.
366
In such a case you may note that the plus fraction gets lighter as one would expect. Then it is clearly not adequate to represent the plus fraction by a single component and one should consider splitting it into two or three pseudo-components, say using the techniques available in PVTi. The properties of the plus fraction, or its pseudo-components if splitting has been performed are the obvious candidates for regression. However, one should avoid regressing the property of a component with a small mole fraction, say 1%. This can be avoided by using the group facility in regression in which an Equation of State property of two or more components can be treated as a single variable. This grouping of components for regression should be borne in mind if the aim of the PVTi analysis is to produce a pseudoised set of components for a compositional simulation. Finally, one should always use the minimum set of variables possible. It is not possible to say what this set is for any given fluid/measurement set, but the symptoms of redundant variables are easy to spot; for example, one or more of the variables is hitting one of its limits, or there is bouncing of the reported Rms error within a small range. If the regression facility from an interactive session is being used, you have the option (as default) of rejecting the latest regression and restoring the pre-regression Equation of State. This makes it possible to vary the set of variables and test the success, or otherwise, of a given set of variables in a limited number of iteration steps, for example, 10. The sensitivity of the observations to which one is attempting to match as a function of the regression variable set is output both to the screen and to the PVP printable. This gives a direct measure to the relative importance, or otherwise, of a given variable.
367
As an alternative to 3., one might consider other properties. If the SCT-splitting has been activated, one might consider the mole weight and skewness parameter or the overall characterization of the plus fraction. These techniques have the advantage of preserving monotonicity of all the key Equation of State variables, critical temperatures and pressures, and acentric factors. If choosing the critical properties or acentric factors, one should start with just those of the plus fraction, or the pseudo-components split from it. If this is not sufficient, remember that any SCN-group in your sample analysis (for example C 6 , C 7 ,...) are subject to uncertainty because of their PNA-content. One should not have to consider changing properties associated with C 1 , C 2 ,..., and so on. However, if you have a significant mole percentage of inorganics in your fluid or they are being injected into your fluid, it may be appropriate to adjust the set of inorganic-hydrocarbon binaries, probably as a single group change.
Critical volumes or Z -factors (equivalent variables) are only needed for the Lohrenz-Bray-Clark (LBC) viscosity correlation. The LBC correlation can be as much as 150% in error and is regularly 50% in error.
Note
The Pedersen correlation appears to be much better (and is insensitive to V c , Z c ). This having been said, the fact that Z c s or V c s affect only LBC viscosities means they can be regressed independently of all other variables/results. If doing this, it is suggested they be regressed simultaneously as a single group because of the LBC functional form, [EQ 8.126]. PVTi now has independent sets of critical volumes and Z -factors, one set are used in the LBC viscosity correlation and can be selected as regression variables, the other for use in the equation of state. The latter are not available for regression as they do not affect results. 6 For characterized components try using the molecular weight of these components. This is available as a special variable and must not be used in conjunction with Tcrits etc., as changing the molecular weight of each characterized component changes most of the properties by way of the characterization technique anyway. The use of this variable is a very powerful alternative one to the approach of Tcrits, Pcrits and acentric factors etc. as described above
All observations entered into PVTi can be assigned a weighting factor that multiplies the measured minus calculated residuals, see [EQ 8.181]. Clearly, some observations are more important than others and should be given a higher weight to account for this. As a general rule, the saturation pressure should be given the highest weight followed by saturation density and then other quantities. Users who have performed several material balance calculations on CVD experiments will probably recognize that mole compositions should generally be given low weights, if they are to be used at all. The only way to perform regression is by trial and error.
368
Define your experiments and associated (consistent and reliable) observations and save them to a PVI file prior to starting regression. Include different sets of variables, experiments and observations. Use engineering judgement to decide when the best match has been achieved to the maximum amount of data while remembering to maintain monotonicity and physical consistency in ones Equation of State model.
Theoretical model
Generally the results of an equation of state model must be tuned by regression of one or more variables, x = ( x 1, , x N ) to a set of laboratory experiments, y = ( y 1, , y M ) where M N and: yi = yi ( x ) or in residual form: ri ( x ) = wi [ ( yi yi ( x ) ) yi ] where w i is the weighting factor applied to the i data, y i .
th
[EQ 8.181]
[EQ 8.180]
This section of the manual contains information on: "Regression algorithm" on page 369. "First and second order derivatives" on page 370 "Trust region" on page 370 "Termination conditions" on page 370
Regression algorithm
The regression algorithm in PVTi seeks to minimize the least squares residual ( l 2 norm) given by the objective function:
M
1 f ( x ) = -2
i=1
2 T 1 r i ( x ) = -- R ( x ) R ( x ) 2
[EQ 8.182]
where R ( x ) is the residual function. The minimum of f ( x ) occurs at some x , where: f ( x ) = 0 [EQ 8.183] Since f ( x ) is generally non-linear in the set x , [EQ 8.183] must be solved iteratively. Applying Newtons method gives:
369
x j + 1 = x j ( 2f ( x j ) )
f ( x j )
[EQ 8.184]
Trust region
The algorithm only approaches the true solution rapidly if the current estimate x j is close to the actual solution x . Generally, the objective function at any iteration j is only an approximation to the true solution. Therefore, it helps to identify a region surrounding the current solution, in which we trust our second order approximation to model the actual second order problem. PVTi employs the trust region model by defining a step length, c , which is a measure of the region in which our model can be thought to be representative. Ideally, the step-size, which is determined automatically subject to certain maximum and minimum sizes, decreases as the iterations proceed to convergence. The program uses the value of the current step length to adjust the second order derivative matrix, so that a zero or small value of c causes PVTi to solve the full Newton problem, refer to [EQ 8.184]. If following the evaluation of a step, the program determines that the objective function would not decrease, then the algorithm has a procedure for cutting back the step so that it ensures a decrease in f .
Termination conditions
A variety of termination conditions from the regression algorithm are possible.
370
Note
The required condition is that the residual goes to some small value, such as 10
6
An alternative is that the gradient of the objective function goes to zero, indicating that the regression is approaching a minimum and no further improvement can be expected. As a result of one or more steps made by the algorithm, one or more of the selected regression parameters can be pushed out of physical range. What constitutes a physical range is debatable, but it is suggested that an increase or decrease in excess of 50% of the original value causes termination. You can change these limits but care should be taken. You can request a premature termination by allowing only a small number of iterations, say five or ten. Hint This is a good practice to follow for any regressions which involve several variables, experiments and observations.
Finally, if any errors are detected in any of the experiments during the regression, then depending on their nature, the program may terminate the regression.
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Blackoil model
ECLIPSE has a so-called extended blackoil model. That is, in addition to the standard blackoil parameters, R s , B o and B g , it contains the parameter R v for modeling oil vaporization in the gas stream. Methods of obtaining black oil tables from compositional data are described by Whitson and Torp, [Ref. 6] and Coats, [Ref. 3]. In both cases the basis of the method is a constant volume depletion experiment, used to supply reservoir liquid and vapor compositions at a series of pressures. (In the case of crude oil samples, a differential liberation process is used in the same way.) The blackoil model, used by ECLIPSE, can be viewed as a two-component compositional model. The components are stock tank oil and stock tank gas that are assumed to be invariant and are assigned constant densities.
PVT model
The actual form of the PVT model for the hydrocarbons depends on whether: There is or could be liquid and/or vapor in the reservoir during its production. The reservoir phases produce stock tank oil and/or gas on flashing to surface conditions.
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Reservoir fluids
Assuming the stock tank fluids are constant, the reservoir fluids, named liquid and vapor to distinguish them from the surface fluids which are designated as oil and gas, are generally a combination of the stock tank fluids. The amount of surface gas dissolved in the reservoir liquid is given by the Gas-OilRatio (GOR), denoted R s , which has units of sm /sm (metric), mscf/stb (field) or scm /scm (lab). The volume of surface oil vaporized in the reservoir vapor is given by the CondensateGas-Ratio (CGR), denoted R v , which has units of sm /sm (metric), stb/mscf (field) or scm /scm (lab). The model uses formation factors to account for changes in volume when the fluids are transferred from the reservoir to the surface. The factors for the liquid and vapor are denoted, B o and B g , and given units of rm /sm (metric), rb/stb (field) or rm /sm (lab), and rm /sm (metric), rb/mscf (field) or rcm /scm (lab), respectively. The model assumes that the reservoir has been depleted to a pressure below the saturation pressure (liquid bubble point or vapor dew point) and consequently has become two phase. One mole of reservoir vapor and liquid occupies the volumes V gr and V or , respectively. If each of these volumes are then flashed through some separator system (two stages are indicated above but this can be variable) to stock tank conditions, then most generally each reservoir phase partitions into the streams named stock tank gas and oil.
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
where ( M gr, M or ) are the reservoir molar masses and ( M og, M gg ) , ( M go, M oo ) are the corresponding actual surface masses after flashing. Since = M V , we can write equations [EQ 8.185] and [EQ 8.186] as: gr V gr = og V og + gg V gg or V or = go V go + oo V oo or:
[EQ 8.187] [EQ 8.188]
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[EQ 8.189]
[EQ 8.190]
[EQ 8.191]
[EQ 8.192]
Strictly, the blackoil model requires that the stock tank components are constant and invariant with time.
CVD process
In the Coats method, only the reservoir vapor is taken through the separator, the oil B o and R s values being obtained by solving the mass conservation equations: sto V 2 ( b g S g + b o R s S o ) = sto V 1 ( b g S g + b o R s S o ) 2 1 stg V 2 ( b g R v S g + b o S o ) = stg V 1 ( B g R v S g + b o S o ) 2 1
[EQ 8.193] [EQ 8.194]
for each expansion step of the CVD process from V 1 to V 2 , where sto and stg are fixed surface densities, and b o = 1 B o , b g = 1 B g . The stock tank densities are obtained from the output of the separators at the saturation pressure. Solving these equations yields values at all pressures except the saturation pressure, at which the Whitson method can be used. Alternatively, a small initial pressure step from the saturation pressure may be specified. Note The constant volume expansion method is usually applied to condensates, but can also be used for volatile oils.
Differential liberation
The differential liberation approach is only suitable for oils. In this case, the analogue of the Whitson method runs both reservoir oil and vapor through the separators as before. The analogue of the Coats method uses the conservation equations, [EQ 8.193] & [EQ 8.194] (although in this case S g1 is zero for each step), sto and stg are obtained from the reservoir oil at the saturation pressure.
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An example of a typical set of blackoil data (for a volatile oil fluid) is shown below:
-- Blackoil tables for sample ZI at T = 176.00000 deg F -- With Peng-Robinson (three-parameter) EoS -- And Lohrenz-Bray-Clark viscosity correlation -- ECLIPSE 100 DENSITY data -- Surface densities of oil, water and gas: -- Units of FIELD DENSITY 50.74699 62.427970.05842 /
Temperatures in deg F
--(Constant volume depletion) --Units are FIELD --Method used: Whitson and Torp
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PVTG --PRES PSIA RV BG VISC CPOISE 0.0139554 --Saturated / --Dry gas 0.0166381 --Saturated --Undersat gas / --Dry gas 0.0206166 --Saturated --Undersat gas --Undersat gas / --Dry gas 0.0257392 --Saturated --Undersat gas --Undersat gas --Undersat gas / --Dry gas 0.0321610 --Saturated --Undersat gas --Undersat gas --Undersat gas --Undersat gas / --Dry gas 0.0339734 --Psat --Undersat gas --Undersat gas --Undersat gas --Undersat gas --Undersat gas / --Dry gas 0.0368566 --Generated --Undersat gas --Undersat gas --Undersat gas --Undersat gas --Undersat gas / --Dry gas
STB/MSCFRB/MSCF
3914.695900.034920.71605 0.01695 0.00736 0.00276 0.00099 0.00000 0.717250.0297284 0.717890.0285431 0.718200.0279877 0.718310.0277758 0.718380.0276584
4077.568010.041080.69977 0.03492 0.01695 0.00736 0.00276 0.00099 0.00000 0.699600.0329685 0.699100.0306120 0.698840.0293996 0.698710.0288303 0.698670.0286129 0.698640.0284924
4614.69590 0.041090.65591 0.03492 0.01695 0.00736 0.00276 0.00099 0.00000 0.654470.0357868 0.650290.0332692 0.648060.0319664 0.646990.0313522 0.646580.0311171 0.646350.0309867
--ECLIPSE 100 PVTO data --(Constant volume depletion) --Units are FIELD --Method used: PVTO Whitson and Torp
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---
RS
PRES
BO RB/STB
1814.69590 1.32574 2514.69590 1.31260 3214.69590 1.30116 3914.69590 1.29106 4077.56801 1.28887 4614.69590 1.28206 0.79978
0.23723
--Saturated
2514.69590 1.47369 3214.69590 1.45641 3914.69590 1.44147 4077.56801 1.43827 4614.69590 1.42836 1.16269
/ 0.18640 --Saturated
/ 0.14692 --Saturated
/ 0.11383 --Saturated
5151.82379 2.33402 /
Both the PVTO and PVTG tables are extended to include properties of the undersaturated oil and gas, respectively. In the case of the PVTG table the model computes, at all values of R v between the saturated value and the dry gas value ( R v = 0.0 ), a value for B g by adding sufficient stock tank oil to the stock tank gas (both from the flash of the saturated gas to stock tank) to give the required R v and then taking the ratio of this fluid's volume at reservoir and stock tank volumes.
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In the case of the PVTO table, the model compresses the saturated fluid from a given R s node at all pressures from the saturated pressure up to the highest pressure. The ratio of these volumes to the resulting stock tank oil volume (from flashing the saturated oil) gives the undersaturated B o values. Monotonicity and compressibility tests If you specify a highest pressure that is higher than the saturation pressure fluid, then PVTi generates saturated values of R s , R v , B o , B g , which satisfy all ECLIPSEs monotonicity and compressibility tests. The value of B g continues to decrease monotonically with increasing pressure, regardless of whether the pressure is above saturation pressure or not. Additionally, for an oil where strictly no longer has any free gas, the model can carry on compressing the bubble point gas to generate B g . It then requires that the R v is weakly monotonically increasing at p > p sat , that is: R v ( p ) = R v ( p sat ) [ 1 + v ( p p sat ) ] where v is small, say 1 10
5
[EQ 8.195]
The model then generates extrapolated oil properties, R s , B o to satisfy the ECLIPSE compressibility test: C tot = S o C o + S g C g
[EQ 8.196]
where ( S o, S g ) are the saturations, and ( C o, C g ) are the compressibilities, of oil and gas respectively, the latter given by: 1 dB o dR s ( B g R v B o ) C o = ----- ------------ + -------- ----------------------------B o dp dp ( 1 R s R v ) 1 dB g dR v ( B o R s B g ) C g = ----- ------------ + -------- ----------------------------B g dp dp ( 1 R s R v )
[EQ 8.197]
[EQ 8.198]
Alternatively if you do not want these generated points, PVTi allows you to increase the saturated pressure of the sample to above the maximum pressure used in the depletion experiment by mixing the sample with a lighter gas sample. The gas sample used is the vapor split-off obtained from performing a p sat calculation on the original sample. The model mixes this vapor with the sample and performs a new p sat calculation on the new sample. It then mixes the resulting vapor split off with the new sample and repeats the process until a p sat forms that is higher than the maximum pressure stage. If this process is successful you can save the final sample and use it in the calculation of the black oil tables.
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Note
Oil and gas properties below the saturation point generated as described above are also subjected to the ECLIPSE total compressibility test.
Note
If negative compressibilities are detected, PVTi (with confirmation) solves for intermediate points, which provide the necessary resolution to pass the compressibility test.
From these differential quantities, it is possible to estimate composite values of B o and R s using a number of formulae. Two of the more popular methods are due to Moses, [Ref. 41], and Fragor, [Ref. 40] (both now termed CM and CF respectively). Both methods start by estimating a value for B o and R s at the saturated pressure ( p sat ) of the initial oil. This oil is passed through a separator chain and the values of B o ( p sat ) and B o
CF CM
( p sat ) are given by the oil formation volume factor from the
CF CM
separator. Likewise the values of R s ( p sat ) and R s gas-oil ratio from the separator.
Once these two values are computed, the rest of the values from the lowest pressure up to p sat are found from the following formulae. Firstly the Fragor definitions:
CF D ( B o ( p sat ) 1 ) ( B o ( p ) 1 ) CF B o ( p ) = 1 + -------------------------------------------------------------------D ( B o ( p sat ) 1 )
[EQ 8.199]
and
379
[EQ 8.200]
The Moses expressions are given by: Bo and B CM ( p ) CM CM D D o sat R s ( p ) = R s ( p sat ) ( R s ( p sat ) R s ( p ) ) ------------------------- D B o ( p sat )
CM
CM
[EQ 8.201]
[EQ 8.202]
PVTi can provide all four types of black oil output, that is, the usual composite, the differential, and the two composite from differential tables. Note The output form for the differential and composite from differential tables is by way of the PVTO/PVDO and PVDG keywords only.
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ECLIPSE GI option
One possible solution to this problem is to extend the three-parameter blackoil model as used in ECLIPSE BlackOil, that is p , S w and S o , by adding a fourth parameter/equation. In the ECLIPSE pseudo-compositional model, this fourth parameter, denoted GI, is the cumulative gas volume, which has passed over the volume of reservoir liquid in a gridblock. As such, GI is equivalent to a gas-oil ratio of volume of injection gas at standard conditions to volume of oil at reservoir conditions: V stc GI = ---------oil V res
gas
[EQ 8.203]
This model determines the oil volume at reservoir conditions, V res , for the first stage of gas addition, from the GI=0.0, that is the standard blackoil model. It then calculates the gas volume at standard conditions, V stc , from the gas law:
add n ZRT stc gas V stc = --------------------------p stc gas
oil
[EQ 8.204]
where n
add
and temperature, p stc = 14.7 psia, T stc = 60.0 F , and the gas-compressibility factor, Z = 1. Having defined a Constant Volume Depletion (CVD) experiment and a separator network with the last stage corresponding to stock tank conditions, the model then performs a calculation of the conventional extended blackoil tables. This defines the GI=0.0 data. It then adds lean gas to the reservoir fluid in a series of stages and generates the blackoil table with the mixture. The ratio of the non-zero GI blackoil properties and the GI=0.0 properties defines a set of GI-multipliers. This gives a two-dimensional set of tables in ( p , GI) to describe the fluid behavior. Detailed evaluations of the models performance have been undertaken and with favourable conditions and tuning against a full compositional treatment, this model can give reliable predictions.
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It is envisaged that generally you will want to run ECLIPSE Compositional in compositional (Equation of State) mode. However, in blackoil mode, ECLIPSE 300 reads the same PVTO and PVTG tables as used in ECLIPSE BlackOil. In K -value mode, you must specify a set of K -values for each component at a set of pressures spanning the operating pressure region. You can generate these, as in PVTi, by performing a CVD experiment on the reservoir fluid.
Compositional mode
The Equation of State mode is essentially the same as that employed by PVTi for its flash, saturation pressure, etc., calculations. You must specify the number of components, the Equation of State required (the same set as available in PVTi), and the critical properties, acentric factors, binary interaction coefficients, compositions, etc. Clearly, the more components used, the more accurate the simulation (assuming the component set has been optimised to measured data); however, such simulations require more CPU time. Hint If running ECLIPSE Compositional in fully implicit mode, more than six or seven components may become prohibitive for all but the largest of supercomputers or workstations, in which case you should consider pseudoisation of this fluid system to fewer components.
Water properties
ECLIPSE and VFPi consider water to be non-volatile (only exists as liquid water) and immiscible with the hydrocarbon phases (water cannot dissolve in the hydrocarbons or vice-versa). This simplifies the PVT treatment of water. If water is present, the variation of water volume in the reservoir with pressure, V w ( p ) , is defined with respect to the volume of water at surface conditions, V stw , by the formation volume factor, B w , where: Vw ( p ) B w ( p ) = -------------V stw which has units of rm /sm (metric), rb/stb (field) or rcm /scm (lab). Note Note that VFP only supports metric and field units.
3 3 3 3
[EQ 8.205]
Within the models, B w is defined in terms of the B w at some reference pressure, p ref :
382
B w ( p ref ) B w ( p ) = -----------------------------2 (1 + X + X ) where X = C w ( p p ref ) and C w is the water compressibility which is defined as: 1 dB w C w = ------ --------- p = p ref B w dp that has units of barsa
1
[EQ 8.206]
[EQ 8.207]
[EQ 8.208]
(metric), psia
(field) or atmos
(lab).
Water viscosity is modeled in the same way as the formation volume factor: w ( p ref ) w ( p ) = ----------------------------2 (1 + Y + Y ) where Y = C w ( p p ref ) and C w is the water viscosibility which is defined as: 1 d w C w = ------ --------- p = p ref w dp that also has units of barsa
1
[EQ 8.211] [EQ 8.210] [EQ 8.209]
(metric), psia
(field) or atmos
(lab).
An additional complication can arise if the effect of salt (brine) concentration is to be modeled (ECLIPSE BlackOil and GI option only). See the ECLIPSE keyword PVTWSALT for further details in this case. Note Correlations for generating default values for all the above correlations can be found in [Ref. 33].
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The API Tracking facility essentially replaces the concept of PVT regions for oil. The PVT tables used for determining the oil properties are selected at each time step according to the average API of the oil in each grid block (or to be more precise, its average surface density). A mass conservation equation is solved at the end of each time step to update the oil surface density in each grid block, to model the mixing of the different oil types. When using ECLIPSE BlackOil, the API Tracking facility is turned on by the keyword API in the RUNSPEC section. In dead oil systems the keyword RSCONSTT cannot be used with API tracking, but RSCONST (defining a uniform R s value over the whole field) can be used.
You can then specify whether they want a gas table for each sample. Normally the API Tracking option in ECLIPSE only uses a different oil table for each sample and just a single gas table is used, as explained in the next section, and so this is the default. If this default option is used then PVTi exports a single gas table for the sample with the median gas density at surface conditions. The separator and units to use for the export can be specified in the normal way. You can also specify a few other straightforward options such as whether to write to full double precision and whether to plot the tables. When the export is performed PVTi orders the tables so that the oil surface densities increase monotonically with table number, which is a requirement of ECLIPSE. Each table also has comments associated with it specifying which sample the table is linked to and what the oil surface density is for this particular table. ECLIPSE requires that the Rs ranges of any live oil tables are the same. To ensure this is the case PVTi analyzes all the samples you selected and calculates the Rs at the maximum pressure in the DL experiment. PVTi then finds the sample with the maximum Rs and then uses linear extrapolation to extend the black oil tables of the other samples so that the Rs ranges for all the samples are the same. See the next few sections for technical details of ECLIPSEs API Tracking option.
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385
386
For the 2003A version of PVTi a new ECLIPSE Thermal support module was available where you were able to interactively develop a correlation which accurately predicted K-values for each component in a given fluid. For the 2004A version this module has been extended to a full export facility where you can write out files that are suitable for use as PVT input for ECLIPSE Thermal. The motivation behind this is so that, just as you can export files to use as PVT input for ECLIPSE BlackOil and ECLIPSE Compositional, they will now be able to do the same for ECLIPSE Thermal. When you use this new export facility, they now have a choice of keywords to export regarding K-values - namely the KVCR keyword (which was available in 2003A PVTi) or the KVWI keyword which is tells ECLIPSE Thermal to use a simplified version of Crookstons equation called Wilsons formula. In addition PVTi also exports a series of other keywords enabling ECLIPSE Thermal to calculate properties of the feed fluid such as oil density, gas density and oil/gas phase enthalpies. For a technical description of how these keywords exported by PVTi are used in ECLIPSE Thermal see "ECLIPSE Thermal Export Module" on page 423. For a summary and brief outline of the nature of these keywords see the next section.
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5 6 7
TCRIT - the critical temperature of each component. PCRIT - the critical pressure of each component. TREFT - the ECLIPSE Thermal reference temperature at which the reference density, DREFT, is calculated. In general the quantities TREFT, PREFT, DREFT are not the same as the related quantities of reference temperature, TREF and references density, DREF used in PVTi. Please see
Note
8 9
ACF - the acentric factors of the components. SPECHA - oil phase specific heat first coefficients.
10 SPECHB - oil phase specific heat second coefficients. 11 SPECHG - gas phase specific heat first coefficients. 12 SPECHH - gas phase specific heat second coefficients. 13 HEATVAPS - heats of vaporization at the standard temperature. 14 CREF - component isothermal compressibilities in the oil phase. 15 THERMEX1 - component thermal expansion coefficients in the oil phase. 16 ZFACTOR - the gas Z factor for each component. 17 KVWI - tells ECLIPSE Thermal to use Wilsons formula to estimate K-values. 18 KVCR - tells ECLIPSE Thermal to use Crookstons equation to estimate K-values. This keyword contains the values of the coefficients (A-E) for each component. 19 ZI - the feed mole fractions of each component The keywords STCOND, SPECHA, SPECHB, SPECHG, SPECHH, HEATVAPS, CREF, THERMEX1, ZFACTOR, KVWI and KVCR are only exported for ECLIPSE Thermal and not for ECLIPSE Compositional. See "ECLIPSE Thermal Export Module" on page 423 for a technical description of how the values contained in these keywords are used to calculate K-values, oil/gas densities and oil/gas enthalpies for each component.
Workflow
1 To access the Thermal Support module select Edit | Samples | ECLIPSE Thermal Support | Export for ECLIPSE Thermal.... Alternatively right- click on a fluid sample of interest and select Export ECLIPSE Thermal Model.... In the panel type in the maximum and minimum values of the pressure in your reservoir and also the maximum and minimum temperature. Select the sample you wish to export the model for by using the drop-down menu. You need to decide if you want to estimate K-values in ECLIPSE Thermal using Crookstons equation or using Wilsons formula. Wilsons formula gives much less accurate results than Crookstons formula but if you have time constraints then much less work is involved in exporting this information from PVTi. If you want to use Wilsons formula then your work is finished and you do not need to go though steps 5-12. Simply select which units you want to export and click OK.
2 3 4
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Hint
If you have time and you know the rough limits on temperature and pressure within your reservoir then Crookstons equation will, in general, give you much more accurate estimates of K-values than Wilsons formula.
5 6
If you want to export coefficients for Crookstons equation then tick the box entitled Export Crookston Coefficients? Now enter how many flashes you want to perform. Unless you have very large ranges in temperature or pressure in your reservoir then the default of 20 is probably fine. These flashes generate K-values using PVTis EoS algorithm at random points in the region defined by your maximum pressure and temperature. The generated K-values are the observations used when trying to optimize the values of the coefficients in Crookstons equation.
7 8
Click the Fit Crookston Coefficients button. Another panel opens. Select the coefficients to optimize. As a rule always start with B and D or A,B and D. Now click Apply and PVTi attempts to use a minimization algorithm to calculate the best values of your chosen coefficients that gives the most accurate prediction of K-values for each component. Once PVTi has finished a results window opens with two folders. The Coefficients folder enables you to see the coefficient values derived by PVTi for each component. The Statistics folder enables you to observe the mean rms of the fit (in %) and the standard deviation (in %) of the fits for each component over the specified temperature and pressure range.
10 To view your fit click View Fit on the Fit Crookston Coefficients panel. Another panel opens. You are able to view the results by plotting K-values as a function of temperature (at constant pressure) or pressure (at constant temperature). Type in the appropriate information and click Apply. 11 PVTi now show you the observations it was fitting to for each component, that is the K-values found using the Equation of State based flash (the points) and the curves, which are the predictions of the K-values found using Crookstons formula. 12 Once you are happy with your results close the Fit Crookston Coefficients panel and click OK on the Export for ECLIPSE Thermal panel. A File | Save panel opens. Choose the name of the file you want to save it as and click Enter. A text file is created and shown in the output display containing the exported keywords. This file can be used as the PVT input in an ECLIPSE Thermal simulation. Note The default file extension when exporting for ECLIPSE Thermal is .PVOT. The save panel assumes you want to call your exported file filename.PVOT where filename.PVI is the name of your PVTi project file.
See the next section for some hints on performing the optimization of the Crookston coefficients.
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D B K ( P, T ) = A + -- + CP exp ------------ T E P
[EQ 8.1]
You are able to specify which coefficients to use in equation [EQ 8.109] (as already explained in the previous section) and PVTi calculates the values of these coefficients which give the best fit to the PVTi flash for each component over the pressure and temperature range. The following things may help you in your workflow: 1 Try doing a phase curve first of your fluid to get an idea of the pressure and temperature range where your sample is two-phase. PVTi does not use any regions of pressure-temperature space where the fluid is single phase. When choosing the values of the max/min temperature and pressure consider the following: The default values of Pmax=1000psia, Pmin=50psia, Tmax=400F and Tmin=50F are considered to be reasonable variations of conditions within a reservoir. Make sure you alter these values to suit your particular reservoir. Try to make the region that is defined by your values as small as possible. For example if you think that the maximum temperature in your reservoir is going to be 300F then do not leave the default value in the panel (400F). If the region you define is too big then Crookstons formula may have trouble getting good fits to the EoS based K-values. This is because K-values are really a function of the fluid composition as well as the pressure and temperature. See "K-Values" on page 423 for an explanation of why this is so.
The number of flashes variable is set by default to 20. PVTi randomly throws this number of points into your defined region and flashes are performed at each (P,T) coordinate in order to obtain K-values. These are the observations. You are probably fine using 20 as this value. If your region is particularly big (which is not recommended) then you may want to increase this. By the same token, decreasing this value will speed up the calculations significantly, but the fits may be less accurate. The A and D coefficients are turned on by default. You can turn them off if you want to but experience shows that you will almost always need them to get the best fits to the observations. In theory, turning all of the coefficients on should give the best fits. In practice, although you will do this most of the time, you will find: this slows the application down as it increases the parameter space to search. If you want to get a feel for how the module works start with A, B and D turned on. the algorithm finds the nearest local minimum of the objective function. This may not be the global minimum. PVTi uses an intelligent guess and the idea is that it starts in the parameter space reasonably close to the global minimum so that this is the nearest local minimum. When all 5 coefficients are switched on this initial guess technique is not always guaranteed to give as good a guess as when less coefficients are selected.
390
When you view the fits, check to see how good they are when you use a constant value of temperature that is halfway between the maximum and the minimum one. In theory the pressure part of Crookstons equation should show the best fit here. If the functional form of the line plots looks wrong for even a single component then you probably need another pressure coefficient in order to match all the components for this particular fluid. Check in the same way for the temperature part of Crookstons equation and turn E on as well if the D coefficient is having trouble fitting the observations In terms of the rms values you should expect in the fits, this depends on how large a region you define and how many components are in your fluid. If the region is, say 1000 psia high and 200K wide, then you should expect fits on the observations of 2-3% on average.
For more technical information on the ECLIPSE Thermal export facility see "ECLIPSE Thermal Export Module" on page 423.
391
Analysis techniques
Introduction
"Recommended PVT analysis for oil reservoirs" on page 393. "Recommended PVT analysis for gas condensate reservoirs" on page 398. "Consistency tests and correlations" on page 403.
392
Under-saturated reservoirs
Refers to those reservoirs that are under-saturated not only at the time of their discovery but also throughout their development. Note This class does not include reservoirs whose pressures fall below the bubble point at some time during their development, or reservoirs that are subject to gas injection.
Under-saturated reservoirs can be represented by two-phase (oil and water) simulation models, usually using the black oil formulation. For further information see "Under-saturated reservoirs" on page 395.
393
Oil reservoirs
Almost all under-saturated reservoirs, and most saturated oil reservoirs where the reservoir fluid has a critical temperature far above the reservoir temperature, do not normally require the complexity of compositional simulation, and a black oil formulation is normally of sufficient accuracy. Note Such a formulation does not allow the stock tank oil density or gas density to vary with time.
You may wish to consider using compositional simulation if miscible or semi-miscible processes are involved.
394
Under-saturated reservoirs
For under-saturated reservoirs, it is not often that an equation of state representation is of particular value, although you may find the PVTi program useful for separator calculations. Although it is possible to derive black oil tables from equation of state models, for this application it is better to derive them from laboratory data for the following reasons: Laboratory analyses generally have sufficient information to derive the PVT tables directly. It is often difficult to characterize reservoir oils accurately. This leads to difficulty in establishing an equation of state model that satisfactorily matches the measured data. To establish a black oil PVT model of a single sample from an undersaturated reservoir the following procedure is recommended: 1 From the laboratory report take the saturation pressure (bubble point) of the sample, the reservoir density at that pressure, and the compressibility (as a function of pressure) above the saturation pressure. If the field is under production there is normally data available on the producing GOR for the field separator conditions, the gas gravity ( g , air = 1), and the stock tank oil gravity (API). 3 Ensure that the GOR and gas gravity include all the separator and stock tank gases. If they do not then you can often make reasonable estimates. You can then combine this data with the reported oil density to give the formation volume factor ( B o ) at the saturation pressure p b as follows (in field units): g GOR 0.00122 1 141.5 B o ( p b ) = --------- --------------------------------- + -------------------------------------------- res ( 131.5 + API ) 5.6146 where res is the reservoir density in gm/cc, and the GOR in scf/rb. 4 5 You can find the oil formation volume factor at pressures higher than the saturation pressure using the compressibility factor in the PVT report. If the field has only been tested and there is no data on producing GOR and gas gravity then often a separator test for appropriate separator conditions are reported. This supplies a formation volume factor for bubble point oil at these conditions of separation. You can use the reported compressibilities to derive formation volume factors at higher pressures. If a separation test is reported and the field is under production, then you should rationalize the formation volume factors derived from point 2 with the separator test. 6 If no separation test was performed by the laboratory and there is no production data, then you can either use a suitable set of correlations, or, if the sample is a recombination, it may be possible to use the re-combination data to derive data at separation conditions using PVTi, providing it is possible to characterize the fluid.
[EQ 8.212]
395
Note
It is important to avoid using what is often referred to as the formation volume factor (it is actually a relative volume) during a differential liberation experiment. The oil remaining at the end of this experiment has a completely different composition from stock tank oil and this formation volume factor is usually higher (by as much as 10%) than the correct value. For the simulation of undersaturated reservoirs this differential liberation experiment is usually superfluous, although laboratories often perform it anyway.
If there are a number of samples you should follow the above procedure for each one. 7 8 Then determine if there evidence of an API gradient by plotting stock tank oil density against depth. If there is no such evidence take the most appropriate sample (or average of samples). This becomes the PVT representation of the reservoir oil. Draw a representative curve through the API versus depth plot. Use this to represent the model API versus depth relationship of the reservoir oil.
If the reservoir has an API gradient the following additional stages are recommended: 9
10 There are a number of ways of allocating PVT properties as functions of API gravity. By suitable plots, such as saturation pressure against depth, formation volume factor for a common pressure against depth, and formation volume factor against pressure, you can find a method appropriate to that particular reservoir. You may find it necessary to use correlations to extrapolate to depths above and below the range of sample data.
To be completely accurate the laboratory should perform a separation test on the fluid resulting from each pressure stage of the differential liberation experiment. In practice this is rarely done, and the volumetric data is determined from the single separation test (at the bubble point pressure), and the relative volumes and gas volumes of the differential liberation experiment.
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The correct oil formation volume factor is this relative volume, divided by the relative volume of the bubble point fluid (during the same differential liberation), multiplied by the correct oil formation volume factor of the bubble point fluid for the separator conditions operating. This derivation, of course, uses the black oil approximation that the stock tank oil density is unchanging. Solution gas-oil ratio is derived in a similar way, the value at the bubble point pressure being exactly that derived from the separator test ( R s ( p b ) ). Simple material balance of gas and oil shows that the correct gas-oil ratio ( R s ) at a pressure below the bubble point is given by: R s = R s ( p b ) ( R s' ( p b ) R s' )B o' ( p b ) B o ( p b )
[EQ 8.213]
where R s' and B o' refer respectively to the reported solution gas-oil ratio and formation volume factor from the differential liberation experiment. As well as API plots against depth for different samples, plots of producing gas-oil ratio and formation volume factor against depth (for a consistent pressure) may indicate a solution gas-oil ratio for a such a reservoir.
397
398
Data analysis
A common failing when analyzing gas condensate reservoirs is to attempt to establish an equation of state representation without thorough analysis of the data on which it is to be based. A thorough comparison of samples, analysis of inter- and intra- sample consistency, and clarification of the aims of establishing an equation of state model, allows you to determine which data is worth trying to match, what components to use, and how best to establish a matched model. You should closely scrutinize all the available samples. Some of the questions that should be answered are as follows: Are the samples properly constituted (examine recombination data and compare with correlations)? Have experiments been performed consistently and accurately (examine compositional material balances)? Are other experimental data such as Z -factors, implied K -values and liquid densities reasonable (correlations and tests of consistency)? What are the characteristics of the heavy fractions (fingerprint plots)?
During this analysis it may seem reasonable to establish alternative (modified) data by adjusting sample data to achieve material balance consistency and a reasonable fluid description. This can be a useful exercise but a good appreciation of the main sources of inaccuracy is required for it to be successful. If the sample is a recombination, the report usually contains recombination data that can be used for calibrating correlations, to obtain an analysis of separation using the COMB section of PVTi. For further information see "COMB - Compositional Material Balance" on page 123 and "COMB section keywords" on page 170. It is possible to obtain gas and condensate recovery estimates for different abandonment pressures by combining this with constant composition data above the dew point, and CVD data below the dew point. After you have analyzed each sample individually you should examine all the samples together by, for example, plotting dew point pressures and condensate-gas ratios against sampling depth, comparing compositions, fingerprint plots etc.
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Before rejecting any particular sample that appears to be anomalous, you should investigate the source of anomalies. Such an investigation may be useful in making recommendations concerning sampling techniques or laboratory analysis.
Compare this first model with the data to be matched. This usually comprises the volumetric data associated with constant volume and constant composition experiments, separator data and swelling test data. As well as the volumetric data, it is important to compare compositional data, although the possible inaccuracies in reported compositions should be considered here. Attempt to establish a model that is a good match with only a minimal modification of the data. Such modifications may be made manually or semiautomatically but you should obtain a good understanding of the effects of each modification. The emphasis is on the modification (preferably consistently) of individual component descriptions, especially those of the heavy components which are poorly defined. The splitting of the plus fraction may be a suitable modification to
400
make. Other properties to consider are the critical temperature and pressure of the plus fraction along with its acentric factor. Additionally, because of the generally uncertain Paraffinic-Napthanic-Aromatic (PNA) of the Single Carbon Number (SCN) groups, that is hexanes, heptanes, etc., these are a better option for a more limited change. If such a minimal set of modifications does not give a satisfactory match then a full regression procedure may be necessary as described for pseudoization below. Ideally this full regression will not be necessary before pseudoization. 1 Generate a black oil table from this many-component model from a simulated CVD experiment. For further information on defining experiments in PVTi see "Defining Experiments" on page 128. Decide upon an appropriate set of pseudo-components, bearing in mind the objectives of the study. Use the grouping option to generate the pseudocomponent model from the many-component model. In many cases about six pseudo-components is appropriate. Compare the predictions of the pseudo-component model with the laboratory data. Use the automatic regression procedure to modify the representation. The emphasis now is on obtaining a good match to the data and the results of the many-component model. Fairly coarse matching parameters may be required. Modify parameters for which a small change has a large effect. (The matrix of sensitivities produced by the regression algorithm may be useful here.) You should try several sets of regression parameters and you should compare the predictions over the whole area of interest (including mixing of dry and wet gases) with the predictions of the many-component model and with the data (where available). When pseudoizing, the ideal grouping results in minimal predictive change from the original system. This is not always possible and some small changes in the group properties may be necessary. If there are problems matching reservoir data and separator data simultaneously then it is possible to divorce the two in ECLIPSE for compositional simulation, using different values and binary interaction coefficients for the separators, or using K -values for the separators. It is also possible to account for temperature variation using the temperaturedependent volume shift. By matching separator volumetric properties first, that is at or near surface temperature where the volume shifts are actually defined, you can then attempt to match to reservoir volumetric properties, at the elevated reservoir temperature, by using the thermal expansion coefficient that is available as a regression variable. One advantage of the above procedure is that it addresses directly one of the main problem areas in this type of work: the characterization of the heavy fractions. These components have an effect on fluid behavior that far outweighs their sometimes small mole fractions. You always rationalize any splitting performed with any true boiling point (TBP) distillation data available, fingerprint plots, correlations etc. A second advantage of the recommended procedure is that it allows (through the many-component model) a good understanding of the character of the fluid. A third advantage is that if it is possible to obtain a good match to the laboratory data with minimal modification of the pure many-component equation of state model then it is more likely that accurate predictions are obtained away from the measured data.
3 4
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Note
A cubic equation of state can only supply approximations to the behavior of fluids. This must be borne in mind when matching laboratory data, but especially when extrapolating outside the area of data control. By the same token, laboratory analyses of samples only normally supply an approximation to the sample behavior and the sample itself is only an approximation to the reservoir fluid.
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403
K-value checks
The Hoffmann-Crump-Hocott (HCH) technique consists of plotting the logarithm of the product of the K -value and the pressure against a characterization factor for each component. HCH found that at any given pressure this data plotted close to a straight line, at least for the pure components. It is possible to check K -values derived from the (calculated) liquid and (reported) gas compositions during the various stages of the CVD experiment. For further information on defining experiments in PVTi see "Report" on page 124. This technique is also useful for checking the recombination of samples. It forms the basis of Standings method for performing separator calculations, discussed later. Another good check of the K -values from a CVD experiment is to plot them against the logarithm of pressure for each component. This allows an estimation of the apparent convergence pressure, which then allows cross-checking against NGAA tables.
Viscosity calculations
Laboratories generally do not have the equipment for measuring gas viscosities and usually calculate viscosities based on the Carr, Kobaysahi and Burrows correlation. Other correlations exist, such as the "Lohrenz, Bray and Clark" on page 345 method and the "Pedersen et al." on page 347 corresponding states technique. These different correlations often yield markedly different predicted viscosities. Ideally, a consistent correlation should be used throughout the reservoir engineering analysis, from the well test analysis used to derive permeabilities to the reservoir simulation. ECLIPSE accepts a set of critical volumes (entered with VCRITVIS or ZCRITVIS), which are only used for viscosity calculations, in order that significant changes in V c values used to match viscosity correlations do not effect the remainder of the simulation.
Separator calculations
Standing evolved a method for calculating K -values for separators, based on the HCH method. For each component, a b -factor is calculated at the separator temperature. HCH suggested that this b -factor is based on pure component normal boiling points and critical temperatures. Standing suggested a slightly different set but this probably only applied to the particular oil he was considering. b -factors obtained by the HCH method may be used in PVTi to generate separator K -values. An alternative is to use those derived from recombination data, though these should first be checked against those obtained using the HCH method.
404
From the K -values derived in this way, PVTi can calculate the condensate and oil recoveries for a given separator system. Separator liquid densities are based on the Alani-Kennedy correlation (see "Alani-Kennedy liquid densities" on page 324)and stock tank densities are calculated using Amagat's law (addition of specific volumes). Another method of calculating recovery factors is to assume stabilized liquid consists of, say, the Pentanes plus fraction, whilst the stabilized gas consists of the other, lighter components. With these assumptions, recoveries down to the last pressure in the CVD experiment are commonly reported in laboratory analyses in units of gallons of condensate per mscf of wet gas. Laboratories calculate these using Amagats law. You can perform these calculations in PVTi using input specific gravities and molecular weights.
Recovery calculations
From input CCE, CVD data and the separation system, PVTi can calculate gas and condensate recovery factors from any supplied initial reservoir pressure to any supplied abandonment pressure, for a depletion scenario.
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Minimum information
In fluid property estimation the following data provide sufficient information to construct a complete set of example experiments: Weight percentage of each component (or mole fractions) The mole weight of the plus fraction A salutatorian pressure (bubble or dew point) The maximum pressure to use when constructing a depletion experiment (the default is to use the saturation pressure.
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Optimized separator
An optimized separator calculation can be performed. The method for this is discussed in "Optimized separators" on page 361.
Technical Information
The default settings for the PVTi fluid properties estimation are in Table 8.13. Table 8.13 PVTi defaults for Fluid Property Estimation Property
Equation of state Library for component properties Correlations for plus-fraction properties Viscosities
Value
Peng-Robinson 3-parameter (corrected) Katz-Firoozabadi Kesler-Lee Lohrenz-Bray-Clark
The equation-of-state and the viscosity model can be changed using PVTi: Edit | Fluid Model | Equation of State... The component library in use can be selected in PVTi: Utilities | Program | Options... The correlation used for the plus-fraction can be changed in PVTi: Edit | Fluid Model | Components...
407
In "Weighting observations for regression" on page 412, there is a discussion on weighting the observation data to get the desired fit. This chapter does not contain a mathematical description of the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm, that can be found in "Weighting observations for regression" on page 412.
Critical properties
For pure library components, particularly the non-hydrocarbons and lighter hydrocarbons, the acentric factor () and critical temperature (Tc) and pressure (Pc) are well known. It is generally not justifiable to tune these properties. Hint It is very unlikely that the Pc, Tc and of H2O, H2S, N2, CO2, CO, C1, C2, C3, IC4, NC4, IC5, NC5, and C6 differ from the library values. So do not use them in regression.
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The critical properties of the heavier components are less well determined. The plusfraction is a mixture of many different hydrocarbons and usually the properties are determined by correlations based on mole weight and specific gravity of the plus fraction as a whole. Consequently the critical properties are only as good as the characterization method that generated them. Hint The Pc, Tc, and of the plus fraction usually come from characterization. This means that they are not well determined, making them ideal candidates for tuning.
Pedersen et al. have suggested that the molecular weights of the characterized components might be a good choice of regression variable as this varies Pc, Tc and consistently, in line with the chosen characterization method, see [Ref. 60].
The basic cubic equation-of-state uses the acentric factor to consider slight deviations in molecule shape; the assumption is that all molecules are close to being spherical. The binary interaction coefficient between light components and the heaviest hydrocarbon can be used to compensate for the non-sphericity of the heavy hydrocarbon molecules.
A and B coefficients
The default values of A and B are based on the following assumptions: 1 2 3 The critical isotherm of a component has a slope of zero and an inflection point at the critical point. In laymans terms this means that the component is pure. That the determination carried out, for the limited number of pure components available, can be extrapolated to all heavier and lighter components. The values were valid for pure-component density and vapor pressure below critical temperature.
In developing his equation of state, Tareq Ahmed explained why these basic assumptions are violated in many fluid models, see [Ref. 62]: 1 Pseudo-components and the plus fraction are not pure components, so assumption 1 is violated by these.
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2 3
The heavier hydrocarbons and light components may not have the same A and B as the pure components tested. Specifically, assumption 2 might not be true. Light components such as methane and nitrogen are well above their critical points at temperatures typically encountered in PVT studies. Assumption 3 does not apply to these components. The assumptions upon which the default A and B constants are based do not hold for light components, pseudo-components, and the plus fraction. This makes them candidates for regression.
Hint
This critical volume or Z-factor is only used to calculate the viscosity, so remember that in a regression only the viscosity observations themselves are used to tune these parameters. Caution As only a few observations apply to the tuning of the critical volumes for viscosity, make sure that there are no more than one or two regression variables of this type in a regression run. It is much better to put all critical volumes for viscosity into one regression variable than to vary all of them at once.
There is another option in PVTi that allows the constants used in the fourth order polynomial in density to vary. Caution This option is available so that the original Lohrenz-Bray-Clark analysis can be repeated with new data-sets. It should only be used if you have a large number of samples and lots of viscosity observations. Fitting too many parameters to too few observations leads to convergence problems for the fluid in a compositional simulator.
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High sensitivities
The first rule means that interest should focus on the most sensitive parameters, those for which a small change has a large effect on the fit. The Hessian tab of the Sensitivity Analysis panel gives an indication of the sensitivity of the different parameters. The values along the leading diagonal of the Hessian matrix are most useful, a high value means high sensitivity. Hint By removing insensitive regression variables from the set, the problem becomes less non-linear and thus more solvable.
Kai Liu has reported success with an automatic regression technique based solely on selecting the eight most sensitive regression parameters, see [Ref. 62].
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Note
By their nature automatic regression schemes do not make judgement calls that an experienced engineer would make.
3 4 5
This gives a large number of regression variables, many of which are very closely interrelated. The next step is to apply a mathematical analysis onto this set.
The total sensitivity of the set of variables was taken to be the sum along the leading diagonal of the Hessian. The sensitivity of a regression variable was taken to be the value on the leading diagonal of the Hessian relating to that variable. Note This method takes no advantage of amalgamating regression variables of the same type into a single variable.
412
Caution
Be aware of the errors in the observed data and do not be tempted to overfit. Models that are over-fitted cause convergence problems in compositional simulations.
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414
If the construction of the correlations completes without discovering a correlation greater than 90%, this combination must be the best one found yet and so it is stored and the search continues. This method is very fast and guaranteed to find the best matrix according to the criteria: 1 2 3 Highest total sensitivity (determined as the sum along the leading diagonal of the Hessian). Lowest sensitivity is not less than 1% of the highest sensitivity (again sensitivity refers to the terms along the leading diagonal of the Hessian). No correlations more than 90%.
These criteria could be adjusted, though you must take care that the criteria you choose define a weakly non-linear problem, otherwise the effort of analysis will not show any benefit for the regression.
415
Where P%, N% and A% are the percentages of paraffinic, naphthalenic and aromatic constituents respectively; is the liquid density in gcm-3 at 20oC and 1 atm, and n is the refractive index of the true boiling point (TBP) fraction. n is given by Riazi and Dauberts correlation, see [Ref. 50]:
416
n =
1 + 2I ------------- 1I
[EQ 8.215]
SG
0.9182
If a full PNA specification of the sample is available, the mole fractions can be used in the normal way, over-riding the default estimates from this splitting procedure. First enter the single carbon number (SCN) fluid; perform the PNA split, then type in the measured mole fractions.
where MW is the mole weight of the hydrocarbon and the constants a, b, c and have been determined for various basic properties of PNA species (refer to the reference for tables of their values). Note The critical properties of the PNA species can be tuned just as for any other components.
In addition to the usual set of critical properties, the melting points of the PNA species are also determined, for use in the wax precipitation. For paraffins, the melting point is given by the correlation of Won (1986), see [Ref. 52]:
f T = 374.5 + 0.02617MW 20172 -------------MW
[EQ 8.217]
For naphthalenic and aromatic species, the melting point is given by (Pan, Firoozabadi and Fotland, 1997 - see [Ref. 53]): T = 333.45 419e
f 0.00855MW
[EQ 8.218]
Wax precipitation
In PVTi it is considered that the paraffinic and naphthalenic species of components heavier than C15 can form waxes and that the heaviest aromatic component forms the asphaltenic liquid phase. Chemically, the waxes that drop out of hydrocarbon fluids at lower temperatures, are known to contain paraffins and, to a lesser extent, naphthalenes.
417
In PVTi the method of Pedersen et al. (see [Ref. 56]) has been improved to use the paraffin and naphthalene components, rather than a wax forming component. This means that the critical properties correlations for the paraffins and naphthalenes, as given by the correlations in "Critical properties of PNA species" on page 417, are used in determining the solid precipitation. The wax is modeled as a solid-solution and so we can apply an adjusted liquid fugacity and solve for the wax phase using a full multiphase equation-of-state flash calculation. For non-PNA species the solid fugacity is e cannot form wax.
50
The adjustment to the liquid fugacity is given by: h i T c Pi T i T c Pi S L f pure i ( P,T ) = f pure i ( P,T ) exp -------- 1 ----i ---------- 1 ----i ---------- ln ---- f R R T T T RT
i f f f f f
[EQ 8.219]
where h i is the enthalpy of fusion for component i; c Pi is its heat capacity of fusion; and T i is its melting point temperature.
f
Enthalpy of fusion
The enthalpy of fusion for paraffins comes from the correlation by Won [Ref. 52]: h i = 0.1426MW i T i
f f
[EQ 8.220]
For napthalenes the correlation of Lira-Galeana et. al. (1996) [Ref. 57] was used: h i = 0.0527MW i T i For aromatics the correlation of Pan et al. [Ref. 53] was used: h i = 11.2T i
f f
[EQ 8.222]
[EQ 8.221]
MW i T
[EQ 8.223]
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In PVTi there are a special set of default binary interaction coefficients introduced for the interactions between the heaviest aromatic component and the light components. This is based on the critical volumes of the components and takes a similar form to that of the Cheuh-Prausnitz binary interactions : 2V 1 6 V 1 6 ci cj k ij = A 1.0 -------------------------------- 13 1 3 V ci + V cj
[EQ 8.224]
where kij is the binary interaction coefficient between the ith and jth components; Vc is the critical volume of the ith or jth component; A is the Cheuh-Prausnitz parameter, which can be varied as a special regression variable, the value used for interactions with the heaviest hydrocarbon is 10A; has been fitted using a number of asphaltene data-sets and is 6.0 for interactions involving hydrocarbons with mole weights less than that of SCN C7. It is zero for interactions involving hydrocarbons C7 and heavier, except for the heaviest aromatic component for which it is 12.0. This scheme is identical to the Cheuh-Prausnitz scheme for hydrocarbons up to C6, when the PNA split is not made, the Cheuh-Prausnitz binaries are the same as in pre2002A versions of PVTi. For P, N and all A species apart from the heaviest aromatic, the binary interactions are zero. The strong interactions between the heaviest aromatic component and the light components creates the conditions for a precipitating asphaltenic liquid phase, which maximizes near the bubble line. Thus mimicking the behavior witnessed in laboratory tests.
Discussion
PVTi uses a consistent, single fluid model for all calculations, so the critical properties used in matching, say, the differential liberation experiment, are used in calculating the wax appearance temperature. Consequently all the observations, including those of the solid phase, can be regressed at once, leading to a more consistent and complete single description for use in both reservoir and process simulations.
419
If the composition of the oil-based mud is known, it is better to use the subtraction method described in "Removing oil-based mud contamination by subtraction" on page 421.
420
Note
The assumption that there are uncontaminated components, heavier than the oil-based mud components, is not necessary for this method.
Hint
If the composition is known, the subtraction method is a better choice than the skimming method.
421
Mixing
Mixing is an addition of the two samples. If the mole fraction of the second sample is specified, the mixture is a weighted sum. If gas-oil ratio (GOR) is specified, this value is first translated to a mole fraction at the temperature and pressure requested. The conversion from GOR to mole fraction (MF) is as follows: n Assuming n moles of Sample 2 are mixed with 1 mole of Sample 1, then F = ----------1+n F - RT std The GOR is then given by GOR = ----------- -------------------- where R is the universal gas 1 F P V std
oil
constant, Tstd and Pstd are standard temperature and pressure respectively and Voil is the oil volume at the temperature and pressure you specified. If you do not specify the pressure, it is taken as the saturation pressure of the sample
Recombination
In recombination, the aim is to create a mixture with the stock tank gas-oil ratio specified. In this case, the temperature and pressure you enter are used as the first stage in a twostage separator. The second stage is always at standard conditions. The GOR you enter is the target GOR for the mixture. This is used as an initial guess and the fluids are mixed in the usual way (see "Mixing" on page 422). When this mixture is passed through the separators, a stock-tank GOR is calculated. A regression is performed, adjusting the mixing combination until the stock-tank GOR is equal to the target value you requested. The mix applied at each iteration is recorded in the log window.
422
For a brief non-technical summary of these keywords see "Outline of keywords for ECLIPSE Thermal" on page 387.
K-Values
For PVTi 2004A you have the option of either using Crookstons equation (the KVCR keyword) or Wilsons formula (the KVWI keyword). Hint In fact Wilsons formula is a simplified version of Crookstons equation, which is explained below.
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The coefficients of Crookstons equation are written out by PVTi using the KVCR keyword. The general functional form of the K-Value correlation we use is given by Crookstons formula:
D B K ( P, T ) = A + -- + CP exp ------------ T E P
[EQ 8.225]
If a simplified version of equation [EQ 8.225] is used, given by setting A, C, E=0 that is:
B K ( P, T ) = -- exp D -- P T
[EQ 8.226]
then B and D can be calculated by using at least two experimentally determined observations. Alternatively, Wilsons formula can be used to estimate K-Values, which is given by the formula:
[EQ 8.227]
P, T are the pressure and temperature and K , P c , T c and are the K-value,
critical pressure, critical temperature and acentric factor respectively for a particular component. In fact Crookstons equation is a generalized form of Wilsons formula, which can be obtained by setting:
A = 0 B = Pc C = 0 Tc D = 5.372697T ( 1 + ) ---- 1 T E = 0
in equation [EQ 8.225]. There are also tabulated values for B and D for certain components. The central problem we face though is that K-values for a particular component are not functions of just temperature and pressure, as Wilsons formula would suggest, but also of the types and quantities of other substances present. Consider the following. If we have a fluid of say 50% methane and 50% decane then each component has its own K-value at a particular temperature and pressure. If we now add, say toluene, to the mixture then the K-values of methane and decane changes and we also have the K-value for the new component. This illustrates that changing the composition of a fluid clearly effects the K-values of respective components. Also, for heavier hydrocarbon components (anything above about C7), the K-values are an increasing monotonic function of pressure. It is clear that Wilson's formula is completely inadequate here as K=Pc/P is clearly a decreasing monotonic function of pressure. The full Crookston expression can cope with such components by using the A and C terms.
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PVTi can provide valuable assistance here because it provides its own experimental data using the flash; as we know that the flash accurately reproduces experimental observations. The ECLIPSE Thermal export facility then calculates the values of a chosen set of Crookston coefficients so that the correlation best approximates a set of flashes performed by PVTi in the pressure and temperature range you specified. This correlation is unique to the fluid sample and specified pressure and temperature range and ensures that the Thermal option in ECLIPSE Compositional is using accurate approximations to component K-values.
Oil Density
PVTi writes out the keywords PREFT, TREFT, DREFT, CREF and THERMEX1, which ECLIPSE Thermal uses internally to calculate the oil density of the fluid at a specified pressure and temperature.
Algorithm
ECLIPSE Thermal calculates the molar oil density b o of the fluid using the following set of equations: b o is given by:
b o = 1 V oil
of partial volumes: Nc c c
[EQ 8.228]
where the molar specific volume V oil of the oil phase is calculated using Amagats law
V oil =
c
c=1
x V oil
[EQ 8.229]
and x is the mole fraction of component c in the oil phase. The component oil phase volume V oil is given by: c V oil = MW -----------c
c c
c
[EQ 8.230]
where MW is the molecular weight of component c given by the MW keyword, and the component oil phase density is given by:
c
[EQ 8.231]
425
c ref
DREFT keyword); the standard temperature and pressure, T ref and P ref are defined by keywords TREF (TREFT in PVTi) and PREF (PREFT in PVTi); the thermal expansion coefficient C T1 is defined by the THERMEX1 keyword; and the component isothermal compressibility C P is defined by the CREF keyword. The quantities C T1 and C p are defined by the usual thermodynamic relations:
[EQ 8.232]
[EQ 8.233]
Remarks
It is important to note that PVTis DREF, TREF keywords are, in general, not the same as ECLIPSE Thermals DREF, TREF keywords.
426
However, if the component is not in the liquid phase (which is the case for lighter components) at the initial values of TREFT and PREFT then we set TREFT=TREF (PVTis TREF) and PREFT=14.7psia, which we know guarantees that the component is in the liquid phase. We then use [EQ 8.230] to extrapolate to reservoir conditions and calculate the properties of the component. These lighter components contribute a relatively small amount to the overall density of the fluid and we have found this approach to give accurate values of oil density. The isothermal compressibility and thermal expansion coefficient are calculated by PVTi using [EQ 8.231]and[EQ 8.232] with the appropriate values of TREFT and DREFT TREFT, PREFT, DREFT are the same as ECLIPSE Thermals TREF, PREF, DREF. PVTi uses alias names because, as explained, it has already has definitions for TREF and DREF. ECLIPSE Thermal automatically recognizes these aliases and knows that it is dealing with its own internal keywords.
Algorithm
The molar density of the gas phase b g is given by:
b g = 1 V gas
where the molar specific volume V gas of the gas phase is Nc
[EQ 8.234]
V gas =
c=1
y V gas
[EQ 8.235]
assuming no water is present. y is the mole fraction of component c in the gas phase. Each hydrocarbon component gas phase molar volume V gas is obtained from the gas law, PV gas = Z RT where Z is specified with the ZFACTOR keyword.
c c c
[EQ 8.236]
427
Remarks
The algorithm outlined above assumes that Z does not change as a function of temperature. Z is calculated by PVTi for each component by performing an EoS flash on a fluid consisting purely of the relevant component. If a single gas phase is found then Z is set to the value of the Z-factor returned by PVTis EoS code. If a liquid phase is returned then Z is set to ECLIPSE Thermals default value of 0.96.
c c c c
Enthalpy
"Algorithm" on page 427 outlines the three different approaches ECLIPSE Thermal can take in calculating oil and gas phase enthalpies. "Remarks" on page 428 then explains which of these approaches PVTi supports.
Algorithm
ECLIPSE Thermal calculates the enthalpy of the oil phase using a mole fraction weighted average of the component enthalpies: Nc c c
H oil =
c
c=1
x MW H
c oil
c
[EQ 8.237]
where x is the mole fraction of component c in the oil phase and MW is the component molecular weight given by the MW keyword. The enthalpy of the hydrocarbon components in the gas phase is calculated using a mole fraction weighted average of the component enthalpies: Nc c c c
[EQ 8.238]
H gas =
c
c=1
y MW H gas
where y is the mole fraction of component c in the gas phase. The component enthalpies in the oil and gas phases are calculated from component specific heats and heats of vaporization. Specific heat values must be given for each hydrocarbon component in at least one fluid phase. If they are only specified in one phase, then the heat of vaporization should be given. The following options are therefore available for the fluid phase enthalpies: 1 2 3 Set the specific heat of components in the oil and gas phases and the heat of vaporization at the standard temperature. Set the specific heat of components in the oil phase and the heat of vaporization as a function of temperature. Set the specific heat of components in the gas phase and the heat of vaporization as a function of temperature.
428
Solid phase enthalpies are only required in simulations where a solid phase is present.
Specific heats
The specific heats C oil , C gas of a component c in the oil and gas phases are given by
c c
H oil =
T st
[EQ 8.239]
For temperatures above the critical temperature, T > T crit , the oil phase molar enthalpy is set equal to the gas phase molar enthalpy. If gas phase specific heats are defined, the molar enthalpy of component c in the gas phase is
H gas = H vaps + =
c H vaps
c
T st
C gas dT
[EQ 8.240]
c C gas 1
2 1 c ( T T st ) + -- C gas ( T T st ) 2 2
where H vaps is the heat of vaporization at the standard temperature, defined by HEATVAPS. If a solid phase is simulated, the molar enthalpy of component c in the solid phase is
H sol =
T st
[EQ 8.241]
Heat of vaporization
A temperature dependent heat of vaporization H ( T ) can be specified instead of either the oil or gas specific heat. If the specific heat of a component c in the oil phase is not specified, then the oil phase enthalpy is calculated from the gas component enthalpy by Technical Description Fluid Properties Estimation
c
429
H oil = H gas H ( T )
[EQ 8.242]
Alternatively, if the specific heat of a component c in the gas phase is not specified, then the gas phase enthalpy is calculated from the oil component enthalpy
[EQ 8.243]
H ( T ) = A ( 1 T T crit ) H ( T ) = 0
c
c B
c
[EQ 8.244]
c
[EQ 8.245]
where the constant A is defined by the HEATVAP keyword, the exponent B is defined by the HEATVAPE keyword, and T crit is the component critical temperature defined by the TCRIT keyword. Heats of vaporization are usually obtained at the normal boiling point T nb . The constant A , defined by the HEATVAP keyword can be found by inverting : H ( T nb ) A = ----------------------------------------B ( 1 T nb T crit )
c c
[EQ 8.246]
where H ( T nb ) is the heat of vaporization at the normal boiling point. The exponent B for each component, entered with keyword HEATVAPE, is usually set to a value in the range 0<B<=1.
Remarks
PVTi uses the oil and gas phase component specific heat coefficients (SPECHA, SPECHB, SPECHG and SPECHH) and the heats of vaporization at the standard temperature (HEATVAPS) for each component. As explained in the previous section, the oil and gas phase enthalpies are then calculated using [EQ 8.239] and [EQ 8.240]. In the future this functionality could be extended so that you could specify in PVTi which of the three options to calculate enthalpies you wish to take advantage of in ECLIPSE Thermal. PVTi would then export the relevant keywords depending on which option you had selected.
430
Units Appendix A
Units
General information
This option allows the current unit and temperature conventions to be changed. The options available are: Metric unit system Field units Laboratory units PVT-metric units Degrees Kelvin Degrees Celsius Degrees Rankine Degrees Fahrenheit
Any of the unit conventions are compatible with any of the temperature options. The unit conventions may be changed at any point in a session, existing quantities being converted to the new units. PVT-metric units are the same as metric, except in that pressure is measured in atmospheres. In addition, it is possible to enter mole compositions as fractions (of unity) or percentages (up to 100%), and pressures can be specified in absolute or gauge units.
Units
431
The units for each data quantity are given in the table below. Table A.1 Quantity
Length Depth Time Density Pressure (absolute) Pressure difference Compressibility Viscosity Permeability Liquid surface volume Gas surface volume Reservoir volume Liquid surface volume rates Gas surface volume rate Reservoir volume (rate) Formation volume factor (liquid) Gas-oil ratio Oil-gas ratio Volume Specific volume Energy Enthalpy Specific heat Thermal conductivity Gas-oil ratio (oil at reservoir) bars psi atm atm days days 3 hours 3 days
Units Metric
metres
Field
feet
Lab
cms
PVT-M
metres
kg m
barsa
lb ft
psia
gm cc
atma
kg m
atma
1 bars
cPoise mDarcy
1 psi
cPoise mDarcy
1 atm
cPoise mDarcy
1 atm
cPoise mDarcy
sm sm rm
3
3 3 3
stb mscf rb stb day mscf day rb day rb mscf mscf stb stb mscf ft
-ml 3 3 -ml
scc scc rcc scc hour scc hour rcc hour rcc scc scc scc scc scc cc cc gm J
-ml ml -ml
sm sm rm
3 3 3 3 3
sm sm sm sm m
3 3
sm sm sm sm m
3 3
m kg kJ kJ kg kJ kg
ft lb btu
m kg kJ
-ml
-ml ml
btu lb K btu lb
J gm R J gm
-ml ml
kJ kg K J kg
-ml
ml
kJ m d K sm rm
3 3
btu ft d R mscf rb
J cm h K scc rcc
kJ m d K sm rm
3 3
432
Units
A number of constants that depend upon the unit convention are used. These are: Table A.2 Quantity
Gravity constant Darcy constant Atmos. pressure Density of air Gas constant R
Constants Metric
0.000098066 0.00852702 1.01325 1.2232 0.083143
Field
0.00694444 0.00112712 14.6959 0.076362 10.732
Lab
0.000967841 3.6 1.0 0.0012232 82.055776
PVT-M
0.0000967841 0.00864 1.0 1.2232 0.08205576
1m 1ft
= 0.02831685 m = 2.20462300 lb
Mass
1kg 1lb
Density
1kg m 1lb ft
Pressure
1 bar 1 psi
Units
433
T (deg K )
= T (deg R )/1.8
434
Units
Symbols Appendix B
Symbols
f iL f iV Ki L m1 m2 p p ci p ri Fugacity of component i in the liquid phase Fugacity of component i in the vapor phase Equilibrium constant of component i Mole fraction of liquid phase Constant in Martins equation of state. Constant in Martins equation of state. Pressure of mixture. Critical pressure of component i . pi Reduced pressure of component i : p ri = ------ . p ci Temperature of mixture. Critical temperature of component i . Ti Reduced temperature of component i : T ri = ------ . T ci Mole fraction of vapor phase. Mole fraction of component i in the liquid phase.
T Tc T ri
V xi
Symbols
435
yi Z ij A B i
i i
Mole fraction of component i in the vapor phase. Z -factor in equation of state. Binary interaction coefficient. Omega- A values for each component. Omega- B values for each component. Acentric factor for component i .
436
Symbols
Bibliography
Wilson, G.
A Modified Redlich-Kwong Equation of State, Application to General Physical Data Calculations. [Ref. 1]
Paper No. 15C Ohio, presented at the AIChE 65th National Meeting, Cleveland. May 4-7, (1969).
[Ref. 2]
[Ref. 3]
SPE paper no. 10512, presented at the Sixth SPE Symposium on Reservoir Simulation, New Orleans January 31st - February 3rd, (1982).
Whitson, C.H.
[Ref. 4]
Pedersen, S.K., Fredenslund, Aa., Christensen, P.L., and Thomassen, P. Whitson, C.H., and Torp, S.B. Lohrenz, J., Bray, B.G., and Clark, C.R. Crowe, C.M., and Nishio, M. Dennis, J.E., and Schnabel, R.B.
[Ref. 5]
[Ref. 6]
[Ref. 7]
Convergence Promotion in the Simulation of Chemical Processes - The General Dominant Eigenvalue Method, [Ref. 8]
AIChEJ, Vol. 23, No. 3 Page 528-529. May (1975)
[Ref. 9]
Bibliography
437
Kesler, M.G., and Lee, B.I. Cavett, R.H. Riazi, M.R., and Daubert, T.E. Lee, B.I., and Kesler, M.G. Edmister, W.C.
[Ref. 10]
[Ref. 11]
[Ref. 12]
[Ref. 13]
[Ref. 14]
Part 4: Compressibility Factors and Equation of State, Pet. Refiner Page 173-179 April, (1958)
Michelsen, M.L. Katz, D.L. et al. Reid, R.C, Prausnitz, J.M., and Sherwood, T.K. Bashbush, J.L. Hoffmann, A.E., Crump, J.S., and Hocott, C.R. Alani, G.H., and Kennedy, H.T. Dranchuk, P.M., Purvis, R.A., and Robinson, D.B. Wichert, E., and Aziz, K. Lee, A.L., Gonzalez, M.H., and Eakin, B.E. Standing, M.B.
[Ref. 15]
[Ref. 16]
[Ref. 17]
[Ref. 18]
[Ref. 19]
[Ref. 20]
Computer Calculations of Natural Gas Compressibility Factors using the Standing and Katz Correlation, [Ref. 21]
Institute of Petroleum Technical Series, No. IP 74-008, (1974).
[Ref. 22]
[Ref. 23]
A Set of Equations for Computing Equilibrium Ratios of a Crude Oil/Natural Gas System at pressures below 1000 psia, [Ref. 24]
J. Pet. Tech. Page 1193-1195 September (1979)
Peneloux, A., Rauzy, E., and Freze, F. Sreide, I., Reffstrup, J., and Whitson, C.H.
[Ref. 25]
Procedures for Reservoir Fluid Characterisation using an Equation of State Model,[Ref. 26]
Report RE 88-8, Laboratory for Energetics, Danish Tech. Univ., Lyngby.
438
Bibliography
[Ref. 27]
Calculation of the Viscosity of Technical Gas Mixtures from the Viscosity of the Individual Gases, [Ref. 28]
Gas u. Wasserfach 79Page 69-73, (1936)
[Ref. 29]
Stiel, L.I., and Thodos, The Viscosity of Nonpolar Gases at Normal Pressures, G. AIChEJ Page 611-615 (1961) Pedersen, K.S., Properties of Oils and Natural Gases, Fredenslund, Aa., and Gulf Publishing Company, Houston (1989) Thomassen, P. Abramowitz, M., and Stegun, I.A. Whitson, C.H., Anderson, T.F., and Sreide, I. McCain, W.D. Sreide, I. Handbook of Mathematical Functions
New York Page 923, (1972)
[Ref. 30]
[Ref. 31]
[Ref. 33]
Improved Phase Behaviour Predictions of Petroleum Reservoir Fluids from a Cubic Equation of State, [Ref. 34]
Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Trondheim, Norwegian Institute of Technology, Department of Petroleum and Chemical Engineering April (1989)
Sreide, I., and Whitson, C.H. Pedersen, S.K., and Fredenslund, Aa. Reudelhuber, F.O., and Hinds, R.F. Jensen, F., and Michelsen, M.L. Gmehling, J., Onken, U., and Arlt, W.
Peng-Robinson Predictions for Hydrocarbons, CO 2 ,N 2 , and H 2 S With Pure Water and NaCl -Brines, [Ref. 35]
Fluid Phase Equilibria, Vol. 77 Page 217-240, (1992)
[Ref. 36]
A Compositional Material Balance Method for Prediction of Recovery from Volatile Oil Depletion Drive Reservoirs, [Ref. 37]
Petroleum Transactions, AIME, Vol. 210 Page 19, (1957)
Calculation of First Contact and Multiple Contact Minimum Miscibility Pressures,[Ref. 38]
In Situ, 14(1) Page 1-17, (1990)
[Ref. 39]
[Ref. 42]
[Ref. 43]
Bibliography
439
Sim W.J. and Daubert T.E. Joergensen, M. and Stenby, E.H Pedersen, K. Michelsen, M.L. and Heidemann, R.A.
[Ref. 44]
Optimisationofpseudo-componentselectionforcompositionalstudiesofreservoirfluids,[Ref. 45]
SPE 30789, 70th Annual SPE Technical conference & exhibition. Dallas TX (1995)
Unpublished
1997
[Ref. 46]
[Ref. 47]
Heidemann, R.A. and The Calculation of Critical Points, Khalil, A.M. AIChe Journal 26 No 5 Page 521, (1981) Nes, K. and Westerns, Aspects of the Constitution of Mineral Oils, H. A. van Elsevier, New York, (1951) Riazi, M. R. and Daubert, T. E. Riazi, M. R. and AlSahhaf, T. A. Won
Fluid Phase Equilibria, Vol. 30, Page 265, (1986)
[Ref. 48]
[Ref. 49]
[Ref. 50]
Physical properties of n-alkanes and n-alkylhydrocarbons: Application to petroleum mixtures, [Ref. 51]
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., Vol. 34, Page 4145 -4148, (1995)
[Ref. 52]
Pan, H., Firoozbadi, A. Pressure and composition effect on was precipitation: Experiment data and model and Fotland, P., results,
SPE Prod. and Fac - SPE 36740, Page 250, (1997)
[Ref. 53]
Gozalpour, F., Densh, Predicting reservoir fluid phase and volumetric behaviour from samples contaminated with oil-based mud, A., Tehranio, D. H., [Ref. 54] Todd, A.C. and Tohidi, SPE 56747, (1999) B., Katz, D. Pedersen, K. S. Lira-Galeana, C., Firoozbadi, A., and Prausnitz, J. M. Pedersen, K. S., Skovborg, P. and Ronningsen, H. P. Rydahl, A. K., Pedersen, K. S., and Hjermstad, H. P. Overview of Phase Behavior in Oil and Gas Production,
JPT, Page 1205-1214, (1983)
[Ref. 55]
[Ref. 56]
[Ref. 57]
[Ref. 58]
[Ref. 59]
[Ref. 60]
Ahmed, T. Liu, K.
440
Bibliography
Trebble, M.A. Aasberg-Petersen, K. Teja, A.S. & Rice, P. Hanley, H.J.M., McCarty, R.D. & Haynes, W.M. McCarthy, R.D.,
[Ref. 63]
[Ref. 64]
Generalised Corresponding States Method for the Viscosities of Liquid Mixtures, [Ref. 65]
Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundam., 20,Page 77(1981)
[Ref. 66]
A Modified Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State for Methane Using Recent Experimental Data
Cryogenics, 14, Page 276 (1974)
[Ref. 67]
Bibliography
441
442
Bibliography
Index
keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
A
Acentric factors. . . . . . . . . . . . 115, 179 ACF keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 ACHEUH keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 A-coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Alani-Kennedy liquid densities . . 324 Alkanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Aromatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Asphaltene and Wax System . . . . . 77
COMB keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 COMB section keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 COMBINE keyword. . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Command line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Compositional Blackoil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 grading with depth . . . . . . . . 394 Condensate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Consistency tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Constant Mole Fraction116, 314 to 315 Conversion factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 CORRACF keyword. . . . . . . . . . . . 191 CORRCP keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Correlation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Critical pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Critical temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Critical viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Critical volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Critical Z-factors . . . . . . . . . 301 to 302 CVD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Cycloparaffins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
C
Calorific values . . . . . . . . . . . 158, 185 CALVAL keyword. . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Cascade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Cavett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114, 186, 313 CCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Cell compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
B
BIC keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Binary Interaction Coefficients . . . 115, 182, 333, 353 Coefficients default . . . . . . . . 197 Black oil tables differential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 BLACKOIL keyword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Blackoil Compositional simulation . . 394 BLACKOIL section
Cell volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Celsius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 CHAR components . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 CHARACT keyword. . . . . . . . . . . 186 Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Cheuh-Prausnitz . . . . . . . . . . 158, 180 CMF. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 CNAMES keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 CO2 Rich Fluids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Coats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 188 COATS keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Index
443
D
Data analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 DBG file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103, 196 Dead oil tables . . . . . . . . 181, 194, 226 DEADGAS keyword . . . . . . . 193, 297 DEADOIL keyword . . . . 181, 194, 226 DEBUE keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Debug. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 DEBUG keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Default Binary Interaction Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . 197 DEFBIC keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 DEGREES keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Dew point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Differential black oil tables . . . . . . 199 DREF keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Dry gas tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193, 297
F
Fahrenheit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Field units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 FIT keyword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211 Fluid definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Fourth-degree polynomial . . . . . . 346 FRAC keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 FRAGOR keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Fragor method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Fugacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 FVFREF keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
I
Individual observation weights . . 245 Internal library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Isomers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
K
Katz-Firoozabadi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Kelvin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Kesler-Lee . . . . . . 114 to 115, 186, 313 Keyword errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Keywords PVTi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 K-value checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 KVTABLE keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
G
Gas formation volume factor. . . . 356 Gas gravity (density) . . . . . . . . . . 356 Gas viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327, 356 Gas-oil ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 GeoQuest Program Launcher . . . . 31 GI keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 GOR definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 GRAF. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 GRBYALL keyword . . . . . . . . . . . 217 GRBYMIX keyword . . . . . . . . . . . 218 GRBYSAM keyword . . . . . . . . . . . 219 GROUP keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 GROUP section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118, 190 components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 GRPBYWGT keyword . . . . . . . . . 220
L
Laboratory experiments . . . . . . . . 355 Laboratory units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 LBC keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 LBC viscosity correlation. . . . . . . . 160 LBCCOEF keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Lee-Kesler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 LIB components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 Library components . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Linear thermal expansion coefficient 336 Liquid formation volume factors . 214 Liquid saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 LNAMES keyword. . . . . . . . . 187, 227 LOG files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Lohrenz-Bray-Clark . . 224 to 225, 255
E
ECHO keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 ECLIPSE 300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Edmister . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115, 186, 313 EoS omega values . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 regression to measured data. . 29 EOS keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 EOSOUT keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Equation of state. . . . . . . . . . . 203, 330 fitting to experimental results 53 Equilibrium K-values . . . . . . . . . . 323 EXP keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Equilibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Gas Reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Oil Reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 VFP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Export modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
H
Hoffman-Crump plot . . . . . . . . . . . 89 HYDRO keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Hydrocarbon . . . . . . . . . .113, 221, 308
M
Martin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Material balance checks . . . . . . . . . . 28 Maximum step size . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 MAXIT keyword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
444
Index
MAXSTEP keyword. . . . . . . . . . . . 229 MDP keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 MES file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 MESSAGE keyword. . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Metric units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Michelsens stability criterion . . . 331 MINDELP keyword. . . . . . . . . . . . 232 MINSTEP keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 MIX keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Mnemonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Modified form of Peng-Robinson 256 Modified Whitson . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Modified Whitson Splitting . . . . . 317 MODSPEC keyword . . . . . . . . . . . 235 MODSYS keyword. . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Molar volume correction. . . . . . . . 335 Mole fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Mole weight of the plus fraction . 239 Molecular weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Monitor option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 MOSES keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Moses method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Multi-feed Split. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 MW keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 MWS keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
OBSIND keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Oil density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Oil formation volume factor . . . . 356 Oil viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 OMEGAA, OMEGAB keywords. 247 On-line help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Opening a project . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 OPTIONS keyword . . . . . . . . 210, 248 OUTECL3 keyword . . . . . . . . . . . 250 OUTECL3 section . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
PVO file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 PVP file. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 PVT data for ECLIPSE simulators . 29 PVTLIB annexe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 PVT-metric units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Q
Quality control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
R P
PARACHOR keyword . . . . . . . . . 252 Paraffins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 PCRIT keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 PEARCE keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Pedersen . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115, 186, 313 PEDERSON keyword . . . . . . . . . . 255 Peneloux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Peneloux et al. volume shift. . . . . . 27 Peng-Robinson. . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 331 modified form of . . . . . . . . . . 256 Phase diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 Plus fraction splitting . . . . . . . . . . 212 PRCORR keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Pressure nodes automatic insertion . . . . . . . . 232 Probability density model . . . . . . 314 Program options . . . . . . . . . . 156, 248 PSEUCOMP keyword. . . . . . . . . . 257 PSEUCOMP section . . . . . . . . . . . 171 keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Pseudo-compositional tables . . . . 257 Pseudo-critical temperatures, pressures . . . . 326 Pseudoise definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Pseudoised EoS data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Pure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Pure components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 PVI file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Rankine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Recovery calculations . . . . . . . . . . 405 RECOVERY keyword . . . . . . . . . . 258 Redlich-Kwong . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 331 Reference densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Reference temperatures . . . . . . . . . 283 REGRESS section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Regression operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 target. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 REGTARG keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Reservoir temperature . . . . . . . . . . 261 Reudelhuber and Hinds . . . . . . . . 258 Riazi-Daubert . . . . . . . . . 114, 186, 313 RTEMP keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 RUNSPEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 RUNSPEC keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 RUNSPEC section keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
N
Napthenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 NCOMPS keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 NEW. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 NEW files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 NEWPVI keyword . . . . . . . 241 to 242 Newton-Raphson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 NOECHO keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Non-hydrocarbon. . . . . . . . . . 113, 221
S
SALINITY keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Sample composition. . . . . . . . . . . . 265 SAMPLES keyword . . . . . . 264 to 266 SAMTITLE keyword . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Saturated black oil reservoirs 393, 396 Saturation liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
O
OBS keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Index
445
SAVCOMP keyword . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Saving compositions . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Schmidt-Wenzel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 SCN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 SCN groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 SCT keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 SCT split . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Semi-Continuous Thermodynamics . 116, 314 split. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Separator liquid volumes . . . . . . . 158 SG keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Shift parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 SIMULATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 SIMULATE keyword . . . . . . . . . . . 271 SIMULATE section keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Simulation of experiments . . . . . . . 28 Single Carbon Number . . . . . . . . . 114 Soave-Redlich-Kwong . . . . . . . 27, 331 Sreide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 SPECHA,B,C,D keyword . . . . . . . 272 Specific heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Specific heat capacity coefficients 272 SPLIT keyword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 SPLIT section keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 SSHIFT keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Standard conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Standard pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Standard temperature . . . . . . . . . . 156 STCOND keyword. . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Surface tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Swelling test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 SYSTEM keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 SYSTEM section keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Temperature convention . . . . . . . 198 Thermal expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 THERMX keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Thomassen . . . . . . . . . . . .115, 186, 313 Tiled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 TITLE keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 TLOW keyword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 ToolTips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 TREF keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 True-boiling-point distillation . . . 313 Trust region radius . . . . . . . . 229, 233 Two-parameter equation of state 335
Volatile oil reservoirs . . . . . . . 393, 397 Volume expansion coefficient . . . . 280 Volume shift corrections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Volume shift parameters dimensionless . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Volume translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
W
WAT100 keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 WAT200 keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 WAT300 keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Water properties ECLIPSE 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 ECLIPSE 300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 ECLIPSE GI option . . . . . . . . . 294 VFPi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Watson characterization factor . . . 313 WATVFP keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 WHIT keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Whitson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116, 314, 316 probability density function . 230 splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Whitson and Torp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 WHITSON keyword . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Whitson-Torp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 188 Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Windows platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Winn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114, 186, 313
U
Undersaturated reservoirs . . . . . . 393 Unit convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Unit types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 UNITS keyword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 UNIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 UNIX platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 User components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
V
Vapor Z-factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 VAR keyword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 VCRIT keyword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 VCRITVIS keyword . . . . . . . . . . . 290 VEC file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 VERSION keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 VFP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 VFP keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 VFP section keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 VFP Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 VFPi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144, 282 View menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
X
XMFVP keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Y
YMFVP keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
T
TBOIL keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 TCRIT keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Z
ZCRIT keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
446
Index
Index
447
448
Index