Design Construction of A Solar Powered Streetlight

LAUTECH SOLAR-POWERED PROJECTS: THE DEPT.
OF ELECTRONIC/ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION OF A SOLAR-POWERED STREETLIGHT

By Morakinyo Ayodeji, Amusan Olusola, Sekoni Seun & Adebunmi Femi
January 12, 2011.
LAUTECH's Web Address
[In this project, a solar panel is used to convert sunlight into direct current electricity which charges a battery during the day. At night, a dark detector employing a photoconductive cell senses darkness and this activates the rectifier circuit. The rectifier circuit then powers the load (lamps) to give required illumination.]
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this project work was carried out by the following students: MORAKINYO, Ayodeji James (051217); AMUSAN, Olusola Samson (050976); SEKONI, Oluwaseun Adeyemi (053652); ADEBUNMI, Oluwafemi Solomon (050736) in the Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso.
This publication is a scholastic property of Morakinyo A.J, Amusan O.S, Sekoni, et al. 2011
DEDICATION
This project work is dedicated to the Almighty God, the giver of life and talent for every academic work. Without him, this project could not have been a success. We also dedicate this work to every great legend in the field of electrical and electronic engineering. We have only succeeded in this work because we built on the foundations they have laid.
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Firstly, we acknowledge our heavenly father and creator. It is by Him that we are enabled, equipped and empowered to reach this point in our academic journey. With great joy, true respect and deep gratitude, we appreciate our supervisor Engr. I. A. Adeyemo, for every piece of advice, each session of counsel and every other form of support he gave us during the project process. Finally, we would also like to express our gratitude to our parents (Mr & Mrs S.O Morakinyo, Mrs Amusan, Mr & Mrs Sekoni and Mr & Mrs Adebunmi) for their financial, emotional and spiritual support. But for them, we would not be here today.
MORAKINYO A.J AMUSAN O.S SEKONI O.A ADEBUNMI O.S January, 2011.
6 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE CERTIFICATION DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS LIST OF FIGURES TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ABSTRACT
i ii iii iv v vi viii ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 PREAMBLE 1.2 AIMS & OBJECTIVES 1.3 SIMILAR WORK 1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY 1.5 SCOPE OF STUDY 1 1 2 2 2
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 SOLAR ENERGY 2.2 SOLAR PANEL 2.3LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR 2.4 RESISTORS & LIGHT EMITTING DIODES 2.5 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 2.6 CONSTANT VOLTAGE REGULATOR 2.7 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 2.8 RELAYS 2.9 BATTERY 4 5 7 7 10 12 12 13 14
CHAPTER THREE: DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION

3.1 BASIC DESIGN 3.2 CHARGE CONTROLLER 3.3 CHOOSING SOLAR PANEL 3.4 PARAMETERS FOR CHOOSING A BATTERY 3.5 DARK OPERATED SENSOR AND SWITCHING CIRCUIT 16 17 19 19 20
CHAPTER FOUR: DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION & INSTALLATION

4.1 METAL FRAMEWORK 4.2 WELDING 4.3 SCREWING 4.4 INSTALLATION 4.5 TESTING 4.6 OBSERVATIONS 4.7 PRECAUTIONS 4.8 BILL OF QUANTITY 23 26 27 27 29 30 30 31
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION 5.2 RECOMMENDATION 33 33
8 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 3.1
Title
Schematic Symbol for a Photovoltaic Cell Array of Photovoltaic Cells Circuit Symbol of a Photo-resistor Circuit Symbols for Fixed and Variable Resistors Non-inverting Amplifier Schematic Diagram of LM324N OP-AMP Circuit Symbol of a Relay Switch Block Diagram of a Solar-powered Street Light (Automatic)
Page
5 6 7 8 10 11 14 16
3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2
Block Diagram of Charge Controller Unit Circuit Diagram of a Charge Controller Sensor and Switching Circuit Solar-powered Street Light Wiring Block Diagram of Automatic Solar-powered Street Light
17 18 21 24 29
9 LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 2.2 2.3
Title Resistor Tolerance Band Values Tolerance Colour Band Values LM324N Pins and their Functions
Page 8 8 11
10 ABSTRACT This project work is concerned with the design and construction of an automatic solar-powered street light. In this project, a solar panel is used to convert sunlight into direct current electricity which charges a battery during the day. At night, a dark detector employing a photoconductive cell senses darkness and this activates the rectifier circuit. The rectifier circuit then powers the load (lamps) to give required illumination. This lightening system is highly suitable in Nigeria where power supply is erratic; it thus offers the advantage of reliability compared to the lightening system powered by electricity received from utility company. Except for the initial high cost of installation, the system is easy to maintain since the original source of power (sunlight) is free.
11
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1 PREAMBLE Light is crucial in everyday activity for the continuity of normal life. From plants to animals, from human beings to domestic insects, from technology to science, nothing seems to maximise its existence without the availability of light. Even the human eye requires some amount of light to function well (Blurtit, 2010). Light from the sun is natural and it is called sunlight. This sunlight can serve as a source of solar power which is converted to electric power for both household and industrial utilization. Solar power is the generation of electricity from sunlight. This can be direct as with photovoltaic (PV) or indirect as with concentrating solar power (CSP) where the suns energy is focused to boil water which is then used to provide energy. Solar power is a predictably intermittent energy source, meaning that while solar power is not available at all times, we can predict with a very good degree of accuracy when it will not be available (Wikipedia, 2010). One area of application of solar energy is found in the construction of solar-powered street lights, an equipment that is paramount to meeting the security needs of every community in the 21st century. Solar street lights are beneficial in that the day to day running and maintenance costs are reduced (Solar Street Lightning, 2010). Instead of the manually operated street lights, making use of power generated by the utility company, it is interesting that lead-acid battery and photovoltaic cells or solar modules can be used as the power source for the street lightning system. And with the use of a Light Dependent Resistor (LDR), automatic control can be included in the equipment. This vital use of light gives rise to the idea of using solar energy to power street lights as an alternative to electricity. These solar-powered street lights can then be used for the provision of illumination on roads at night to enhance security and prevent accidents that may otherwise occur due to poor visibility.
12 1.2 AIM & OBJECTIVES The aim is to design, construct and install a street light that charges in daytime, and discharges in the evening, without the need for a utility power source.
OBJECTIVES 1. To design a workable solar powered street light that does not utilize an inverter circuit 2. To eliminate the necessity for manual switching in the operation of community street light 3. 4. To design and construct a charge controller for the battery To install the solar-powered street light with two wings providing illumination
1.3
SIMILAR WORK Previously, under the Department of Electronic/Electrical Engineering at the
Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, a Solar-powered Street Lightning System was discussed by Akinola A.S & Odubola A., Automatic Solarpowered Street Lightning System Unpublished B.Tech thesis, Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, (2004). In their dissertation, they indicated that their work involved design and construction. But, they did not specify whether or not their work included installation of the equipment.
1.4
SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY The use of solar modules with Lead acid battery to serve as power source for
energy saving appliances is efficient and most reliable where there is erratic power supply. Therefore, the renewable property of energy makes it easier to use solar as a natural source of power through energy conversion process. In a country such as Nigeria where the availability of uninterrupted power supply remains a major challenge, street lights powered by electricity from utility companies have repeatedly failed to provide consistent illumination but the proposed project seeks to amend this inadequacy. The lightning system operates through the
13 combination of a dark operated automatic switching circuit and the energy saving lamp made from LED array to give a stress-free operation and save more energy.
1.5
SCOPE OF STUDY This project is focused at using a Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) which
responds resistively to light for the automatic control process. This is planted on the equipment at a position where it is exposed to light from the atmosphere. The LDR senses light and differentiates daytime from night time, and then the sensor circuit triggers the switching circuit. A comparator is used in the charge controlling circuit to sense the charging voltage of the battery so as to prevent it from overcharging.
14
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 SOLAR ENERGY Solar energy (energy from the sun) travels to Earth through space in discrete packets of energy called photons (which are particles of light energy, or energy that is generated by moving electric charges). The amount of light that reaches any particular point on the ground depends on the time of day, the day of the year, the amount of cloud cover, and the latitude at that point. The solar intensity varies with the time of day, peaking at solar noon and declining to a minimum at sunset. The total radiation power (1.4 Kilowatts per square meter, called the solar constant) varies only slightly, about 0.2 percent every 30 years. Energy from the sun can be directly or indirectly collected.
Approximately 30 percent of the solar power reaching the Earth is consumed by the continuous circulation of water, a system called the water cycle or hydrologic [Holladay, April. "Solar Energy." Microsoft Student 2008 DVD].
The oceans also collect and store solar energy while radiant energy from the Sun is transformed to the potential energy of water in streams and rivers. The power stored in the water cycle can be tapped by directing the flowing waters through modern turbines. Power produced in this way is called hydroelectric power. Earth's atmosphere, oceans, and plant life, for example, collect solar energy that can be extracted to power technology. There are two main types of artificial collectors to directly capture and utilize solar energy: flat plate collectors and concentrating collectors. Since just a little amount of the Suns energy reaches the Earths surface, both types of collectors require large surface areas exposed to the Sun. The first type which is called the Flat plate collector is made of typically flat, thin boxes with a transparent cover that are mounted on rooftops facing the Sun. The Sun heats a blackened metal plate inside the box, called an absorber plate, that in turn heats fluid (air or water) running through tubes within the collector. For applications such as air conditioning, central power generation, and many industrial heat requirements, flat plate collectors cannot provide carrier fluids at temperatures high enough to be effective so, more complex and expensive This publication is a scholastic property of Morakinyo A.J, Amusan O.S, Sekoni, et al. 2011
15 concentrating collectors must be used (John Perlin, 1999). Concentrating collector types reflect the Suns rays from a large area and focus it onto a small, blackened receiving area. Concentrating solar energy is the least expensive way to generate large-scale electrical power from the Suns energy and therefore has the potential to make solar power available at a competitive rate. An example is the popularly known solar panel. 2.2 SOLAR PANEL A Solar panel or photovoltaic cell is a type of photo electric cell that uses the photovoltaic effect to generate electrical energy using the potential difference that arises between materials when the surface of the cell is exposed to electromagnetic radiation. Photovoltaic effect is simply the creation of a voltage in a material upon exposure to electromagnetic radiation. Illumination of the materials results in the creation of an electric current as excited electrons and the remaining holes are swept in different directions by the built-in electric field of the depletion region.
Fig 2.1
Schematic Symbol for a Photovoltaic Cell
Solar cells are often electrically connected and encumbered as a module. Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of glass on the front facing the sun, allowing the light from the sun to pass while protecting the semiconductor wafers from the elements, rain, hail, etc (Timothy J. Maloney, 1996). Solar cells are usually connected in series in modules, creating an additional voltage of 12Volts. When cells are connected in parallel, they yield an additional current. Power output is measured in watts or kilowatts. In order to calculate the typical energy needs of the application, a measurement in Watt-hours, Kilowatt-hours or Kilowatt-hours per day is often used. Average power according to the rule of thumb is that average power equals 20% of This publication is a scholastic property of Morakinyo A.J, Amusan O.S, Sekoni, et al. 2011
16 peak power, so that each peak kilowatt of solar array output power yields energy of 4.8KWh per day (24hours x 1kw x 20% = 4.8KWh).
Fig 2.2
Array of Photovoltaic Cells
A solar cells energy conversion efficiency is the percentage of power converted from absorbed light to electrical energy and collected when a solar cell is connected to an electric circuit. There are three types of solar cells. Monocrystalline silicon cells Multicrystalline silicon cells Amorphous silicon cells Monocrystalline silicon cells are the most efficient, with a very high cost of production. Multicrystalline silicon cells are less efficient, compared to the Monocrystalline silicon cells. They have a relatively less cost of production compared to the Monocrystalline silicon cells. Amorphous silicon cells are also very efficient, but the Monocrystalline silicon cells have been found to be the most efficient of the three.
17 2.3 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR (LDR) This is a special type of resistor whose resistance value depends on the brightness of light which is falling on it. It is also called a photo-resistor (from the Greek word, photo) because to operate as desired, it requires the presence or absence of light.
Fig 2.3
Circuit Symbol of a Photo-resistor (LDR)
The LDR needs an external voltage source to produce current which is controlled by the variable resistance of a photosensitive material that it is made of (Cadmium compounds as Cadmium sulphide and Cadmium Selenide). In the dark, the resistance of the LDR is very high, typically around 1M ohm. In bright light it is low, typically 1K ohm. The continuous power dissipation is 80mW and the maximum voltage which can be applied to it is 100V. The snake like track on the face of the LDR is a Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) film. On each side is a metal film which is connected to the terminal leads (A.K. Theraja & B.L. Theraja, 2005). LDRs are very useful especially in light/dark activated circuits when coupled with a variable resistor such that the LDRs sensitiveness can be adjusted by this variable resistance. For instance, when the light dependent resistor and a variable resistor are used to form a voltage divider with bias applied to a transistor, a connected relay can be automatically activated.
2.4
RESISTORS & LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LEDs)
RESISTORS: are passive circuit components which are bilateral in function. They can also be referred to as electronic components that offer resistance to the flow of electric current in a circuit. They are always applied in circuits for the following reasons: 1. To limit current 2. To cause a voltage drop or voltage divider This publication is a scholastic property of Morakinyo A.J, Amusan O.S, Sekoni, et al. 2011
18 3. To dissipate heat Types of Resistors (i) (ii) Fixed resistors which have fixed values Variable resistors whose values can be varied.
Fig. 2.4
Circuit Symbols for Fixed and Variable Resistors.
Resistor values: the resistance values of a resistor is either stamped on it or determined by colour codes. The last of the four colour bands indicates the tolerance values of the resistor. Colour Gold Silver No colour Table 2.1 Tolerance Value 5% 10% 20%
Resistor Tolerance Band Values
Note that the third band colour indicates the value of the multiplier. For example, resistor value = AB x 10c. Where A is the first band value, B is the second band value and C, the third band value. Band Colour Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Code 0 1 2 3 4
19
Green Blue Violet/purple Grey White
5 6 7 8 9
Table 2.2
Resistor Colour Band Values
LAMPS: are lamps made from semiconductor materials in the similitude of light emitting diodes such that several light emitting diodes are combined to yield an LED lamp. Since the output of an individual unit in terms of power is small compared to incandescent and compact fluorescent lamps, the most recent of these lamps possess internal circuits that make them operate from standard AC voltage. However, for the sake of this project, DC lamps are to be used. LED lamps offer long life and high efficiency, but with initial high costs compared to fluorescent tubes or lamps. LED units naturally emit light in a very small band of wavelengths, thereby producing strongly coloured lights. The colour is characteristic of the energy band gap of the semiconductor material used in manufacturing it. Creating white light from LED units require the use of a phosphor to convert some of the light to other colours. The only major shortcoming with LED bulb is the high cost of manufacture. The following are the characteristics of LED lamps: Long life expectancy. Relatively low energy consumption, since they are energy-saving bulbs. Good reflection of lights with small reflectors or lenses. They do not have glass tubes that can break, while internal parts are rigidly supported, making them resistant to impact, vibration, and all other forms of mechanical stress. They are dimmable over a wide range of voltage for AC transmission 85V and 240V. However, the brand of bulbs to be used, 12V, 5watts rated DC bulbs is the specification for the project.
20 One of the major advantages of LED bulbs is that it is good for spotlighting or floodlighting because it tends to be directional. Also, LED screw-in bulbs offer either low levels of light at a moderate cost or moderate levels of light at a high cost.
2.5
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (LM324N) Operational amplifiers are popularly known as OP-AMP. They are also called
differential voltage amplifiers due to their ability to amplify the difference in the voltage between the two inputs. The output voltage is simply the difference between the inverting and non-inverting inputs multiplied by the gain. If the non-inverting input (+) is more positive than the inverting input voltage (-), the output will be positive. If it is more negative in value than the inverting input, then output becomes more negative (Jones L, 1996).The output voltage changes in phase as that of the non-inverting input.
Where, RA and RB are Resistances. Characteristics of Op-Amp It has a very high open loop voltage gain. A very high input impedance A large common mode reflection ratio A low output impedance
The typical LM324N OP-AMP used in this project is a quad comparator of two inputs with an output each. They are always incorporated in circuits meant for This publication is a scholastic property of Morakinyo A.J, Amusan O.S, Sekoni, et al. 2011
21 sequential switching or voltage comparison. They can be used for amplifying signals in different modes. The general arrangement is to fix or reference one of the input voltages, either by using a zener diode, a regulator or a potential divider network.
Fig 2.6
Schematic Diagram of the LM324N OP-AMP
PINs 1, 8, 14 2, 6, 9, 13 3, 5, 10, 12 4 11
Function Output Inverting Input Non-inverting Input Vcc+ GND
Table 2.3
LM324N Pins and their Functions
2.6
CONSTANT VOLTAGE REGULATOR (LM 7808) The linear LM7808 is an integrated circuit linear positive regulator with three
terminals. It offers a fixed output despite the amount of voltage supplied to its input. However, care must be taken not to supply excessive voltage to its input terminals otherwise, the IC would be damaged. The minimum input voltage must be 3Volts higher than the regulated output voltage. The 7800 series (i.e. 05, 06, 08, 10, 12, 15, 18, or 24) provides up to 1A load current and has on-chip circuitry to shut down the This publication is a scholastic property of Morakinyo A.J, Amusan O.S, Sekoni, et al. 2011
22 regulator if any attempt is made to operate it outside its safe operating area. But if this happens, the solution is to let the chip cool down and then attach the heat sink. Its features include: Output current of 1.5A Output voltage tolerance of 5% Internal thermal overload protection Operating voltage range: 10.5 volts 23 volts No external component Output voltage of 8Volts Also offered in plastic package of TO 220 Its applications are found in post regulator for switching DC/DC converter and in bias supply for analog circuits.
2.7
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT) This is a three layered, three terminal semiconductor device which is used in
electronic circuits either as a switch or for amplification purpose. It was invented by Schockley, Bardeen and Brattain at Bell Labs in 1947 and today, it has revolutionised the way we live. A BJT works based on the principle that certain materials, such as Silicon, can be made to perform as solid state" devices. Any material is only conductive in proportion to the number of "free" electrons that are available. Silicon has very few free electrons but if "impurities" such as Arsenic are introduced in a controlled manner then the free electrons or conductivity is increased. By adding other impurities such as Gallium, an electron deficiency or hole is created. As with free electrons, the holes encourage conductivity and the material is called a semi-conductor. Semiconductor material which conducts by free electrons is called n-type material while material which conducts by virtue of electron deficiency is called p-type material. There are two types of BJTs: the more common NPN type and the PNP type. In PNP type, the emitter is made positive with respect to both the collector and base and the collector is made negative with respect to both the emitter and base in normal operation. The reverse is the case for the NPN type. This publication is a scholastic property of Morakinyo A.J, Amusan O.S, Sekoni, et al. 2011
23 The bipolar junction transistor can also function in 3 different configurations: a) The common emitter (CE) circuit uses emitter as its common electrode. The input signal is applied to the base and the amplified output is taken from the collector. This is the one generally use because it has the best combination of current gain and voltage gain. b) The common base (CB) circuit uses base as its common electrode. The input signal is applied to the emitter and the amplified output is taken from the collector. The relatively high emitter current compared to the base current results in very low input impedance value. For this reason, the CB circuit is seldom used. c) The common collector (CC) circuit uses collector as its common electrode. The input signal is applied to the base and the amplified output is taken from the emitter. This circuit is also called an emitter follower. This name means that the output signal voltage at the emitter follows the input signal at the base with the same phase but less amplitude. The voltage gain is less than 1 and is usually used for impedance matching. It has high input at the base as a load for the preceding circuit and low output impedance at the emitter as a signal source for the next circuit.
2.8
RELAYS They are electromechanical switches which operate based on electromagnetic
principles. They could also be used as electromagnetic switches that are triggered by an electronic switch, such as transistors which switch from one point to another. Relay Terminologies: Nominal Coil Voltage (Rated Coil Voltage): the voltage intended by design to be applied to the coil to operate it. Pick-Up Voltage: the voltage on an un-operated device is increased, the value at or above which all contacts must function. Drop-Out Voltage: the voltage on an operated device is decreased, the value at or below which all contacts must revert to their un-operated position. Maximum Continuous Voltage: the maximum voltage that can be applied continuously to the coil. Nominal Operating Current: the current flow in the coil when nominal voltage is impressed on the coil. Nominal Operating Power: the power used by the coil at nominal voltage. DC coils (watts); AC coils (VA).
24 Relays usually consist of three contacts of connection. Namely; Common contact ( C ) Normally open contact ( NO ) Normally closed contact ( NC ) There are various ranges of relay ratings. They range from 5Amps, 10Amps, 15Amps, 20Amps, 30Amps, etc.
Fig. 2.7
Circuit Symbol of a Relay Switch
2.9
BATTERY A Battery is an electric cell or a device that converts chemical energy into
electricity. It consists of two or more cells connected in series or parallel, but the term is also used for single cells. All cells consist of a liquid, paste, or solid electrolyte and a positive electrode, and a negative electrode. The electrolyte is an ionic conductor; one of the electrodes will react, producing electrons, while the other will accept electrons. When the electrodes are connected to a device to be powered, called a load, an electrical current flows. Batteries in which the chemicals cannot be reconstituted into their original form once the energy has been converted (that is, batteries that have been discharged) are called primary cells or voltaic cells. Batteries in which the chemicals can be reconstituted by passing an electric current through them in the direction opposite that of normal cell operation are called secondary cells, rechargeable cells, storage cells, or accumulators. The storage battery, or secondary cell, which can be recharged by reversing the chemical reaction, was invented in 1859 by the French physicist Gaston Plant. The lead-acid battery, which consists of three or six cells connected in series, is used in automobiles, trucks, aircraft, and other vehicles. Its chief advantage is that it This publication is a scholastic property of Morakinyo A.J, Amusan O.S, Sekoni, et al. 2011
25 can deliver a strong current of electricity for starting an engine; however, it runs down quickly. The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulphuric acid; the negative electrode consists of lead, and the positive electrode of lead dioxide. In operation, the negative lead electrode dissociates into free electrons and positive lead ions. The electrons travel through the external electric circuit, and the positive lead ions combine with the sulphate ions in the electrolyte to form lead sulphate. When the electrons re-enter the cell at the positive lead-dioxide electrode, another chemical reaction occurs. The lead dioxide combines with the hydrogen ions in the electrolyte and with the returning electrons to form water, releasing lead ions in the electrolyte to form additional lead sulphate. A lead-acid storage cell runs down as the sulphuric acid gradually is converted into water and the electrodes are converted into lead sulphate. When the cell is being recharged, the chemical reactions described above are reversed until the chemicals have been restored to their original condition. A lead-acid battery has a useful life of about four years. But, it is a good practice to utilize along with the battery, a suitable charge controller, as this will help the battery perform better and last longer. According to H.P. Garg and J. Prakash, overcharging of some batteries results in loss of electrolyte, corrosion, plate growth and loss of active material from the plates, causing reduction in battery life. Also, repeated failure to reach full charge leads to stratification of electrolyte. Thus, there is a need of charge regulators/controllers to optimize the battery life.
26
CHAPTER THREE DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION

3.1 BASIC DESIGN
The design is such that the solar panel will be installed on the galvanized pole considering some specifications like angle of tilt and direction of sunlight. The fabricated pole will be bolted on a flat slab and its uprightness will be checked using a plum. The 12V dc battery that will power the LED bulbs will be connected to the solar panel via the charge controller for charging purpose. The pole will be constructed such that it will have two wings with each wing carrying one LED bulb or lamp. The automatic switching of the lamp (ON or OFF) will be performed by the light sensor circuit which consists of the light dependent resistor (LDR), relay, opamp, transistor and some other electronic components.
Fig. 3.1
Block Diagram of a Solar-powered Street Light (Automatic)
The solar panel is tilted at an angle in the range of 15x30 facing the geographical south. This is because Nigeria (wherein this project is being executed) is situated in the geographical north of the globe. The sun rises at the east and sets at the west and illumination is directed towards the geographical north. After erections have been made on the erected pole of about 18ft, the panel would be tightened up using bolts and nuts. The photovoltaic cells on the solar panel would generate voltage when it is well illuminated by light. This publication is a scholastic property of Morakinyo A.J, Amusan O.S, Sekoni, et al. 2011
27 3.2 CHARGE CONTROLLER
The charge controller serves as an interface between the current generated by the module and the battery charging during the day. The battery is prevented from over-current or over-charging by the charge controller. The charge controller is an electronic circuit comprising an operational amplifier (connected in comparator mode), an electronic switch (transistor) and an electromechanical switch (relay). The block diagram of a charge controller is shown on figure below:
Fig 3.2
Block Diagram of Charge Controller Unit
28
Fig 3.3
Circuit Diagram of a Charge Controller
When
When VCC = 14V, VP = 7V (which is less than the reference voltage). Hence, a variable resistor will be ideal for R2.
Choosing VP = 9V for us to have a high output.
R1 = 1K , VCC = 14V, But R2 must be obtained:
29 14R2 = 9 + 9R2 5R2 = 9
Preferred value, R2 = 5K variable. The comparator (LM 324) IC compares the non-inverting input voltage VP and the non-inverting input voltage VN. There is usually a high output from the OP-AMP if VP>VN which will switch on the transistor that will trigger the relay once the +VCC on the battery rises to 14V in order to cut off the battery from charging throughout the photovoltaic supply. A freewheeling diode is connected across the coil terminals of the relay to protect the components from back emf from the inductive coil.
3.3
CHOOSING SOLAR PANEL (RATINGS)
Using four of the 5W LED bulbs amounts to 20W of electrical power being dissipated at 12V rating, PSH = 5hrs (time of maximum illumination) Current consumption of the 20W load = Power/Voltage = 20/12. Hence, IL = 1.67A. Ampere hour needed per day (i.e. from 7p.m till 7a.m (12hours)) becomes: (1.67 x 12) this yields approximately 20Ah. While current needed from the solar panel is:
Hence, a panel that could supply a current of 4A is needed. Preferred value is 4.2A per 50W panel.
3.4
PARAMETERS FOR CHOOSING A BATTERY
Ampere-hour of the battery needed = Amp-hr needed per day x number of days of autonomy /Depth of discharge. Autonomy number is the number of days that could be cloudy that you want the system to work effectively. (e.g. 2days)
30 Depth of discharge (D.O.D.) of a battery is a measure of how much energy has been taken away from a battery. With the lead-acid dry cell battery in use for this project, a discharge of 50% or 0.5 is allowed for it without damage caused to it. Therefore,
Preferred value for battery is 60Ah to allow for losses.
3.5
DARK OPERATED SENSOR AND SWITCHING CIRCUIT
The light dependent resistor (LDR) senses the dark and daytime and responds correspondingly to changes in the weather by causing the resistance of the resistor to vary from about 1K to 100K and vice versa. The incorporated sensor and
switching circuit is shown in the next page:
31
.
V
3 2 4
Amusan Olusola 2011 T
N
1 11
Amusan Olusola 2011
Fig. 3.4
Sensor and Switching Circuit
This change in resistance causes a change in the voltage levels or the value of the non-inverting input (VP). Assuming that VN is being regulated constantly by the voltage divider between R1 and R2, we assume that R1 = R2, which in turn equals 10K ,
Then,
When LDR is at 1K , (daytime);
Here, it is seen that VP < VN, implying that there is low output.
32 When the LDR (R) is at 100K , (Dark time), Then VP is
Here, VP>VN which in turn fulfills the condition for high output of the comparator. The high output of the comparator would switch on the transistor and it conducts to trigger the relay which will switch on the LED bulbs at the dark time. A freewheeling diode is connected across the coil terminals of the relay for protection against back e.m.f.
The variable 10K operated sensor. The 1K
resistor is used to tune up the sensitivity of the dark resistor connected in series with the LED indicator for the
output serves as a current limiter for the light emitting diode. The maximum current of the LED is 10mA which is IF. The output voltage VCC is also known as the LED operating voltage (VLED). This has a value of 12V.
33
CHAPTER FOUR DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION & INSTALLATION

4.1 METAL FRAMEWORK The metal framework upon which the circuitry, battery and luminaries will be installed requires a suitable mechanical engineering design. Mechanical design means the design of things and systems of a mechanical nature. For the most part, mechanical design utilizes mathematics, the material science and the engineering mechanics science (Charles R. Mischke, 2002). This comprises a galvanized steel column, mild steel solar tray guide, base plate, light brace support, battery and circuit container as well as a variety of suitable fasteners. The two main types of metallic materials utilized are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Galvanized Steel According to William F. Hosford (2005), galvanized means zinc plated. Because zinc is anodic to iron, galvanizing protects the steel from corrosion. Galvanized steel is a form of steel that has gone through a chemical process to keep it from corroding. During the process, the steel gets coated in layers of zinc to prevent rust, since zinc is resistant to rust. Galvanized steel is an essential fabrication component for outdoor applications as well as industrial marine use. The major method of preventing steel from corrosion is by alloying it with another metal such as zinc. The chemical reactions between the two metals cause a bonding to occur. This action does not make zinc a paint or coat. Instead, it becomes part of it on a permanent basis. Zinc protects the steel by acting as a sacrificial layer. As such, if rust occurs on the surface of galvanized steel, the zinc part of it gets corroded first, and this prevents the rust from getting to the pure steel.
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Galvanization process is termed hot dip galvanization. It is the process of coating iron, steel or aluminium with a thin layer of zinc, by passing the metal through a molten bath of zinc at a temperature of around 460C. The galvanic process was discovered by Luigi Galvani in the 1700s when he invented the galvanic cell. Galvanization is the name given to the electrochemical processes in his honour. This however should not be confused with galvanizing steel, because it is not an electrochemical process, though the result remains the same. Steel in galvanized form can be found everywhere as it has wide applications. An advantage of this form of steel is its effectiveness. And above all, it can be recycled and re-used multiple times. Galvanized steel is very practicable in applications where this is high proximity to rust, and rust resistance is required. Galvanized steel is also suitable for high temperature applications of up to 200C. The use of galvanized steel at temperatures above this will result in peeling of the zinc at inter-metallic layer. Hot dip galvanized steel can be referred to as galvanized iron. It is used in heating and cooling duct systems in building.
Mild Steel Also referred to as low carbon steel, mild steel is weldable and hard. It is malleable when heated, and as such can be forged. These properties are due to the presence of minute quantity of carbon content for hardening. It has a low content of carbon, up to (0.3%), and is neither extremely brittle nor ductile. It is used where large amount of steel has to be formed such as structural steel. Other advantages of using mild steel include relative cheapness, availability of wide variety with different properties, high degree of stiffness and magnetic property. Mild steel also has wide applications, as it is the most common form of steel. It has got a relatively low price while it has properties that are acceptable for many useful applications. Carbon steels that have about 0.3% require
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special precautions. Relative to stainless steel, there are fewer problems associated when welding mild steel. It has poor corrosion resistance, implying that it rusts easily. Hence, it should not be used in corrosive environment unless a provision for protective coating is made.
4.2
WELDING It is a process of permanently joining two or more metal parts by
melting both materials. Welding may be considered to be a fabrication technique. In welding, two or more parts are joined to form a single piece when one-part fabrication is expensive or inconvenient (William D. Callister, 1997). The molten materials cool quickly and the two metals are permanently bonded. Higher content or alloy steels tend to form hard welds that are brittle and could crack. This unsuitable tendency can be reduced by tempering. When low carbon steel is used, the surface-cleaning process which is becomes necessary when aluminium is used can be easily avoided, preventing further cost. Materials that are similar in composition cannot be welded by spot welding method due to different melting properties and terminal conductivities. Steel that is plated can be assumed to take the characteristics of its coating. Nickel and chrome plate steels are relatively easy to weld by spot welding, whereas aluminium, zinc and tin need special preparation to be able to weld them.
Arc welding This is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between an electrode and the base material, thereby melting the metal at the welding point. They use either direct current or alternating current consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of inert gas known as a shielding gas. This method of welding is widely used because of its low capital and running cost.
Welding of Galvanized Steel

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The welding of galvanized steel is done in the same way as the welding of base steel of the same composition. The difference between welding galvanized steel and uncoated steel is a result of low vaporization temperature of the zinc coating. The successful welding of galvanized steel is so widely accepted that there is little mechanical property that compares uncoated and galvanized weld. Weld toughness, porosity control, corrosion resistance, etc are much more complex that the strength of the weld.
4.3
SCREWING Screwing is another method of joining metals. It consists of proper
cleaning of the parts to be joined, and then using the appropriate joining pieces. They are made of iron, brass, bronze or steel and have heads of various shapes, half-round heads, counter sunk heads, cheese heads, half round and counter sunk combined. All screws used for metals are known as tapped screws or metal thread screws, which distinguishes them from screws used for wood. Screws are made in various pitches. The pitch of screw is the distance it will move in the direction of its axis in one revolution through a fixed nut. Also, screws can be identified by their diameter standard, shape of head metal and length under head. In screwing work together, the part that takes the head of the screw has a clearing hole in it, while the other part has to have a tapping hole, and this is known as the core diameter. This enables the work to be drawn tightly together.
4.4
INSTALLATION The automatic solar-powered street light is installed with a twin arm
lighting kit to operate in a dusk-to-dawn operation mode using an automatic ON/OFF feature. The lighting kit does not utilize an inverter circuit but instead, four 15Watt D.C. bulbs powered by D.C. supply from the battery are employed.
37
Installation of Solar Panel Attach the solar panel tray guide or carrier upon the pole and slightly fasten its bolts and nuts. Fix the solar panel into the tray guide and tighten the appropriate screws effectively. Connect the 6mm cables from the panel terminals to the battery and also, from the battery to the electronic circuit unit. Ensure that the standard polarities are observed i.e. black for negative (labelled ve) and red for positive (labelled +ve). Adjust the solar panels direction and angle to obtain optimal performance, and fasten the bolts and nuts tightly.
Installation/Erection of Pole
An anti-skid unloaded metal pole having a square base is erected on a concreted square-shaped foundation. This base of the pole then fastened to the foundation by means of rag bolts. Consequently, the pole is made to stand uprightly.
Installation of the Lighting Kits & the Battery Carefully secure the lighting kits into the lamp holders and fix the luminaries. Then connect the wires to the controller as shown in the associated wiring diagram of this project. Also, put the battery in the box attached to the erected pole, ensuring appropriate connection of cables unto it with battery clips.
Installation of the Charge Controller of the Automatic Switch Since circuitry of this design incorporates both a charge controller unit and a dark-operated sensor switch together as a kit, both units are installed on the same electronic board and planted in the same enclosure together with the battery. The battery, lighting lamps and the solar panel are connected
38
appropriately to the charge controller/automatic switch as shown in the block wiring diagram as shown below.
R LA SO
L NE PA
4.2
Wiring Block Diagram of Automatic Solar-powered Street Light
4.5
TESTING
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After the installation process has been completed, an act of testing and if necessary, a troubleshooting session must be executed. Testing is the act of examining of the normal working operation, seeking to know the characteristics of the equipment and noting where appropriate changes can be made. On the other hand, troubleshooting is the art of isolating problem areas and using a variety of techniques and experience to solve it. These are done to ensure that the fabricated lightning equipment is in optimal working condition. If any performance deviation is observed, the operation of the equipment must be troubleshooted in order to isolate the problem and fix the fault. At night, the streetlight operated by itself, switching on the luminaries and by dusk, it switched off the lamps by itself. Therefore, the characteristics of the equipment were normal and there is no need for further changes. This project has been tested ok. 4.6 OBSERVATIONS The following observations were made: To enhance the sensitivity of the LDR and hence, improve the performance of the streetlight, the potentiometer was removed from inside the circuitrys container and be put on the outside the casing. Measured charging current and optimal or average output voltage of PV cell were respectively. At the testing stage, the proper charging of the battery from the solar panel was checked and noticed to be appropriate. Also, since this street light is meant to work without the need for manual switching, it was observed to have worked from dusk to the early hours of the morning. Lastly, it was noticed that the charging current increases with illumination received by the panel from the sun. In other words, the charging rate is directly proportional to the illumination received from the sun.
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4.7
PRECAUTIONS Considering the socio-economic and quality control factors involved in
this project work, certain cautions must be taken at the fabrication stage. Factors such as cost and quality of materials, environmental condition of installation location and affordability of finished product must be checked when planning, fabricating and criticizing the work done. The following should be considered when executing this project work: The materials used for the project must be carefully selected to ensure a balance between cost and quality thereby making finished product affordable and reproducible. High quality galvanized steel (expensive) was coupled with moderate quality mild steel (relatively inexpensive) in fabricating this project work. Also, D.C. bulbs were utilized instead of the more common LED array lamps to ensure that high cost of production does not hinder the successful completion of the project. When implementing this kind of project on a commercial scale, cost and quality must be well balanced to ensure that finished equipment does not become too expensive or be of poor quality. The battery should be connected first to the circuit unit to prevent unwanted oscillation of the relay. The LDR must be well exposed to an atmosphere where light intensity can be properly sensed.
4.8
BILL OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS & EVALUATION
(BEME) It is the bill of materials identifying and listing the components of a finished engineering product. It itemizes the raw materials, subassemblies, and even the intangibles that contribute to the costs of manufacturing a product. See next page for the associated BEME.
BILL OF ENGINEERING MATERIAL AND EVALUATION S/N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 2 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 DESCRIPTION Base Plate Stud & Rag Bolt Steel Column Positioner Locknut Split Positioner Bulb Holder Light Brace Suppport Battery & Circuit Container Solar Panel Tray Guide Weldering Cost Battery Bulbs Solar Panel Logistics & Transport 10K Resistor 470F Capacitor C945 Transistor 1K Resistor 10K Variable Resistor 5K Variable Resistor 92XX Series Diode Red LED Green LED LM 324N 30A, 12V Relay Soldering Lead Veroboard Jumper Wire LDR LM 7808 Battery Clip IC Socket 10mm Copper Wire 5mm Copper Wire Casing Cement Bricklayer's Labour Cost MAKE/BUY Make Buy Buy Buy Make Buy Make Make Make N/A Buy Buy Buy N/A Buy Buy Buy Buy Buy Buy Buy Buy Buy Buy Buy Buy Buy Buy Buy Buy Buy Buy Buy Buy Buy Buy N/A UNIT PRICE QUANTITY 1 4 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 N/A 1 4 1 N/A 3 2 6 6 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 3 1 2 1 2 2 1 6 6 1 1 N/A Overall Cost
41 AMOUNT (Naira)
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CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION A solar-powered streetlight can be designed and constructed such that the conventional need for inverter or utility power source is eliminated. Also, the equipment can be fabricated along with a switching circuit and charge controller unit that prevents the battery from overcharging. The main improvement of this project has been the elimination of a dc to ac inverter unit.
5.2
RECOMMENDATION It is recommended that LED array lamps be utilized instead of DC bulbs in
order to achieve greater efficiency and luminosity. It should however be noted that the use of such lamps implies a higher cost of production for the project implementers. Also, the services of skilled and seasoned labourers should be employed for the mechanical and civil aspects of this project. This is to ensure proper balance between the cost, quality and durability of the metal framework and the concrete slab.
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REFERENCES
1. Blurtit, Why is Light Important to the Earth? 2010. [Electronic Article]. Available at: http://www.blurtit.com/q856738.html. 2. Holladay, April. "Solar Energy." Microsoft Student 2008 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2007.
3. Solar Street Lightning Solar Street Lights, Reliable and Cost Effective Solutions, 2010. Available at: http://www.solar-street-lighting.com
4. Perlin, John. From Space to Earth: The Story of Solar Electricity. USA: Aatec. 1999. 5. Array of Photovoltaic Cells. Microsoft Student 2008 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2007. 6. Maloney, Timothy. Modern Industrial electronics (3rd Edition). USA: Prentice-Hall Inc. 1996. 7. Callister, William. Materials Science and Engineering: an Introduction. Canada: John Wiley & Sons Inc. 1997. 8. H.P. Garg & J. Prakash. Solar Energy: Fundamentals and Applications. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd. 2000. 9. Hosford, William. Physical Metallurgy. Florida: CRC Press. 2005 10. C. R. Mischke & J. E. Shigley. Mechanical Engineering Design. USA: McGraw-Hill Inc. 2002. 11. CIRAS News, Vol 32, No.1, Fall 1997. Available at:
http://www.ciras.iastate.edu/publications/CIRASNews/fall97/bom.html
12. Wikipedia. Solar L.E.D bulbs. 2009. Available at: http://www.wikipedia.com

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LAUTECH SOLAR-POWERED PROJECTS: THE DEPT.

DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION OF A SOLAR-POWERED STREETLIGHT

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER THREE: DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION

CHAPTER FOUR: DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION & INSTALLATION

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION

3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2

Table 2.1 2.2 2.3

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

SIMILAR WORK Previously, under the Department of Electronic/Electrical Engineering at the

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

Schematic Symbol for a Photovoltaic Cell

Array of Photovoltaic Cells

Circuit Symbol of a Photo-resistor (LDR)

RESISTORS & LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LEDs)

Circuit Symbols for Fixed and Variable Resistors.

Resistor Tolerance Band Values

Green Blue Violet/purple Grey White

Resistor Colour Band Values

Schematic Diagram of the LM324N OP-AMP

Function Output Inverting Input Non-inverting Input Vcc+ GND

LM324N Pins and their Functions

RELAYS They are electromechanical switches which operate based on electromagnetic

Circuit Symbol of a Relay Switch

CHAPTER THREE DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION

Block Diagram of a Solar-powered Street Light (Automatic)

27 3.2 CHARGE CONTROLLER

Block Diagram of Charge Controller Unit

Circuit Diagram of a Charge Controller

Choosing VP = 9V for us to have a high output.

R1 = 1K , VCC = 14V, But R2 must be obtained:

29 14R2 = 9 + 9R2 5R2 = 9

CHOOSING SOLAR PANEL (RATINGS)

PARAMETERS FOR CHOOSING A BATTERY

Preferred value for battery is 60Ah to allow for losses.

DARK OPERATED SENSOR AND SWITCHING CIRCUIT

switching circuit is shown in the next page:

Amusan Olusola 2011 T

Amusan Olusola 2011

Sensor and Switching Circuit

When LDR is at 1K , (daytime);

32 When the LDR (R) is at 100K , (Dark time), Then VP is

The variable 10K operated sensor. The 1K

CHAPTER FOUR DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION & INSTALLATION

WELDING It is a process of permanently joining two or more metal parts by

Welding of Galvanized Steel

SCREWING Screwing is another method of joining metals. It consists of proper

Wiring Block Diagram of Automatic Solar-powered Street Light

PRECAUTIONS Considering the socio-economic and quality control factors involved in

BILL OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS & EVALUATION

CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION

RECOMMENDATION It is recommended that LED array lamps be utilized instead of DC bulbs in

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