Faculty of Applied Sciences

Department of Architecture, Geology, Environment and Construction

UNIVERSITY of Liege

Division of Solid Mechanics, Fluids and Structures (MS2 F)

Study of the continuous casting of peritectic steel grades by a mesoscopic damage approach

Rene Schwartz

Jury: tqueline veomteEfekers @vgD residentA

enne wrie rrken @vgD upervisorA wnuel fodill @erelorwittlD eserh genter wizireElsEwetzA ylvie gstgne @xnyng ehnologil niversityA hieter enk @rA wihel wlingrux @erelorwittlD sndusteel felgiumA

Mmoire dpos pour l'obtention du PhD en Sciences Appliques

tuneD PHII

Faculty of Applied Sciences

Department of Architecture, Geology, Environment and Construction

UNIVERSITY of Liege

Division of Solid Mechanics, Fluids and Structures (MS2 F)

Study of the continuous casting of peritectic steel grades by a mesoscopic damage approach

Rene Schwartz

Jury: tqueline veomteEfekers @vgD residentA

enne wrie rrken @vgD upervisorA wnuel fodill @erelorwittlD eserh genter wizireElsEwetzA ylvie gstgne @xnyng ehnologil niversityA hieter enk @rA wihel wlingrux @erelorwittlD sndusteel felgiumA

Mmoire dpos pour l'obtention du PhD en Sciences Appliques

tuneD PHII

Acknowledgments

his work hs een done during the four yers of my promotion t the niversity of vige in the division of olids wehnisD pluids nd truturesF wost espeilly s wnt to thnk enne wrie rrken for her supportD her guidne nd for her ptiene through these yers of reserhF edditionlly my grtitude goes to ll the prtners of this projet oming from ghrleroiD sserguesD wetz or ehen for their helpF wy iggest grtitude goes to my ollegues nd friends tht s hd the hne to met t the niversity of vige nd ehenF gririD predD ennsEprmoiseD gdD ghntlD rronD glmentD vmD oniD ihrdD wiryD isrD elex2 D tephn nd oF it pour (nirD en frnisD je voudris remerier trs prtiulirement m fmille qui m9 soutenue et pousse ller u out de e projetF pinlement meri tous r j9en i ertinement oulie et je vis m9en mordre les doigts pendnt enore longtempsD en esprnt qu9ils ne me le fssent ps pyerF ielen hnk n lleF

Contents

Introduction 1 Literature review

IFI eriteti steels F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFIFI eriteti trnsformtion F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFIFP eriteti steel grins mirostruture F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFIFQ reipittion stte in periteti steels F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFIFR teel mirostruture oserved in lortoryX hllenges of sensiE tiztion F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F hefets in gg produts F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFPFI egions of low dutility F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFPFP rnsversl rks F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F prture nlysis F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFQFI prture mehnisms mp F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFQFP gg prtiulr elements leding to frture F F F F F F F F F F F F IFQFPFI ysilltion mrks F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFQFPFP wehnil onstrins F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFQFPFQ eustenite to ferrite trnsformtion F F F F F F F F F F F IFQFPFR hynmi rerystlliztion F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F rot dutility nlysis F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFRFI hutility urves F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFRFP righ dutility high temperture zone F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFRFQ rnsition rhr to emrittlement F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFRFR hutility trough F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFRFRFI eusteniti grin oundry sliding @rupture t triple pointA IFRFRFP greep rupture @void nuletionD growth nd oleseneA IFRFS rnsition emrittlement to rhv F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFRFT righ dutility low temperture zone F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F wehnil tests F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFSFI rot tensile test F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFSFP gompression ousti rk test F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFSFQ rot ending test F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFSFR rot ftigue test F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F i

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IFQ

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IH IP IP IR IS IS IS IS IU IU IV IW IW PI PI PP PP PR PS PS PT PT PV PV PV

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IFT wirolloying elements of periteti steel grdes IFTFI xioium F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFTFP ndium F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFTFQ gomintion of xioium nd ndium IFTFR itnium F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFTFS yther lloying elements F F F F F F F F F IFTFT ummry of the preipittes study F F F IFTFU reipittion kineti F F F F F F F F F F F gonlusion of the literture review F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PW QH QI QQ QQ QQ QR QS QT

IFU

2 The damage model, its identication methodology and the sample treatment 39
PFI hmge model desription F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFIFI wodeling of the ontinuous sting proess F F F F F F F F F F F F PFIFP he grin F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFIFQ he grin oundry F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFIFQFI he interfe element F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFIFQFP he interfe mteril lw F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFIFQFQ vw prmeters F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFIFR epresenttive ell design F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFIFS wroEweso link F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F wethodology to identify the dmge model prmeters F F F F F F F F F PFPFI Step A, the mteril rheology F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFPFP Step B, tensile tests on di'erent geometries F F F F F F F F F F F PFPFQ Step C, the representtive ell F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFPFR Step D, the determintion of the dmge lw prmeters F F F PFPFS Step E, the simultion of the gg proess F F F F F F F F F F F F herml tretment of the smple nd test desription F F F F F F F F F F PFQFI ensile test pprtus F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFQFP herml pth F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFQFPFI ilevtion of smple temperture F F F F F F F F F F F F PFQFPFP ensitiztion temperture F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFQFPFQ rolding time F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFQFPFR gooling of the smple F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFQFPFS ensile test F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFQFQ gonlusion on the dmge modelD its identi(tion nd the smE ple tretment F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

PFP

PFQ

QW RH RI RI RI RP RU RU SI SR SS SU SU SV SW TH TI TP TP TP TQ TR TS

TT

3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell 67
QFI hetermintion of the rheologil prmeters F F F F F F QFIFI tudy of the therml yle pplied to the tensile QFIFIFI ixperimentl proess F F F F F F F F F F QFIFIFP mpling F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QFIFIFQ wetllogrphi results F F F F F F F F F QFIFIFR gonlusion of the therml pth study F QFIFIFS purther work F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QFIFP hetermintion of the dutility trough F F F F F F F F F F F smples F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

TU TV TV UH UP UQ US US

Contents
QFIFPFI esults of the dutility trough nlysis F F F F F F F F F QFIFPFP enlysis of the preipitte e'et on the dutility trough QFIFQ heologil prmeters F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QFIFQFI rot ompression tests F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QFIFQFP rot tensile tests F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QFIFQFQ sdenti(tion of the xortonEro' lw F F F F F F F F F F QFIFQFR xortonEro' lw prmeters F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QFIFQFS ixtrpoltion of the results to ll the required temperE ture F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QFIFQFT gomprison of the tensile nd ompression tests nd numeril results F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ensile histories for mesosopi pplition F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QFPFI hetermintion of the studied ses F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QFPFP ixperimentl nd numeril orreltion of the r F F F F F F F QFPFQ enlysis of the di'erenes etween experimentl nd numeril simultions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QFPFQFI pinite element hoie F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QFPFQFP wesh density F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QFPFQFQ ensitivity of the rheologil lw F F F F F F F F F F F F QFPFQFR gomprison of P nd R smple shpes F F F F F F F F epresenttive ell design F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QFQFI wrosopi level E grin design F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gonlusion on the rheology nd dmge tests hpter F F F F F F F F F F ensile test smple to representtive ell F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFIFI qenerl view of the representtive ell position in the tensile test smple F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFIFP hetermintion of the lotion of the numeril stressEstrin smE pling F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFIFQ glultions performed for the representtive ell loding F F F F ensitivity nlysis of the dmge lw prmeters F F F F F F F F F F F F RFPFI hmge pth F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFPFP enlysis of the dmge evolution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFPFQ enlysis of the rk event F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F hmge lw prmeters (tting for periteti steel grdes F F F F F F F F RFQFI rmeters tken from the literture F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFQFP hmge lw prmeters determined on the sis of rheologil prmeters determintion F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFQFQ rmeters determined through mirogrphi nlysis F F F F F F RFQFQFI iw study on A steel grde F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFQFQFP iw study on the periteti steel grdes studied F F F RFQFQFQ iw study on B nd C steel grdes F F F F F F F F F RFQFR rmeters djustment F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFQFRFI pitting of the dmge prmeters F F F F F F F F F F F F RFQFRFP NI vriility s funtion of temperture F F F F F F F RFQFRFQ hmge lw prmeters (tting on grde A F F F F F F RFQFRFR hmge lw prmeters (tting on grde B F F F F F F F

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4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

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Contents
RFQFRFS hmge lw prmeters (tting on grde C F F F F RFQFS gomprison of the dmge lw prmeters F F F F F F F F F RFQFSFI i'et of NI nd the eginning of the nuletion F RFQFSFP i'et of Fn F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFQFSFQ i'et of Nmax /NI nd the end of the nuletion F lidtion of the wroEweso trnsfer F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFRFI wroEweso trnsfer for steel grde A F F F F F F F F F F F RFRFP wroEweso trnsfer for steel grde B F F F F F F F F F F F RFRFQ wroEweso trnsfer for steel grde C F F F F F F F F F F F RFRFR gonlusions out the wroEweso trnsfer F F F F F F F F gonlusion of the mesosopi study of the rk pperne in gg F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IQS IQT IQV IQW IRH IRI IRI IRS IRS IRV IRW

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5 Industrial application
Thercast

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progrm F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gontinuous ster results on grde C pplition F F F F F F F F F F F F SFPFI hefets deteted on the ontinuous ster of C F F F F F F F F F SFPFP Thercast lultions performed on C ster F F F F F F F F F SFPFQ Thercast results on C ster F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F SFPFQFI tudy of the therml ehvior F F F F F F F F F F F F F F SFPFQFP tudy of the mehnil ehvior F F F F F F F F F F F F gontinuous ster to representtive ell F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F SFQFI ht trnsfer from the mrosopi simultion to the mesosopi representtive ell F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F SFQFP glultion of the strin (eld F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ht trnsfer vlidtion F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F SFRFI glssil trnsfer to the representtive ell F F F F F F F F F F F F SFRFP rnsfer tests done on one element F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F hmge results for the gg pplition on C grde F F F F F F F F F F F gonlusions on the prtil se F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

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Conclusion and perspectives Bibliography A Micrographs from B grade used for Thermal path determination B Sensitivity analysis gures C SEM-EDS study D ISO643 E Rheological law correlation with experimental HTT F Damage moments comparison of HTT ow curves

177 183 A.1 B.1 C.1 D.1 E.1 F.1

List of Figures

HFI IFI IFP IFQ IFR IFS IFT IFU IFV IFW IFIH IFII IFIP IFIQ IFIR IFIS IFIT IFIU IFIV IFIW

sllustrtion of the di'erent stress sttes experimented y the sl during gg sHQ F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ossile retions etween three phses in the se of inry system F peEg digrm F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gompiltion of grin size t high temperture gthered from literture osition nd defet type in the gg sl friUU F F F F F F F F F F F F F hemti evolution of the knowledge out the low dutility regions of periteti steels in the hot tensile test of inEsitu solidi(ed speimens olWU F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F wrosopi @A nd mirosopi @A view of longitudinl rk on periteti steel grde fter the gg proess @dt provided y erelor eserhA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ypes of segregted rks during gg pHQ F F F F F F F F F F F F F F prture mehnism mp for pure iron for vrious grin size xs F F glssi(tion of osilltion mrks into three typesY @AhookD @Adepression nd @Afolded depression type in gg pHQ F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F inlrgement of the ritil re where dutility n e deresed y the therml pth of the sl shell F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F i'et of lloying elements on the steel mirostruture F F F F F F F F F F ixmple of dutility urve otined y hot tensile tests wohHP F F F glultion of the neking for the determintion of the dutility of the mteril F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F qenerl shpe of dutility urve in the se of periteti steel in onE ditions similr to thos of gg F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F perrite (lm indued rking during trnsformtion for periteti steels winWI F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F sllustrtion of frture surfes of x ontining steel winWQ F F F F sllustrtion of the dmge initition t triple grin oundries ueWSD winWI F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F sllustrtion of the grin oundry sliding @A nd frture pperne @A in periteti steel pulled t USH g nd aS IH3 s1 uzVR F F F F sllustrtion of the mehnism of mirovoid olesene indued rking for periteti steels winWI F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F v

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List of Figures
IFPH sllustrtion of the dmge t the ferrite (lm for the periteti steel fmily in the se of trnsversl frture uzVR F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFPI resene of preipittes t the formed usteniti grin oundry in periE teti steels F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IFPP histriution of the preipittes in the periteti steel groVU F F F F IFPQ rrdness of the x ontining periteti steel grde following quenhing nd tempering fter holding for vrious times t WSH g groVU F F F F F IFPR sllustrtion of the dutility loss nd kineti e'et of ontining steels groVU F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFI PFP PFQ PFR PFS PFT PFU PFV PFW PFIH PFII PFIP PFIQ PFIR PFIS PFIT PFIU PFIV PFIW imultion of the gg proess nd trnsposition in the lol pproh gsHU F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ilements omposing the grin in the mesosopi model where irles re ssoited to the neighoring lk dots tht represents the mesh nodes hisrete nd ontinuous representtions of the grin oundryX @A el geometryD @A irtul desription t one integrtion pointD @A oid shpe ynWW F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F epresenttive ell F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F @A wetllogrphi inspetion of the susurfe of periteti steel @A with the ustenite grins nd ferrite grinEoundry @dt provided y erelor eserhA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F hi'erent wys of utomti meshing with the helunyEorono diE grms wer F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F sllustrtion of the meshing proess for the grin oundries gsHU F F vongitudinl elongtion rte of the gg of wrinelleD de(ning the risk of trnsversl rking sHQ F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ixmple of slie extrted from the gg sl tht hs to e modeled in generlized plne strin stte for the rk predition sHQ F F F F hikness of the slie in generlized plne strin stte sHQ F F F F F epplition of the fores nd degrees of freedom on the representtive ell where the plne xy is ssoited to plne Q in pigure PFI F F F F F F higrm of the di'erent steps whih de(ne the glol strtegy of modelE ing the rk predition for periteti steels during the ontinuous sting rious smple shpes used in the hot tensile test mhineD @A without nothD @A with P nd Rmm nothes mm F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F heme of the gg se modeling y extrtion of the dt reorded through mrosopi numeril simultion of the gg nd pplition to the edges of the trnsition re of the representtive ell F F F F F F F F hemti desription of the therml pth pplied for the tensile test to mth the rel gg onditions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F rot tensile test pprtus t the r of ehen F F F F F F F F F F F reipittes formtion t the equilirium lulted for steel B @dt provided y erelor eserhA with the CEQCSI model F F F F F F F F hrink hole of tensile test smple @dt provided y siruD PHHTA F F xumerily determined ooling urve of the lrge fe of A sl @PFTm lrgeA t PHm from the orner during the gg proess @dt provided y erelor eserhA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

PT QI QP QS QT RH RP RR RW RW SH SI SP SQ SQ SR ST SU SW TH TI TQ TR TS

List of Figures
PFPH tges of the dutility urve oserved in funtion of the steel morphology nd the fores reorded during hot tensile test nHS F F F F F F F F F QFI QFP QFQ QFR QFS QFT QFU QFV QFW QFIH QFII QFIP QFIQ QFIR QFIS QFIT QFIU QFIV QFIW QFPH QFPI QFPP QFPQ QFPR QFPS imeEemperture urves for the smples I to V F F F F F F F F F F F F F imeEemperture urves for the smples W to IH with provisionl yle eres of the sl tht re used for smpling F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F iletron dishrge mhining of the ylinders in the sl slie @with pigure QFQ orienttionA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F qrin size evolution for oth tested therml pth omprisonsX @A onE stnt holding temperture @IPSH nd IQSH gAD @A therml yles t IQSH g during Smin F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F hutility trough results for the three steel grdes studied t IH3 s1 strin rte on unnothed smples @ AD BD C CA F F F F F F F F F F F hutility urves of grde A for vrious smple shpes nd strin rtes F hutility urves of grde B for vrious smple shpes nd strin rtes F hutility urves of grde C for vrious smple shpes nd strin rtes F ivolution t the equilirium of the iD xD el nd preipitte quntity s funtion of temperture for steel grde A @dt provided y erelor eserhA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ivolution t the equilirium of the iD xD el nd preipitte quntity s funtion of temperture for steel grde B @dt provided y erelor eserhA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ivolution t the equilirium of the iD xD el nd preipitte quntity s funtion of temperture for steel grde C @dt provided y erelor eserhA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F hse trnsformtions for the three steel grdes studied t equilirium @flk AD ed BD flue CA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F hutility trough ginst phse trnsformtion nd preipittion stte t the equilirium for steel grde A F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F hutility trough ginst phse trnsformtion nd preipittion stte t the equilirium for steel grde B F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F hutility trough ginst phse trnsformtion nd preipittion stte t the equilirium for steel grde C F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F uineti of preipittion of xD i nd for steel omposition lose to B @dt provided y erelor eserhA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F xumeril )ow urves provided y xortonEro' lw (tted on ompresE sion tests for A @drk gryAD B @lkA nd C @light gryA t UHH g F F herml yle omprison etween ompression nd tensile tests F F F F enlysis of the grin size of the ompression test smple used t the vg pitting of the )ow urve of B grde t IHHH g F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gomprison of the xortonEro' model preditions with the experimentl )ow urves of A grde tested t WHH g t severl strin rtes F F F F F F gomprison of the xortonEro' model preditions with the experimentl )ow urves of A grde tested t IHHH g t severl strin rtes F F F F F gomprison of the xortonEro' model preditions with the experimentl )ow urves of A grde tested t IIHH g t severl strin rtes F F F F F gomprison of the xortonEro' model preditions with the experimentl )ow urves of B grde tested t WHH g t severl strin rtes F F F F F F

vii

TT TW UH UI UI UR UT UU UU UU UW UW UW VH VP VP VP VQ VR VS VT VU VV VV VV WH

viii

List of Figures
QFPT gomprison of the xortonEro' model preditions with the experimentl )ow urves of B grde tested t IHHH g t severl strin rtes F F F F F WH QFPU gomprison of the xortonEro' model preditions with the experimentl )ow urves of B grde tested t IIHH g t severl strin rtes F F F F F WH QFPV xortonEro' p2 prmeter extrpoltion to lower nd higher tempertures WI QFPW xortonEro' p3 prmeter extrpoltion to lower nd higher tempertures WP QFQH xortonEro' p4 prmeter extrpoltion to lower nd higher tempertures WQ QFQI gurves of the xortonEro' lw determined t vrious tempertures with the prmeters determined through r for strin rte of IH2 s1 F WQ QFQP gomprisons of the hot tensile nd ompression tests nd the numeril results of the simultion for ses t 1 103 s1 strin rte where lk lines represents the experimentl tensile testsD the gry lines the omE pression tests nd the dshed lines the lultion of the xortonEro' lw with the determined prmetersA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F WS QFQQ lues of the trixility t the noth root for eh speimen shpe t the simultion strt F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F WT QFQR pinite element used for the stress strin omprison F F F F F F F F F F F WW QFQS wesh design for the mesh density impt study with numer of elements per side in green F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IHH QFQT plow urves for smple meshing omprison of r numeril simulE tion with lk lines representing Mesh1D red linesD Mesh2 nd lue linesD Mesh3 F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IHI RFI RFP RFQ RFR RFS RFT RFU RFV RFW RFIH RFII RFIP RFIQ RFIR RFIS yrienttion of the mirosopi ell with regrd to the mrosopi modE els nd view of the representtive ell within the trnsition re s F gstgne did gsHU F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IHS eferene system of the mrosopi simultion nd trnsfer to the repE resenttive ell F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IHS votion of the two stressEstrin (elds reorded in representtion of the P nothed tensile test smple F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IHT PD VSH gD IH2 s1 tensile test simultion results t the root @EA nd in the ore @CA of the smple F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IHU tresses from the PD VSH gD IH2 s1 tensile test simultion @A t the root nd in the ore of the smple ompred to the results otined y loding the representtive ell @EA with the tensile test simultion reords IHV P ensile test simultion results t the root nd in the ore of the smpleIHV xodes of the representtive ell edges for the loding through BFlo (le IIH endeny of the dmge in the representtive ell F F F F F F F F F F F F IIQ sn)uene of the vrition of the prmeters Fn on the dmge evolution @C efereneD eferene E PH7 D eferene C PH7A F F F F F F F F F IIR sn)uene of the vrition of the prmeters NI on the dmge evolution @C efereneD eferene E PH7 D eferene C PH7A F F F F F F F F F IIS hree (rst rk ppernes for the vrition of di'erent prmeters F IIV reipittes string otined for grde B through iw oservtion F F IPR qrin oundry oserved on the iw mirogrphs of B grde F F F F F IPR itures otined y iw for grdes AD B nd C with n enlrgement of IWFHHHx F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IPS iw nlysis of di'erent B steel omponents on preipitte F F F F IPU

List of Figures
RFIT hetiled designtion of the testing ses studied F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFIU vodEhisplement urves otined for experimentl nd numeril se PPHVSf @leftA nd PPHWHf @rightA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFIV hmge pth for test in the sme se @QPHVS with for AD for B nd C for CA using the severl dmge prmeter djusted F F F F F F F RFIW hmge urves s funtion of the temperture for the di'erent steel grde studied with for AD for B nd C for C F F F F F F F F F F F F RFPH gomprison of the stresses otined for the sme se PPHVSf for mroE sopi nd mesosopi simultions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFPI gomprison of the irumferentil stress otined for se PD A for Q di'erent strin rtes t vrious tempertures @E wrosopiD C wesoE sopiD hmgeA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFPP gomprison of the irumferentil stress otined for se PD B for Q di'erent strin rtes t vrious tempertures @E wrosopiD C wesoE sopiD hmgeA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFPQ gomprison of the irumferentil stress otined for se C for P difE ferent strin rtes nd smple shpes t vrious tempertures @E wroE sopiD C wesosopiD hmgeA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F SFI SFP SFQ SFR SFS SFT SFU SFV SFW SFIH SFII SFIP SFIQ SFIR SFIS SFIT l pth through the ster nd referene frme for oth lultion possiilitiesD the trnsient nd the ingot simultion F F F F F F F F F F F ensor positions on the sl in the Thercast simultion for the two optionsD edge or enter prt study F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F Thercast grphil representtion of the ontinuous ster of C F F F emperture pro(le of the sl extrdos of the C se with the mrked temperture re of low neking s shown in pigure SFT F F F F F F F F F emperture pro(le of the sl intrdos of the C se with the mrked temperture re of low neking s shown in pigure SFT F F F F F F F F F hutility urves of grde C determined y r F F F F F F F F F F F F F ivolution of the stress omponents during the gg proess pplied to C the lssil ooling pro(le F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ivolution of the stress omponents during the gg proess pplied to C for the omprison etween ooling pro(les F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F xodl position of the sensor F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F eferene systems in the orresponding diretions F F F F F F F F F F F F trin (eld otined through lultions of the tetrhedron nodes disE plement F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F iquivlent strin lultion results ompred to the dt provided y Thercast F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F esults of the lulted strin omponents of the sl enter intrdos with the lssil ooling pro(le @lk lineA tht will e used for the representtive ell loding F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F Lagamine referene frme F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F tress (elds omprison etween Thercast nd Lagamine of the sl enter intrdos with the lssil ooling pro(le @ThercastD lk E LagamineD greyA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F oom on the stress (eld omprison F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

ix

IQH IQI IQV IQW IRP IRR IRT IRU ISS ISS IST ISU ISU ISV ITH ITI ITP ITQ ITR ITS ITT ITU ITV ITV

List of Figures
SFIU Estress on(gurtion omprison of the sl enter intrdos with the lssil ooling pro(le @ThercastD lk E LagamineD greyA F F F F F IUH SFIV hmge omprison etween ooling strtegies @glssil temperture pro(leD lk E wodi(ed temperture pro(leD greyA F F F F F F F F F F F F IUQ eFI S1 E IminD IPSH g E mgni(tionX 200x F eFP S1 E IminD IPSH g E mgni(tionX 500x F eFQ S2 E PminD IPSH g E mgni(tionX 200x F eFR S2 E PminD IPSH g E mgni(tionX 500x F eFS S3 E SminD IPSH g E mgni(tionX 200x F eFT S3 E SminD IPSH g E mgni(tionX 500x F eFU S4 E IHminD IPSH g E mgni(tionX 200x eFV S4 E IHminD IPSH g E mgni(tionX 500x eFW S5 E IminD IQSH g E mgni(tionX 200x F eFIH S6 E PminD IQSH g E mgni(tionX 200x F eFII S7 E SminD IQSH g E mgni(tionX 200x F eFIP S8 E IHminD IQSH g E mgni(tionX 100x eFIQ S9 E I yle E mgni(tionX 200x F F F F eFIR S10 E P yles E mgni(tionX 200x F F F eFIS S11 E Q yles E mgni(tionX 300x F F F eFIT S12 E R yles E mgni(tionX 200x F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F eFP eFP eFQ eFQ eFR eFR eFS eFS eFT eFT eFU eFU eFV eFV eFW eFW

fFI vyout of the sensitivity nlysis grphs with in the lower right orner the referene glol grph nd the enlrgements in the other prts of the piture with in the lower left ornerD the enlrgement of the nuletion strtD in the upper left ornerD the enlrgement of the nuletion end nd in the upper right ornerD the enlrgement of the dmge moment F fFP sn)uene of the vrition of the prmeters a0 on the dmge evolution @C efereneD eferene E PH7 D eferene C PH7A F F F F F F F F F fFQ sn)uene of the vrition of the prmeters b0 on the dmge evolution @C efereneD eferene E PH7 D eferene C PH7A F F F F F F F F F fFR sn)uene of the vrition of the prmeters e /B on the dmge evoluE c tion @C efereneD eferene E PH7 D eferene C PH7A F F F F F F F fFS sn)uene of the vrition of the prmeters Nmax /NI on the dmge evolution @C efereneD eferene E PH7 D eferene C PH7A F F F F fFT sn)uene of the vrition of the prmeters on the dmge evolution @C efereneD eferene E PH7 D eferene C PH7A F F F F F F F F F gFI himensions of the mounted nd polished smple E votion of the snned re of IHmm2 @tn rrowsA nd silver ypss on the fkelite F F F F F F gFP yverview of zone I E i imge F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFQ elted fi imge of zone I F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFR qenerl ih spetrum on zone I F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFS snlusion from the right side of zone I F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFT elted ih spetrum foused on inlusion of pigure gFS @g ssoiE ted with smll @elD wgAyA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFU snlusion on zone P @i smgeA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFV fi imge relted to pigure gFU F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

fFI fFP fFP fFQ fFQ fFR gFP gFQ gFQ gFQ gFQ gFQ gFR gFR

List of Figures
gFW elted ih spetrum foused on inlusion of pigure gFU nd gFV @gomE plex @elDwgAyGg typeA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFIH snlusion on zone Q @fi smgeA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFII me s pigure gFIHD with higher mpli(tion@fi smgeA F F F F F F gFIP poused ih spetrum on inlusion of zone Q @gomplex @elDwgAyGg typeA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFIQ snlusions on zone R @fi smgeA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFIR snlusion on the lower re of zone R @fi smgeA F F F F F F F F F F F F gFIS poused ih spetrum on inlusion of pigure gFIR @g typeA F F F F F gFIT snlusion on the upper right re of zone R @fi smgeA F F F F F F F F gFIU poused ih spetrum on inlusion of pigure gFIT @g typeA F F F F F gFIV snlusion on the upper left re of zone R @fi smgeA F F F F F F F F F gFIW poused ih spetrum on inlusion of pigure gFIV @g typeA F F F F F gFPH mll inlusion t the left side of igger inlusion of pigure gFIV @fi smgeA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFPI poused ih spetrum on inlusion of pigure gFPH @g typeA F F F F F gFPP yverview of zone S E fi imge F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFPQ gluster of inlusions on the right side of pigure gFPP F F F F F F F F F F gFPR poused ih spetrum on inlusion on the left side of pigure gFPQ @gomE plex gG@elDwgAy typeA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFPS poused ih spetrum on inlusion on the right side of pigure gFPQ @gomplex @elDwgAyGg typeD with smll nd unde(ned mount of iA gFPT gomplex inlusion on zone S @enterA E fi smge F F F F F F F F F F F F gFPU i imge relted to pigure gFPT F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFPV poused ih spetrum on the entre of inlusion of pigure gFPTEgFPU @g typeA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFPW poused ih spetrum on the upper zone of the inlusion of pigure gFPTEgFPU @g typeA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFQH yverview of zone TD mtrix E fi imge F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFQI qenerl ih spetrum in pigure gFQH F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFQP hrk re on the upper left side of pigure gFQH @fi smgeA F F F F F F gFQQ elted i imge of pigure gFQPD with orresponding ih mrks F F F gFQR poused ih spetrum on the left side of pigure gFQQ @drk gry re in pigure gFQPA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFQS poused ih spetrum on the left side of pigure gFQQ @light gry re in pigure gFQPA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFQT vight re on the right side of pigure gFQH @fi smgeA F F F F F F F F gFQU snlusion on the right side of pigure gFQT @fi smgeA F F F F F F F F F gFQV poused ih spetrum on the inlusion of pigure gFQU @g typeA F F F gFQW qloulr snlusion on zone U @fi smgeA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFRH i imge relted to pigure gFQW F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFRI poused ih spetrum on the mtrix in the viinity of inlusion of pigure gFQWEgFRH F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFRP qloulr snlusion on zone U @fi smgeA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFRQ i imge relted to pigure gFRP F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFRR poused ih spetrum on the light zone of inlusion @@elY wgAy ssoE ited with gA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

xi

gFR gFR gFR gFR gFS gFS gFS gFS gFS gFT gFT gFT gFT gFU gFU gFU gFU gFV gFV gFV gFV gFW gFW gFW gFW gFW gFW gFIH gFIH gFIH gFII gFII gFII gFIP gFIP gFIP

xii

List of Figures
gFRS poused ih spetrum on the enter of inlusion of pigure gFRS@@elY wgAy ssoited with gA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gFIP hFI syTRQ tle for the visul determintion of the grin size y miroE grphi nlysis F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F hFI hFP syTRQ omprison mirogrphs for the determintion of the grin size y mirogrphi nlysis F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F hFP

List of Tables

HFI IFI PFI PFP QFI QFP QFQ QFR QFS QFT QFU QFV QFW RFI RFP RFQ RFR RFS RFT RFU RFV

gomposition of the studied periteti steel grdes @in ppmA F F F F F F F ummry of the preipittion stte for the periteti steel grde fmily ummry of the di'erent dmge lw prmeters nd their wy of idenE ti(tion F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ummry of the test mpign on hot tensile test smples F F F F F F F henomintion of the smples for the therml pth study F F F F F F F F qrin size of the thermlly treted smples nlyzed y interept method @results with * hve een determined y omprison methodA F F F F F gomposition of the studied periteti steel grdes @in ppmA F F F F F F F herml yle desription of othD hot ompression nd tensile tests driven respetively t vige nd ehen F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F pitted A nd C prmeters of the xortonEro' onstitutive lw for the r F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F pitted B prmeters of the xortonEro' onstitutive lw for the r F est mpign plnning for determintion of the dmge model on P nd R smple shpes F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gorreltion study etween experimentl nd numeril r t vrious strin rtes nd on di'erent smple shpes with vlidted ses in old style F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gomprison of key prmeters of the mesh density study F F F F F F F F

Q QR RV SV UP UQ VI VS VW VW WU WV WW

lues of the referene nd modi(ed prmeters for the sensitivity nlysisIIP lues of the prmeters B D n nd 0 of the dmge lw F F F F F F F F IPH esults of ep qunti(tion on mtrix F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IPP mple on(gurtions for mirosopi nlysis F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IPQ esults of the mirosopi iw nlysis F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IPS lues of the dmge lw prmeters a0 D b0 nd determined y iw nlysis F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IPU unti(tion results of iw nlysis on one C preipitte F F F F F IPV snitil vlues of the djustle prmeters of the dmge lw used to predit frture extrted from gsHU F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IPW xiii

xiv

List of Tables
RFW RFIH RFII RFIP RFIQ RFIR RFIS RFIT RFIU RFIV RFIW RFPH SFI SFP SFQ SFR SFS truture of the dmge prmeters ury y numeril rk preE dition nd experimentl oservtion omprison F F F F F F F F F F F F IQH hmge nlysis for grde C with onstnt NI vlue F F F F F F F F F F IQP lues of the djustle prmeters of the dmge lw for grde C with onstnt NI vlue F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IQP lues of the djustle prmeters of the dmge lw for grde A F F IQQ hmge nlysis for grde A with the determined dmge prmeters F IQQ lues of the djustle prmeters of the dmge lw for grde B F F IQR hmge nlysis for grde B with the determined dmge prmeters F IQS lues of the djustle prmeters of the dmge lw for grde C F F IQS hmge nlysis for grde C with the determined dmge prmeters F IQT gomprison of the (tted dmge prmeters for ll steel grdes studied IQU gomprison of prtiulr temperture dependent NI prmeter @adjustedY extrapolated Y interpoltedA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IQU gonise omposition of the studied periteti steel grdes @in ppmA for the dmge lw prmeters study F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IQU xumeril ses studied on the C ontinuous ster F F F F F F F F F F F ret trnsfer for oth studied lssil nd modi(ed temperture proE (les determined for the study of the trnsversl rk in gg F F F F F F gorrespondene of the referene frmes for Thercast nd Lagamine odes nd lultion of the fores to pply to the representtive ellD with representtive ell size vxD vy nd vz s de(ned in etion QFQ F F snitil nodes position in m of the enter extrdos se sensor F F F F F F gorrespondene of the referene frmes for Thercast nd Lagamine odes nd lultion of the fores to pply to the representtive ellD with ell size vxD vy nd vz F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F wroEweso wroEweso wroEweso wroEweso wroEweso wroEweso )ow )ow )ow )ow )ow )ow urves urves urves urves urves urves of of of of of of
A steel grde for P smple shpe A steel grde for R smple shpe B steel grde for P smple shpe B steel grde for R smple shpe C steel grde for P smple shpe C steel grde for R smple shpe

ISQ ISR ITQ ITT IUH iFP iFP iFQ iFQ iFR iFR

iFI iFP iFQ iFR iFS iFT

F F F F F F

F F F F F F

F F F F F F

F F F F F F

F F F F F F

pFI wroEweso )ow urves of A steel grde F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F pFP pFP wroEweso )ow urves of B steel grde F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F pFQ pFQ wroEweso )ow urves of C steel grde F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F pFR

Introduction

Background of the thesis

he projet pirst his nmed eisx funded y the lloon egion hs een worked out in order to deepen the reserh into the (eld of prediting rk pperne during the gg proessF his projet gthers severl prtnersD sienti( ones s well s industril onesF

Scientic partners

 niversity of vige @deprtments erqingo E w2 p tem nd e8w E ww

temAY

 heinishEestflishe ehnishe rohshule ehen @deprtment siruAY

Industrial partners

 sndusteelX gg mill in ghrleroiY  gine 8 ev grinox eX gg mill in ghrleroi speilized in the prodution
of stinless steelsF sn this ontextD fundmentl sienti( work is done in order to determine the most importnt prmeters plying role in the dmge of gg steelsF his study is estlished s ontinune of the work on dmge modeling lredy egun t the niversity of vige gsHUF

Goal of the study

he im of the urrent study is to predit the rk pperne s funtion of di'erent prmetersD suh s mteril omposition nd thermomehnil pthD pplied to gontinuous gsting @ggAF he men is to use damage model tht predits the rk pperne t the grin sle @mesosopi sleA nd to vlidte it on peritectic steel grdes in gg onditionsF
Continuous casting

gontinuous sting of steel eme in reent yers the (rst wy to produe steel in lrge quntitiesF he tehnology nd the prodution speed hve quikly improved I

Introduction

nd the produt qulity hs inresedF o nowdysD to ontrol this proess in the est wy nd to void qulity prolemsD the omprehension of the whole proess pplied on severl steel grdes must e studiedF e relevnt prolem in the prodution of low ron nd stinless steels y ontinE uous sting is the pperne of trnsverse rksF etullyD the tempertures of the steel during the proess dereses from the liquidus temperture @ IRHH g depending on the steel grdeA to the mient pssing y very sensitive temperture rnge extendE ing from IIHH g to THH g friUUD uzVR where loss of dutility genertes wekness of the mterilF he mteril rehes in generl this sensitive temperture rnge in the unending re sHT of the ontinuous sting millF es shown in pigure HFID the sl presents di'erent stress sttes during the proessF ispeilly in the unending reD where the sl is strightenedD it presents the low dutility temperturesF

pigure HFIX sllustrtion of the di'erent stress sttes experimented y the sl during gg sHQ he trnsversl rks produed during gg proess n e relted to the steel grde ut lso to the mehnil nd the therml (elds ourring during the proessF yther ftors suh s the osilltion mrks used y the vertil osilltions of the mold n hve signi(nt e'etF he mehnil properties of steel t elevted tempertures re 'eted y severl vrilesX steel hemistryD mirostrutureD textureD strin rte nd therml historyF hus the orreltion etween high temperture dutility nd rk suseptiility in ontinuous sting hs to e studied for the ritil steel grdesF prom n industril point of viewD the study of periteti steels is fundmentl euse they re showing rks on the surfe of the sls t the exit of the gg proessF sn this prtiulr steel fmily it is importnt to hoose the right steel omposition in

order to study more preisely the uses suspeted to e the most detrimentl for rk pperneF
Peritectic steel grades

yut of the periteti steel fmilyD three di'erent grdes re hosen for their di'erent ndium @A nd xioium @xA ontent @le HFIAF teel C enles the study of the x preipittes on one hndF hen with A the ddition of on the rk sensitivity ould e determinedF pinlly steel B shows the sensitivity of high xD high steelF x nd preipittes re known to e detrimentl for the mteril dutilityF husD the study of these steels enles the qunti(tion of the preipittes in)uene on the rk pperneF xot only the quntityD ut lso the distriutionD the sizeD the shpe nd the position of these preipittes re tken into ount through the dmge model usedF

Steel grade
A B C

g IURV SUT IUWH

i IVQ PPPT QPSQ

wn IRUHP ITPPH IPIRW

IIU IIW VH

i ISI ITQ QU

x SR RS SV

V Nb el 60 139 QIQ TT 20 668 QWT PR 1 161 RHQ V

le HFIX gomposition of the studied periteti steel grdes @in ppmA

Stainless steel grades

he initil projet of the thesis ws lso to over the stinless steel fmily s some grde n present trnsversl rksF hisussion with the industril prtner on the mteril hoie me to the seletion of the two following steel grdesF

AISI 304L X efter gg this steel shows lmost totlly usteniti struture @PER7 ferriteD WTEWV7 usteniteA AISI 410 X his steel shows iphsi struture omposed of ustenite nd lso ferrite grins @SH7 ferriteD SH7 usteniteA
heir interest ws the possiility to study the in)uene of the grin size nd phse on the rk pperneF sndeedD the ferriti grins re smller thn the usteniti ones nd thus di'erent mirostrutures re hosenF rowever unexpeted prolems in the experimentl mpign s well s delys in the numeril pplitions explin tht the thesis does not present ny dmge model identi(tion nd gg pplition on stinless steelF xeverthelessD some mehnil tests to determine the rheologil prmeters of these steel grdes nd literture review were performed nd delivered to industril prtners through internl reportsF
Fracture mechanisms

sn the temperture rnge strting t THH g nd going up to IIHH gD the rk propgtion for the low ron steel is known to e intergrnulr nd severl rupture mehnisms hve een detetedF hey re supposed to omine to indue the frture of the sl shellF he min dmge mehnism is grin oundry slidingD whih is

Introduction

ompnied y reep ontrolled di'usion winWIF hese frture mehnisms hve to e understood nd studied in order to develop mesosopi model dpted to the ontinuous sting seF etully the frture model used in the urrent thesis is sed on the opening of the rks t the grin oundry thnks to interfe elements oupled with spei( dmge lwF his lw hs een implemented y ylvie gstgne in the (nite element Lagamine ode gsHUD developed nd used y the deprtment w2 p t the niversity of vigeF his model hs een developed for mirolloyed steels nd hs lredy een vlidted on those grdesF

Experimental study
sn F gstgne9s work on the identi(tion of the dmge lw prmetersD the experE imentl pproh ws to perform ompression tests on ylindril smples gsHUF hese ompression tests showed irumferentil tensile stresses leding to frtureF he dmge model developed is dpted to detet rk pperne in tensionF nfortuE ntely the high ompression stress omponents mde di0ult the identi(tion of the dmge prmeters of the modelD whih ws silly developed for tensionF he originlity of the urrent thesis is to (nd other wys to identify the dmge lw prmeters on the sis of tensile tests performed t elevted tempertures on irumferentil nothed smplesF fetween IIHH nd THH g the dutility is strongly deresing nd the mteril enters ritil temperture re where the mehnil properties tends to dereseF his phenomenon n e followed thnks dutility urves tht re drwn from the results of hot tensile testsF hese tests re espeilly dpted to predit the surfe rking in the ontinuous sting proessF sndeedD t prtiulr temperture dutility loss ppers tht is hrterized y the redution in the neking of the tensile test smpleF he di'erent prmeters 'eting the depth nd the width of the dutility trough re the hemil ompositionD the trnsformtion ustenite to ferriteD the grin sizeD the strin rte yuVPD ueWS nd the thermomehnil pth ueWSF hese mteril dt s well s the thermomehnil history hve to e de(ned very preisely in greement with the vlues found in the proess in order to get urte results linked to the industril oservtionsF husD good knowledge of the proess is required in order to properly set the test mpignF he methodology followed in this thesis n e divided into four min prtsX

experimental nlyses for the djustment of the rheology of the severl studied mterilsD microscopic nlyses for the design of the numeril mesosopi representtive ellD simulation of the tensile tests performed experimentlly for the lirtion of the dmge model for the studied steel grdesD application to the gg proess nd vlidtion of the model on n industril seF

Outline of this thesis

his report is orgnized s followsX efter this rief introductionD the prtil prolem we re fing is desriedF Chapter 1 ontins the literature review in the (eld of frture predition in ggF pirstD the desription of the periteti steel fmily is doneD giving its properties nd explining its di'erent hrteristis in terms of mirogrphi morphology nd mehE nism of preipittes pperneF henD this hpter presents the di'erent defets reported in the gg proess nd espeilly those deteted in periteti steelsF he mehnisms thought to indue the frture re enumerted through literture reE viewF heir role is explined y nlyzing the experimentl tests used to hrterize the dutility lossF his phenomenon is lso detiled in order to understnd the mehE nisms of rking in steelsF pinllyD the di'erent lloying elements present in the steels re enumerted nd their respetive e'ets on frture re presentedF

Chapter 2 presents the damage modelD its identi(tion method nd how to use it on gg seF he implementtion of the fracture model in the Lagamine ode

is presented nd explinedF he di'erent dmge lw prmeters re listed nd the experimentl wys to identify their vlues re exposedF he spei( tretment of the smples pplied in order to hve representtive experimentl test re)eting the rel proess is desriedF pinlly this hpter ontins the explntion of the onstrution of numeril ell representtive of the steel mirostrutureD nd the wy the onstrints re pplied to itF

Chapter 3 desries the experimentl test mpign to determine the rheological parametersF heir results re nlyzed in regrd to the dutility loss t ritil

rnge of tempertureF e mrosopi ehvior rheology lw is then identi(edF he mesosopi ell nd the experimentl test mpign to determine the dmge lw prmeters re de(ned ording to the experimentl results s well s the industril informtion out the mrosopi stressD strin nd temperture historiesF nlysisF st desries the di'erent hoies required to otin n urte dmge prmeters setF he (nl set is then disussed trying to link the numerilly identi(ed vlues to the physis underlying the prmeters nd the hemil ompositionF

Chapter 4 is foused on the damage model parameters identication nd

Chapter 5 presents the application on CC processF ell the steps of the deE termintion of the dmge in the C se re presented in detils in this hpterF he mrosopi results re nlyzedF he dt trnsfer from mrosopi to mesosopi simultions is explined nd the prolems whih hve een experiened re presented thereF pinllyD qulittive results of the mesosopi study re given nd onlusions re drwn from the results for the further industril use of the modelF
he conclusion strikes the lne of the thesis workF sts originlityD lks nd suesses re reportedF erspetives over development of the model towrd other steel grdes or numeril improvement for othD the model nd its identi(tion methodolE ogy re presentedF

Chapter 1

Literature review

he following literture review tries to give n urte overview in severl (elds relted to this studyF st is orgnized in six setionsD eh one foused on spei( topiX

Section 1.1: pei(ities of the periteti steel mirostruture Section 1.2: hefets nd low dutility region in gg proess Section 1.3: prture mehnisms in hot proess for periteti steelsD their hrterE
iztion nd desription of the gg se

Section 1.4: rot dutility tests nd the linked dmge mehnisms Section 1.5: eview of the di'erent wys to hrterize hot dutility Section 1.6: i'et of the mirolloying elements ontined in the periteti steel
grdes

1.1 Peritectic steels

he ontinuous sting proess is very time nd money sving proessF hus it hs een dpted to di'erent steel fmilies of whih the low ron steel represents high volume of produtionF his work fouses on this kind of steelF husD this thesis strts with presenttion of this steel fmilyD showing its dmge mehnisms nd its mirostruture to whih the dmge is strongly linkedF he periteti grdes re used for every dy pplitions nd more preisely in welded onstrutions nd eletri household pplinesF

1.1.1 Peritectic transformation

teel grdes present three phse trnsformtions during the ooling @pigure IFIAF he est known phse trnsformtions is the euteti retion in whih the liquid is diretly trnsformed into unique solid phseF he periteti steel grdes @AD B nd CA undergo the so lled periteti retion @pigure IFIAF sn the periteti seD liquid @vA nd solid @A phse in (xed proportions trnsform t given temperture to form single solid phse @ AF es shown on the peEg phse digrm @pigure IFPA the irle U

Chapter 1 Literature review

pigure IFIX ossile retions etween three phses in the se of inry system

pigure IFPX peEg digrm

1.1 Peritectic steels

surrounds the re where the periteti retion oursF his retion tkes ple ner the upperEleft orner etween liquid steel @vAD solid @ferrite A nd gives solid @ustenite AD for low ron ontents @HFIU mss perent of ronA t temperture round IRWS gF

1.1.2 Peritectic steel grains microstructure

he grin size is n importnt prmeter nd must e known euse of its e'et on the dutility of the mterilF sndeedD the dutility eomes worse with inresing grin size winWWF sn other wordsD (ner grin size should led to higher dutility ueWSF iven if the re(ning of the grin size will inrese the mount of grin oundry sliding eshUPD this phenomenon is more thn ompensted yX

the resistne to rk propgtionD where the grin meet triple pointF hereD the smller stress onentrtion re ssoited with shorter rk lengthY the inrese in spei( grin oundry re whih will redue the preipitte density on the grin oundry winWWF
ome empiril models for grin growth predition exists ut unfortuntely it hs een demonstrted tht these di'erent models re indequte for quntittive prediE tion of ustenite grin growth during reheting of sEst mirostrutures in mirolE loyed steels wnWTF st is thus importnt to determine the grin size with mirosopi nlyses of sEst steels nd to hoose one men grin size s refereneF he vlues of the usteniti @ A grin size elong to very lrge rnge s they di'er ording the di'erent studiesF his oservtion is generlly due to the di'erent temperture pths pplied to the smples efore testingF pirst of llD it is importnt to know the tul size of the ustenite grins in gg onditionsF qenerlly the studies reported herefter re performed on steels tht hve lmost the sme omposition s grde AF st is however importnt to note tht ll the periteti steel grdes studied present pproximtely identil mirostrutureF he di'erenes pper in the mirolloying elements ontents nd lso in the preipitte ontentF oD the size of the ustenite grins for onventionl steels is out PHHm gonHIF he shpe of the ustenite grins ould lso hve n in)ueneF sn slsD we do not (nd only equixil grins ut lso orse olumnr grins tht my e prt of the prolem of trnsverse rking ueWSF

1.1.3 Precipitation state in peritectic steels

sn mehnil point of viewD in order to hve resistnt low ron steelsD it is imporE tnt to dd some lloying elements tht will e present in the steel during the whole prodution proessF sn the frme of ggD the lloying elements will pper s growing preipittes depending on the temperture rehedF he preipittes present in the smples should e like the one generted in the sl just fter solidi(tion in order to provide representtive physil simultionsF iven

IH

Chapter 1 Literature review

if the gol of the wnted mirostruture is knownD it is quite hrd to reh euse of severl vriles in the smple tretment proedureF st is often preferred to hve no preipitte t the initil test step @gol of the sensitiztionGnneling proedureA nd pply n djusted history to try to reover the right preipitte size nd nture to strt with the est pprohing mteril possileF sn most of the literture winWWD evWRD nHSD hvHRD winWID roHHD wohHPD uzVRD weVU sensitiztion proedure is pplied ut there were seldom inditions out the (nl grin size nd if the preipittes re indeed eliminted efore regenerE tion of the mirostrutureF he study of the preipittes ompositionD size nd position in periteti steels of the sl during the gg proess is doneF uh dt is found in literture nd some pitures of preipittes re tkenF he preipittes re mostly ronitrides @gDxA of itniumD xioiumD ndium nd others presented in the desription of the e'et of the preipittes @etion IFTAF he men grin size of the @gDxA preipittes is out P to PSnm gonHI nd the deteted @gDxA re rndomly distriuted in the mtrix gonHIF he e'et of the preipittion stte on the rk suseptiility of di'erent mirolE loying systems hs een investigted vudHUF hey re listed herefterX

he preipittes tht present uoid or rod shpesD seem to indue surfe rkE ing even t low volumes of the sted slY illiptil preipittes re worse thn spheril preipittesY tringEtype preipittes pper t the prior usteniti grin oundry nd so they re situted in the (nl grin mtrixF hey re expeted to produe grin oundry rksF

1.1.4 Steel microstructure observed in laboratory: challenges of sensitization

sn vrious studiesD the experimentl simultion of the gg proess egins with reheting the smple to high tempertureD lled sensitiztion tempertureF his temperture @pproximtely IQSH g ording to wintz winWWA is held for few minutes nd this step is ment to dissolve ll the preipittes tht ould e presentF hus the smple is ssumed to e in the identil stte s it just me from the liquid phse without presene of preipittes t llF es seen eforeD the mirostruture of the steel n e worsening ftor for the integrity of the mterilF iven smll hnges n in)uene the frture of the steelF o the reserhers hve nlyzed the di'erent smple heting nd ooling proedures in order to know if the struture otined is truly the one present during the gg proessF rerefter re listed the di'erent mesured grin sizes for di'erent therml tretE mentsF yften the heting over de(ned temperture involves n enlrging of the grinsF sndeedD the grin size rehed y reheting t IQHH g for S min ws round RSHETHHm wohHPD exept the iEdded steel for whih the grin size ws round

1.1 Peritectic steels

II

PHHmF elso steels heted to IQQH gD without holding temperture periodD otin orse grin size of pproximtively PHHm winWTF herml tretment of QHs t WSH g involves IH to PHm grin sizeD nd therml tretment of Ss t IQHH g involves grin size of out IHHm gonHIF mples heted to IIUS g in PHmin nd held t this temperture for ISmin showed orse grin size of out PRHm winWWF e smple heted in the sme wy to IHHH g showed (ner grin size of out VHm winWWF pigure IFQ gives the literture results ompiltion of the grin size ginst sensitizE tion time nd tempertureF st n e oserved tht the inresing temperture uses grin size inrese for lmost the sme holding timeF et higher holding timesD the grin size is igger t the sme tempertureF

1200 Min99a 1000 80 800 240 Min99b Grain size [m]

Holding time [s]

600 Moh02 400 500 200 Con01 0 900 -200 Temperature [C] 15 1000 1100 1200 100 1300 200 1400 Min96

pigure IFQX gompiltion of grin size t high temperture gthered from literture

es mentioned eforeD the grin size will oviously grow with the reheting of the smple in funtion of temperture nd holding timeF xeverthelessD in few referenes it ws mentioned tht the grin size of reheted speimens is P to S times (ner thn in sE st mterils ueWSF nfortuntely this ssertion is not supported with experimentl resultsF pinllyD it is ommonly epted tht sensitiztion is su0ient to produe the miE rostruture nd the hot dutilities tht re representtive of speimens whih hve een melted nd then solidi(ed ueWSF husD it is ovious tht the gg grin size ould e rehed in the tested smples s long s n dpted therml tretment is ppliedF his point ws tken into ount during the de(nition of the experimentl tests nd is desried in etion PFQF

IP

Chapter 1 Literature review

1.2 Defects in CC products

gontinuous sting is very helpful proess for the steel industryF sndeedD the produE tion of steel in the form of slsD looms or illets is very importnt for produtivityF gg is one of the (rst steps of the steel produtionF he melted steel produed is going through the ster in order to produe semiE(nished produt tht n e sold or onventionlly enter the next step of the prodution whih is generlly the hotErolling proessF et this stepD the ontinuous sting produts should not show ny defets nd e dpted to the requirements of the next industril stepsF ith timeD the proess hd to e dpted to the modern relityF st eme more nd more e0ient in terms of speed nd of money svingD with onstnt inresing of the steels qulityF enywyD the sls still present smll defetsF he di'erent defets hve een registered nd re shown in pigure IFRF

1.2.1 Regions of low ductility

es seen in pigure IFRD the defets in the gg sl hve een widely studied nd huge numer of di'erent forms hs een lssi(edF he defets investigted in this study re only the nerEsurfe rksF grk formtion on surfe is relted to sl surfe temperture where interdendriti or intergrnulr deohesion n e used y emrittlement phenomenF ome interesting reviews re ville out the wide rnge of surfe defets of periteti steels ppering in gg olWU or more preisely out the trnsversl defets winWIF olf estlished n historil stte of the rt in the (eld of hot dutility @pigure IFSA where the rk pperne is relted to the mirostruture of the steel tht is evolving with tempertureF sn erly studiesD uzuki @pigure IFS uzVPA reported out three regions of low dutilityF his knowledge hs een enrihed y the dmge mehnisms nlysis s presented in pigures IFS nd IFS nd developed herefterF

he low dutility re I tht is seen t tempertures ove IQHH g is ommonly onneted to olumnr dendriti strutureF et this moment @IQHH gA the liquid steel hs just strted its trnsformtion into liquid C solid stteF he solid phse grows from the sl shell towrds the oreF gommonly this trnsformtion hppens on the sl shell just efore the steel goes out of the mold nd enters the (rst hed rolls of the strndF sn this temperture rnge the steel is very sensitive to rk pperneF his on(gurtion is known to e responsile for the formtion of internl rks nd surfe longitudinl rks olWUF
en industril se of longitudinl rk @pigure IFT@AA hs een studied in order to know if it n e inserted in this projet even if the dmge model developed is intended to trnsversl intergrnulr rk pperneF efter nlyzing the rk pperne in the mirosopi level it ws estlished tht the longitudinl rks in this steel grde @lmost the sme omposition s CA is intrgrnulr @pigure IFT@AAF he dmge model is unfortuntely not le to detet the intrgrnulr rk pperneD thus this steel grde ws dismissed of the study nd repled y C tht presents intergrnulr trnsversl rksF

he low dutility regions II nd III re ommonly studied together s showed in further studies of dutility urves @pigure IFS hoVTA where only di'erentiE

1.2 Defects in CC products

IQ

pigure IFRX osition nd defet type in the gg sl friUU

pigure IFSX hemti evolution of the knowledge out the low dutility regions of periteti steels in the hot tensile test of inEsitu solidi(ed speimens olWU

IR

Chapter 1 Literature review

(a)

(b)

pigure IFTX wrosopi @A nd mirosopi @A view of longitudinl rk on periteti steel grde fter the gg proess @dt provided y erelor eserhA tion is mde etween low dutility region IIa nd IIbF sn this temperture rnge going from IIHH g to THH g the rks re mostly intergrnulr nd trnsversl due to orse ustenite grin size or to deep osilltion mrks olWUF woreoverD the mirostruture of the steel is n importnt ftor for rk pperne s investigted y hwerdtfeger hWPF sndeedD trnsversl rks re generlly relted to the presene of solule lloying elements s eluminum @elAD xioium @xA nd ndium @AF his study hWP is of prime interest sine it hs een prtilly foused on low ron steel grdesF his type of dmge hs lso een prtilly deteted @gg mills of the industril prtnersA on stinless steels nd is ssumed to e due to the ferrite (lms formed during oolingF

1.2.2 Transversal cracks

he rks reD most of the timeD situted on the wide fesD ner the ornersD even if they ould 'et the whole width of the sl in se of defet risis gonHIF st is lso ovious tht the trnsversl rks re often ssoited to osilltion mrks @rgrph IFQFPA tht re used y the osilltion of the mold t the eginning of the gg proessF gontrry to the longitudinl rks tht re hugeD the trnsversl rks re smll gonHI nd n penetrte to depth of SEVmm elow the surfe of the sl winWIF wo di'erent depths hve een found for the rks @pigure IFUAF ome re peneE trting the surfe @surfe rksA nd others re loted some miroE or millimeters elow the surfe @susurfe rksA golVSF urfe rks re extremely deleterious s they re esily oxidized ndD onseE quentlyD nnot e welded together during hot deformtion ueWSF he most ritil se is rehed euse the trnsversl rks often re not visile on the sl t the end of the ontinuous sting proess nd thus they re deteted only during the folE lowing rolling proessF herefore the periteti steel sls re systemtilly milled efore exiting the ontinuous sting prodution reF his step mens loss of timeD

1.3 Fracture analysis

IS

pigure IFUX ypes of segregted rks during gg pHQ of mteril nd onsequently of moneyF

1.3 Fracture analysis

teels present di'erent frture mehnisms depending on the therml nd mehnil historiesF husD t (rstD it is importnt to nlyze the frture mehnisms of the periE teti steel fmily y studying the spei( frture mp nd the other prtiulritiesD relted to the gg seD tht led to frtureF

1.3.1 Fracture mechanisms map

he frture mehnisms mp of pure iron gives us inditions out the mehnisms involved in the frture of the steels studiedF sndeedD looking t the pure iron mp @pigure IFVA it is ovious tht for the prtiulr gg onditionsD iFeF high temperture nd low stress @lower right orner on the pitureA the mehnism of frture is the intergranular creep damageF

1.3.2 CC particular elements leading to fracture

1.3.2.1 Oscillation marks
wirolloyed preipittes ssoited with 4hook4 or 4fold4 osilltion mrks @pigure IFWAD espeilly those with mirosegregtionD will inrese the proility of trnsverse rking vudHUD weVUF ysilltion mrks re regions with high interdendriti segreE gtion of elements s phosphorF he gp etween the strnd nd the wter ooled mold is lrger t the ple of the osilltion mrkD so tht the rte of het extrtion is redued in these regionsD fvoring oth orse grin struture nd thinner shell winWIF woreoverD the osilltion mrks n ehve s nothesD introduing high lolized stress onentrtions mking the mteril more rittle winWIF

IT

Chapter 1 Literature review

pigure IFVX prture mehnism mp for pure iron for vrious grin size xs

(a)

(b)

(c)

pigure IFWX glssi(tion of osilltion mrks into three typesY @AhookD @Adepression nd @Afolded depression type in gg pHQ

1.3 Fracture analysis

IU

1.3.2.2

Mechanical constrains

he stresses nd strins imposed to the sl during gg ply n importnt role in the mteril dmgeF st is supposed tht mehnil strins nd stressesD used y interE roll ulging nd therml grdients indued y seondry oolingD even if very lowD n led to surfe rking efore ending or strightening of the strnd worHIF

1.3.2.3

Austenite to ferrite transformation

et the thermodynmil equiliriumD the ustenite @ A ferrite @A trnsformtion egins round VSH g nd ends eyond USH gF fut in gg onditions there is no thermoE dynmi equilirium euse of the high ooling rte nd the eginning of the phse trnsformtion is shifted to lower tempertures @IHH g lowerAD depending strongly on the ooling rte worHID wnWTF st is importnt to note this vritionX the temperture in the gg proess dereses t the eginning from the liquid to VHH g nd then inreses gin to IHHH g euse of the liquid ore tht hets up the solid shell t the outgoing of the moldF his mens tht the steel n undergo this sitution more thn one or during longer lp of timeF his phenomenon n indue derese of the dutility if the temperture hs een low enough to trnsform @er3 temperture round VSH g t the equilirium in pigure IFIHAF sndeedD the preipittion of deleterious ronitrides will e elerted sine the soluility of g in is muh lower thn in ueWSF

pigure IFIHX inlrgement of the ritil re where dutility n e deresed y the therml pth of the sl shell

IV

Chapter 1 Literature review

xot only the ooling rte ut lso the present preipittes n indue hnge in the trnsformtion tempertureF es one n see in pigure IFII@A preipittes of x nd inreses the strength of the mteril @gEwn steelA ut shifts lso the trnsition temperture to lower onesF he derese of the er3 temperture is of out IH to RH gF pigure IFII@A shows the reltive energy of di'erent lloying elements to t s ustenite former or s ferrite formerF st n e oserved thtD x nd re ferrite formerF his mens tht the re is redued if the elements re dded to the steelF hs pprently huger e'et on the shift of the trnsition tempertureF

(a) Eect of alloying elements for a C-Mn steel on strength and transformation temperature [MATTER]

(b) Relative energy of dierent alloying element acting as ferrite- or austenite former [Ble04]

pigure IFIIX i'et of lloying elements on the steel mirostruture

he deformtion of the smple indues lso shift in the trnsformtion temE pertureF hen the deformtion is importntD the trnsition temperture inreses worHIF roweverD diltometri study worHI shows tht the therml yling in the gg proess does not 'et the er3 temperture nd no yli trnsformtion is ourringF ht implies tht onsequenes of yli phse trnsformtion @mehnil ylingD inrese in preipittion quntityA re not expeted in gg proessF

1.3.2.4

Dynamic recrystallization

ome uthors reported for xEering steelsD the ft tht dynmi rerystlliztion tkes ple in the gg proess during the ending nd unending opertion nd tht the loss of dutility in the C region is due to the redution of dynmi rerystlliztion yuVPF sndeedD the x preipittes form s x@gDxA t the ustenite grin oundries preventing the ourrene of dynmi rerystlliztionD enourging the grin oundry sliding nd giving rise to low dutility intergrnulr filure wohHPF roweverD it hs lso een oserved tht the dynmi rerystlliztion is not very prole euse of the low vlues of deformtion in the ontinuous sting proess gonHIF

1.4 Hot ductility analysis

IW

1.4 Hot ductility analysis

1.4.1 Ductility curves
he dutility urves re helpful for the determintion of the dmge onditionsF hey re otined y tensile tests on ylindril smples performed t di'erent tempertures eginning t liquidus temperture nd ending t room tempertureF en exmple from the literture of the otined urves is shown in pigure IFIP where the grde ontining HFHPW7 of x is similr to the grde A in this study wohHPF es short remrkD one n see tht the ddition of in the steel deepens nd widens the troughF his study demonstrtes lso tht x presents the sme e'et even for low ddition of this omponentF

pigure IFIPX ixmple of dutility urve otined y hot tensile tests wohHP es the strin rte in)uenes the dutility of the mterilD it is kept onstnt during the di'erent testsF he urves represent the redution of reD lled nekingD on the tempertureF he neking is expressed in perent nd symolize the redution of re of the smple @pigure IFIQ nd iqution IFIAF e shemti dutility urve is shown in pigure IFIRF sn the temperture re whih is of speil interest in the urrent thesis @THH to IIHH gA the urve is mde of three distint regions where di'erent mehnisms of frture re ting on the mterilF he urve n e dividedD s written eforeD into three zonesF wo res present high dutility nd the other one is the soElled dutility trough where the neking of the steel is very low @ommonly lower thn SH7A nd thusD the dutility is dF he zones from the highest to the lowest temperture n e respetively lled righ hutility

PH

Chapter 1 Literature review

Necking =

Dinitial Dnal 100 @IFIA Dinitial

pigure IFIQX glultion of the neking for the determintion of the dutility of the mteril

pigure IFIRX qenerl shpe of dutility urve in the se of periteti steel in ondiE tions similr to thos of gg

1.4 Hot ductility analysis

PI

righ temperture re @rhrAD dutility trough nd righ hutility vow temperture re @rhvAF hese di'erent res re presented in the following prgrphsF rtillyD hot dutility @or neking vlueA of more thn QH7 redution on re is desirle if trnsverse rking prolems re to e voided ueWSF he dutility trough represents then the temperture re where the filure will ourF he following prgrphs re deling with the dutility trough nd the wy rks re ppering in or round this reF pilure is enourged y the presene of grin oundry preipE ittes nd inlusions @the (nerD the more detrimentlAD orser grin sizeD nd lower strin rtes winWIF he propgtion of the rk will e filitted y orse miE rostruture gonHIF he wy ll these mteril spei(ities re ting is detiled herefterF

1.4.2 High ductility high temperature zone

he rhr zone is the high dutility re present t high temperturesF es shown in pigure IFIHD the periteti steel is in the stte t elevted temperturesF sn this regionD there is no intergrnulr preipittion of ny ride or nitride s the temperture is too high for the di'erent omponentsF et these tempertures the grin oundries re still le to move nd thus to migrte nd dynmi reovery n our so tht the mtrix remins sfe of ny defetF

1.4.3 Transition HDH to embrittlement

es the temperture goes downD ferrite (lm ppers t the usteniti grin oundriesF his ferrite (lm indues stress onentrtions winWI nd is fvorle to rk eventsF he dutility egins therefore to dereseF sntergrnulr rk n our t prtiulr stge in trnsformtion when thin (lm @SEPHmA of ferrite hs formed round the ustenite grins @pigure IFISAF he ferrite (lm is muh softer thn the ustenite grin so the strin onentrtes in this (lmD onsequently leding to dutile voiding winWIF he ferrite (lm ould e deformtion indued nd thus form efore the er3 trnsformtion temperture tht is oserved t the equilirium winWIF edge shped rks re often present t the interfe etween the prior ustenite grin oundries nd the thin ferrite (lmsF hey re presumly formed y sher displement of ustenite grins long the softer ferrite ndsD rther thn y onvenE tionl grin oundry sliding winWIF he mirorks pper long the ferrite grin oundry worHI nd their formtion ourred y the presene of grin oundry vities gonHIF en dditionl ftor in this temperture rnge @generlly WHH gA is tht ertin quntity of preipittes egins to pper nd to use drop in dutilityF pinllyD deresing tempertures led to higher )ow stresses while dynmi reovery deresesD whih inreses the stress onentrtions t the rk nuletion sites winWIF

PP

Chapter 1 Literature review

pigure IFISX perrite (lm indued rking during trnsformtion for periteti steels winWI

1.4.4 Ductility trough

he seond region of the urve is the dutility trough tht is generlly situted etween UHH nd WHH gF et these tempertures the grin oundries re sturted with rides or ronitridesF he dutility trough is invrily ssoited with intergrnulr frture winWID ueWSF he frture fets present di'erent reking pttern @pigure IFITAF wo di'erent types of fets n e seenD the fets overed with (ne dimples or mirovoids tht re rough nd lso very smooth fetsF his oservtion suggests two distint frture mehnismsF hese mehnisms re the mirovoid olesene for the (rst fet type nd the grin oundry sliding for the seond type winWID winWWF foth mehnisms re presented herefterF

1.4.4.1

Austenitic grain boundary sliding (rupture at triple point)

sn the lower temperture of the ustenite phseD restortion proesses suh s dynmi reovery or dynmi rerystlliztion eome di0ultF husD plsti deformtion proE gresses vi grin oundry slidingD whih uses wedge type rks t the grin oundE ry triple point @pigure IFIUAF sf there re preipittes t the grin oundryD they t s nulei for void formtion uzVRF oD the higher temperture side of the dutility trough orresponds to the limiting temperture of the restortion proess while the lower side is determined y the grin oundry sliding or y the trnsformtion uzVRF eusteniti grin oundry sliding my e neessry ondition for initition of grin oundry rkD ut it is not the ontrolling ftor of hot dutility yuVPD prHIF he grin oundry sliding preferentilly ours in ustenite euse in ferriteD reovery is fvored ueWSF por some uthors uzVR the grin oundry sliding is mjor emrittlement ftor for plin g steels @pigure IFIVAF

1.4 Hot ductility analysis

PQ

pigure IFITX sllustrtion of frture surfes of x ontining steel winWQ

pigure IFIUX sllustrtion of the dmge initition t triple grin oundries ueWSD winWI

pigure IFIVX sllustrtion of the grin oundry sliding @A nd frture pperne @A in periteti steel pulled t USH g nd aS IH3 s1 uzVR

PR

Chapter 1 Literature review

sndeedD the ustenite shows only limited dynmi reovery tht prevents the ommodtion of the lttie winWIF he stresses uilt up t triple points or grin oundry prtiles led to intergrnulr filure y nuletion of grin oundry rks @pigure IFIUAF his rupture mehnism is usully ssoited with reepD the ltter ourring t strin rtes typilly elow IH4 s1 winWIF he sliding leds to the formtion of vities t the grin oundries tht re the (rst nuletion points of the voids winWIF husD it must e noted tht the filure t grin oundries n our without presene of ny prtiles or preipittes t the grin oundry winWIF roweverD the rks formtion y sliding is fvored y the presene of intergrnulr prtiles winWIF

1.4.4.2

Creep rupture (void nucleation, growth and coalescence)

he rupture mehnism y reep is divided in three stgesY the nuletion of miroE vities t the usteniti grin oundriesD then the vities grow nd (nlly they join together gonHID prHIF he preferentil sites for void initition nd frture progress y void olesene nd rk propgtion long the grin oundry re preipittes ueWSF he nuletion is ontinuous proessD the growth is proportionl to the inrement of the equivlent plsti deformtion nd is n exponentil funtion of the stress trixE ility prHIF he stress trixility should e tken into ount for the growth stge prHIF por trixilities higher thn QD the growth of the vity does not depend on the inlusion form prHIF he (nl filure ours y neking etween the reted voidsF he frture is loE lized t the ustenite grin oundry with intergrnulr filureF st ws oserved s mixture of two modesD intergrnulr deohesion nd intergrnulr mirovoid olesE eneD the seond eing more importnt groVUD wohHPF sndeedD the plsti deformE tion n e lolized t the grin oundries nd indue stress onentrtions whih will inrese intergrnulr deohesions gonHIF por exmpleD preipitteEfree zones re res where the plsti deformtion is onentrted ueWSF sn xEontining steels tht hve een sensitized efore ooling to the test temperE tureD preipittion tkes ple during deformtion in the usteniteF he preipittes re lolized t the grin oundries nd re ompnied with preipittesEfree zone on oth sides of the oundry winWIF e wek zone is thus forming nd the rupture tkes ple similrly to the ferrite (lm indued frture @pigure IFIWAF qenerllyD voids pper (rst t lrger inlusions nd then progressively t smller prtiles winWIF reipittion of nitrides ndGor rides plys n importnt role in the frture ehvior groVUF sndeedD the preipittion of the lloying elements genertes the strength nd properties in the (nl rolled produt ut the preipittes on the gg re drwk euse they redue the dutility t high temperture nd enles surfe rking on the sEst semi produts vudHUF sn dutile frtureD inlusions plys n importnt roleF he frture pth is then ontrolled y the high inlusion zone nd direts its pth through the inlusions gruSW for the se of the periteti steel grdesF

1.4 Hot ductility analysis

PS

pigure IFIWX sllustrtion of the mehnism of mirovoid olesene indued rking for periteti steels winWI

1.4.5 Transition embrittlement to HDL

huring the testD when the temperture deresed under the er3 temperture @see pigure IFP the line etween the letters qy nd AD thiker ferrite (lm forms round the grin oundries nd leds to reovery of the dutility winWIF sn this region high volume frtion of ferrite is presentF husD the strin onenE trtion is more di'use thn it ws in the thin ferrite (lm formed during ooling winWIF woreoverD with deresing temperture the strength di'erentil etween ustenite nd ferrite dereses winWI nd thus the dutility improvesF perrite hs good dynmi reovery nd so the dutility is high with n importnt perentge of ferriteF husD the ferrite quikly )ows t triple points to relieve stress onentrtions nd disourging the initition of sliding rks winWIF

1.4.6 High ductility low temperature zone

sn the re situted in the high dutility region t lower temperturesD the grin oundE ries re sturted with ridesF he dutility reovers euse there is grin oundE ry sliding t lower temperturesD due to the inresed ferrite quntity soD less stress onentrtions nd the dynmi reovery n ourF righer ferrite (lm thikness inreses hot dutility when it eomes more importnt yuVPD gonHID worHID gumHSF sn the C region @USH gA the frture is ontrolled y the thikness of the ferrite (lm yuVPD ueWS @pigure IFPHAF he dutility inreses when the proportion of ferrite rehes vlues of 10% gonHID worHIF

PT

Chapter 1 Literature review

pigure IFPHX sllustrtion of the dmge t the ferrite (lm for the periteti steel fmily in the se of trnsversl frture uzVR

1.5 Mechanical tests

sn order to e representtive of the gg proess relityD the mehnil tests should e dpted nd urtely simulte the stressEstrin (eld found in the rel seF hi'erent tests hve een imgined in order to simulte the gg proess s urtely s possileF he tests tht re usully used re the hot tensile testD the ompression ousti rk testD the hot ending testD the ftigue test or the torsion test presented in the following setionsF et high tempertureD the strengthD dutilityD deformtion nd frture hrterisE tis re strongly 'eted y strin rteD grin sizeD prior historyF iven the tmosphere in whih the tests re performed is of high importne qrSWF husD it is essentil to de(ne the test onditions quite preisely in order to otin signi(nt dt tht ould e pplied in gg studyF st is lso importnt to hve test dpted to the rel ondiE tionsF e hve hene to understnd the di'erent tests ville nd previously used y other uthors in order to hoose the more suitle for our studyF sn this perspetiveD some of the di'erent ville tests re exposed herefter with their dvntges nd drwksF snformtion from hot tensile testing hs een found to e very useful in prediting the likelihood of trnsverse rking under sting onditions winWIF his is due to the vriles whih in)uene the depth of the dutility troughD iFeF whih use interE grnulr filure under tensile testing onditionsD whih re responsile for trnsverse rkingF

1.5.1 Hot tensile test

he hot tensile test is the most ommon mehnil test for the mehnil simultion of the gg proessF he priniple of the test is to rise the temperture to very high vlue nd then to ool the speimen to the test tempertureD with gg representtive therml pthD where it will e sujeted to extremely low strin rte unixil tensile deformtion to frtureF qenerlly dutility urve is uilt with the results of the neking otined efore rk with the help of this testF es the strin rte nd the temperture ply n importnt role in the frture ehvior they hve to e hosen

1.5 Mechanical tests

PU

very refully in order to e representtive of the gg proessF qenerlly the vlues of these prmeters re tken to (t the mehnil loding in ending nd unending resD these lter eing the res where trnsversl rk initites the most likelyF rot tensile tests re dpted for the mirorking physil simultion in the gg proessD s similrities hve een oserved etween frtogrphies oming from the tensile tests nd those oming from the gg sl gonHIF es told eforeD the test prmeters hve to e hosen very refully in order to (t the rel se of studyF sn ggD the strin rteD the grin morphology nd the temperture re prmeters tht in)uene the rk pperne nd lso t on dutilityF
The deformation rate is one of the most in)uening prmetersF sndeedD these rtes re very low in ggF et these low rtes @IH5 to IH2 s1 AD the dutility rises when the deformtion rte inreses gonHIF his is ommonly dur to the reep e'et tht is reinfored y the proess or the experimentl test durtionF

pplied to the smple hs lso to e tken into ountF he rk sensitivity dereses when the heting temperture is low nd when the ooling rte to the test temperture slows downF st n e explined euse the preipittes eome orser or there re less preipittes gonHIF
The weight of the thermal cycle

qenerlly the hot tensile tests re relized with onstnt temperture ut di'erent ttempts hve een mde with ontinuous ooling nd ontinuous heting of the speE imenF he results of these tests show tht the ontinuous ooling test re not dpted nd give d results in terms of rk preditionF yn the other hndD the ontinuous heting test gives good informtion out the (rst re of the dutility trough ueWS ut this wy of proeeding is not espeilly in onordne with the rel ses therml pthF sn order to understnd the results given y the dutility urveD it is neessry to know the drwks nd the inonsistenies of the tensile testF

yne drwk of the tensile test is tht the deformtions pplied to the test smple re of out IH% while the strins in the gg se reh only few perentF his di'erene enles mehnisms whih re not present in the rel se s dynmi rerystllistionF elso the preipittes nd the ferrite formtion indued y deformtion will hve higher kinetis gonHID winWIF efter tensile test with inEsitu solidi(tionD the mirostruture of the test is not the sme s in the gg proess from the point of view of the grin morphologyD the segregtion nd the preipittes size nd morphology gonHID winWIF he struture tested t high temperture is not lwys stleF ettention should e pid to oxidtionD grin growth nd rerystlliztion qrSWF en importnt di'erene etween test nd rel gg onditions is tht the tensile test smples re normlly very well proteted from oxidtion often eing tested in rgon tmosphereF he strnd is exposed to the tmosphere nd the wter sprys will enhne oxidtionD whih my use deteriortion in dutility winWWF

PV

Chapter 1 Literature review

pinllyD the physil simultion of the gg proess would idelly involve pplying the strin while the temperture )ututes rther thn isothermlly ueWSF

sn onlusionD tensile test stys the most interesting one for this study nd speil ttention will e pid in order to void most of the ited drwksF

1.5.2 Compression acoustic crack test

he ousti rk tests re the tests used y F gstgne to determine the dmge lw prmeters gsHUF his ompression test ws developed for the nlysis nd predition of mteril filure sed on the detetion of ousti emissions ourring during rkingF his test provides informtion out the stress nd strin (elds ut lso out the rk pperne thnks to the ousti reording of the rks sound emission gsHUF st is importnt to underline tht irumferentil tensile stress hppens in the middle plneF he min drwk is tht the test equipment is expensive nd quite seldom usedF he tests re di0ult to drive t high temperture nd the environment should e very quiet in order to reord the rk pperneF hus it ws deided to eliminte this wy of experimentl testingF

1.5.3 Hot bending test

he hot ending test seems to e more representtive of the mehnil loding tests in the gg proess gonHID winWIF sndeedD the wek res of the gg re the ending nd unending res where the sl undergoes lmost the sme onstrints s in the ending testF roweverD euse of the prolem of quntifying the severity of surfe rking from suh testsD it hs only een used srely winWIF he results otined for the ending test re lmost the sme s those otined from the tensile test gonHIF es performing suh tests is more omplex thn performing tensile testsD there is no speil interest in using this test in this studyF

1.5.4 Hot fatigue test

ptigue tests hve een mde in order to simulte the yli thermoEmehnil loding undergone in ggF his thermoEmehnil yling omes on the therml side from the therml yling due to the spry ooling nd from the reheting when the sl rrives etween two rollsF yn the mehnil sideD the yling omes from the ulging etween eh pir of rolls gonHIF rowever it is di0ult to (nd the good yling onditionsF sndeedD when yling of US g round TSH g is doneD SH% ferrite is forming ginst IS% round UPS g nd no ferrite round VHH g worHIF he di0ulty is tht during the test the mount of ferrite ginst ustenite is hnging nd this vrile n not e tken into ount in the dmge lw we useF

1.6 Microalloying elements of peritectic steel grades

PW

1.6 Microalloying elements of peritectic steel grades

wirolloying elements re dded to steels in order to improve the mehnil ehviorF he typil lloying elements tht re used to generte preipitte strengthening re iD D x nd elF hese dditions n e mde individully ut more ommonly re mde in omintion depending on the ustomers requirements of mteril properties s strength or toughnessF hese lloying elements re not only used to otin etter mehnil properties ut lso to re(ne the grins during the proessF sndeedD (ne preipitte distriution in steel will restrit the growth of ustenite grins t high temperture nd will dely rerystlliztion of deformed ustenite grins weiF woreover hrd inlusions n e ostles for dislotions prHI nd dely or hinE der the propgtion of rksF es preipittes in steels re reltively lrgeD dislotion tend to ow etween then with yrown mehnismF nfortuntelyD it hs een demonstrted tht the lloying elements dded in steels in order to give etter properties n led to serious defets during the ontinuous sting proessF ispeilly x nd re very detrimentl for the mirolloyed steels euse they inrese the risk of trnsversl rk pperne during the gg proess vudHUD yuVPD ferHRD veeHSD nHSD uHTD ueWSD winWWD gumHSD evWRD weVUF et (rst sightD we n see the generl e'et of the preipittes on steelF he prinipl elements tht hve een shown to e deleterious reX elD xD xD nd gonHIF i is generlly onsidered s ene(il during tensile tests ut its in)uene is dependent on the therml history of the steel gonHIF he preipittes show di'erent roles in promoting emrittlementF sn the se of grin oundry sliding in the usteniteD (ne preipittion pins the oundriesD llowE ing the rks to join up winUWF he presene of preipittes lso inreses the grin orsening temperture nHS tht involves loss in dutility s orse grin struE ture doesF enother deleterious e'et is otined y therml ylingF sndeedD in gg onditionsD the temperture drops elow THH gD followed y rpid reheting from the sl interiorF his indues n inrese in preipittion rte nd derese in preipitte size ueWS tht mens derese in dutilityF ome uthors reported tht the proportion of stti nd dynmi preipittes present is dependent on the ooling rte nd more prtiulrly on the deformtion rte groVUF sndeedD these preipittes do not show the sme morphology nd so they hve di'erent e'et on the steel ehviorF fut we must note tht the required onE ditions to otin preipittes oming from dynmi preipittion re di0ult to reh s the strin rtes should e of IH1 s1 F he dutility lso dereses when higher volume frtion nd (ner preipittes re presentF husD prtiles tht form during ooling to the test tempertureD or during deformtionD re more detrimentl thn prtiles tht were not dissolved y rehetingD euse the ltter re orser ueWSF o it is importnt to know the positionD distriutionD size nd shpe of the preipiE ttes formed in order to identify them nd to nlyze their in)ueneF

QH

Chapter 1 Literature review

1.6.1 Niobium
wore prtiulrlyD x preipittes re ment to e the most detrimentl onesF wiE rosopi nlyzes hve een performed on peritectic steels containing only Nb @lmost the sme omposition s grde CA y some uthors nd the onlusion of their work is ompiled in the following prgrphF x@gDxA preipittes re present in two di'erent forms in the sEst mterilF hey n e distriuted rndomly or in strings @strings re IH times more present thn those of the norml distriuted typeA nd those re found t the grin oundries vudHUF eording to vudlow vudHUD the preipittes re mostly gloulr in form with some pltelet nd uoid typesD these eing minly of lrger dimeterF sn the ore of the sl the preipittes re orser nd less numerous thn t the surfe @region eginning from the surfe nd Smm in depthAF en nlysis of the surfe preipittes size suggested tht those in the intrdos surfe were lrger thn the others even if their numer is not di'erent etween intrE nd extrdos surfesF sn x C i steelsD two nds of preipittes were found in the sEst mteril studied y vudlow vudHUF he (rst nd is orse @IHHEQHHnmA nd the other one is (ner @`PHESHnmAF he susurfe preipittes were @iDxA@gDxA in strings or t the grin oundries with typil size round UHnmF nder IHHm from the surfe i@gDA eme signi(ntF sn ddition to the orse ix preipittesD mny (ne @iDxA@gDxA prtiles were oserved t the sl ornerF hroughout the sl the preipittes were @iDxA@gDxA of three distint typesY smll uoid nd gloulr @PFPE PVFVnmAD dendriti form @PTEQHnmA nd lrge irregulr form @RHETHHnmAF trin indued preipittion of smll @PESnmA nioium rides were identi(ed in high strength low lloyed steels tht were thermomehnilly proessed s given in the study of fres ferHRF hrough trnsmission eletroni mirosopi @iwA studyD fres ferHR showed lso distriution of the preipittes size going from IH to IHHnm with mximum numer of preipittes showing dimeter of RHnmF st is lso interesting to investigte the preipittes size fter therml tretment of steel ontining only x tht is omprle to grde CF he steel studied y growther groVU ws tken from SHkg lortory vuum meltF he size of the x@gDxA preipittes tht re ppering t the grin oundries is out ISnm fter Is holding timeF efter Ph holding time the size is PSnm nd fter ThD SSnmF x@gDxA preipittes were (ne nd mostly lolized on the former ustenite grin oundry @pigure IFPI@A nd pigure IFPI@AA ueWS nd nuletes preferentilly on smll defets ferHRF hi'erent ooling rtes n lso indue di'erent preipitte sizesF sndeedD with ooling rte of I gFs1 D orse x preipittes re formingF ith ooling rte of IH gFs1 D (ne x preipittes re formed whih re elieved to hinder ustenite to ferrite trnsformtion uHTF he x preipittes re rndomly distriuted in the mtrix nd prtly loted t the grin oundry in ferrite ferHRF ow formtion ws lso oserved due to

1.6 Microalloying elements of peritectic steel grades

QI

(a) String of the NbC precipitates on the austenite grain boundary [Moh02] (b) Section of a tensile test specimen with rupture at the grain boundary [Mae87]

pigure IFPIX resene of preipittes t the formed usteniti grin oundry in periE teti steels nuletion t the interphse oundry during ustenite to ferrite trnsition ferHRF he presene of x is responsile for severl deleterious e'ets in the steel leding to dmgeF x ontent dereses the size of the polygonl ferrite grin size veeHSF he preipittes lolized t the grin oundries n led to soft preipittionEfree zones where the plsti deformtion onentrtes ueWSF x ontent indues solute drg e'et tht ould dely the ustenite to ferrite trnsE formtion uHTD gumHSD veeHSF hen the ontent in x is inresedD the ustenite grin eomes (ner uHTF x is one of the lloying elements tht promote hot rking suseptiility yuVPD gumHSF sndeedD hot dutility dereses with inresing x ontent prtiulrly in the lower temperture region of ustenite D euse of the formtion of x@gDxA in the grin oundriesF he size of the x@gDxA preipittes is out PH to SHnm yuVPF he presene of x@gDxA dereses the possiility of dynmi rerystlliztion yuVPF he x@gDxA prtiles formed y dynmi rerystlliztion re more detriE mentl thn those formed sttillyD euse the prtile density is usully higherD oth t the grin oundry nd inside the grin ueWSF sn the spei( se of x steelsD x@gDxA preipittes pperne efore or during plsti deformtion delys the rerystlliztion nd results in signi(nt emrittlement uzVRF

1.6.2 Vanadium
he preipittes hve lso n e'et on the dutility of steel nd thus on the frture pperneF xeverthelessD x prtiles seems to e less detrimentl thn the x@gDxA prtiles wohHPF he distriutionD morphology nd position of these preipittes

QP

Chapter 1 Literature review

hve lso een disussed y some uthors nd their work on V containing steels is summrized herefterF sn ontining steels the predominnt preipittes were @gDxAF he size of these preipittes is lower thn RHnm nd uniformly distriuted throughout the metllurgil struture @pigure IFPPA vudHUF

pigure IFPPX histriution of the preipittes in the periteti steel groVU gompred to the x@gDxA preipittesD the @gDxA ones re orserF hey re rndomly preipitted for high vlues of nd less intense nd mostly isolted for low ontent of wohHPF hen i is dded to the grdeD the enountered preipittes re the following onesX ixD wn nd @iDAxF he lst one is oserved t depth lower thn IHmm under the surfe in form of rosettes or smll dendritesF @iDAx pper to hve formed s oE preipittion of on the primry ix prtiles in vudlow9s study of sEst mterils vudHUF et IPHH gD is ompletely solule in usteniteD ut t lower tempertures @elow IHHH gA the soluility of dereses nd it di'uses into the existing preipitte to give rise to omplex preipitte of @xDA@gDxA nHSF he size of the preipittes n lso e studied s funtion of the therml tretment nd espeilly s funtion of the holding timeF @gDxA prtiles were rndomly preipittedD hving men size of ISnmF efter Th holding time the preipittes orsen @SHnmA nd re predominntly situted t the ustenite grin oundries on growther9s SHkg lortory melt groVU tht proly mens tht preipittion is lso sujeted to preipittion kinetiF sn steelsD the ddition of el ppers to redue the mount of x preipittion within the grin golVSF end in or el ering steelsD dynmi preipittes re (ner nd more numerous thn sttilly preipitted prtiles ut do not form t the grin oundries nd reD heneD less deleterious ueWSF

1.6 Microalloying elements of peritectic steel grades

QQ

1.6.3 Combination of Niobium and Vanadium

ynly few work were devoted to the e'et of oth x nd in the lloyed steelsF sn generl the e'et of eh lloying element is seprtely known s steels re prepred with only or only x for reserh imF roweverD some tests hve een done y vudlow vudHU on x nd ontining steelsF re found out tht the predominnt preipitte ws @xDiDA@gDxA in gloulr or uoid form ut t QHmm from the surfeD while ngulr forms were oserved in xCCi grdesF he prtile size inreses with the depth in the slF his is supE posed to ome from the kineti euse the sl ore stys longer t high temperture nd thus the preipittes hve more time to grow he verge omposition of the prtiles ws the followingX intrdosD TH% xD QU% i nd Q% wheres in the extrdosD UT% xD PI% i nd Q% F

1.6.4 Titanium
sn i ontining steelsD the predominnt preipittes re i@gDAD i@gDxAD oxides nd sulphides of iD wnD elD peD gr nd i ording to vudlow vudHUF ix preipittes t the reheting round IQHH gF here re three di'erent size distriutionsY (ne @lower thn PHnm dimeterAD medium @PHESHnmA nd orse @SHEQSHnmAF reipittes inrese in size s the distne from the surfe inreses vudHUF he distriution of the preipittes is in generl irregulrD ut ui i@gDxA nd orse i4 g2 2 tend to e in nds prllel to the diretion of solidi(tion vudHUF st ws found tht the ddition of itnium is interesting s it inreses the pity of the steel to e sfe vudHUF sndeedD it redues the mount of x whih n e omined with x yuVP euse its 0nity to x is higherF ith n inresing level of iD the ronitrides preipitte in the liquid phseF hus they will e intrgrnulr nd will enrih in x nd g while voiding the preipE ittion t the grin oundry gonHIF he ddition of i dereses the (nl grin size of the produtF his n e rehed with stoihiometri rtio iGx of QFR gonHIF ix re not detrimentl euse they re formed during solidi(tionD nd re therefore orseD nd not present t grin oundries ueWSF

1.6.5 Other alloying elements

Aluminum containing steels

el is used in order to improve the qulity of the steelF hese steels re lled elE killed steelsF he dutility troughs ssoited with nd el preipittes re not s severe s those ttriutle to x@gDxAD euse preipittes re more rndomly distriutedD nd el preipittes re orser ueWSF roweverD the elx preipittes hve deleterious e'et on the rk pperne in omprison with steel tht does not ontins ny preipittesF st inreses the

QR

Chapter 1 Literature review

size of the dutility trough gonHIF he preipittion of the prtiles is very slow in usteniteD it is indued y deformtion gonHIF el is n element tht preipittes esier in ferrite thn in ustenite gonHIF husD therml ylingD prtiulrly if ferrite is formedD n led to deleterious elx preipittes t the grin oundry ueWSF por the preipittion of elxD ooling rtes of less thn I gFmin1 re required during ontinuous ooling groVUF his low ooling rte is not rehed in gg nd thus it hs een notied tht elx preipittes re not likely to form under norml gg onditions ll the moreD they preipitte very sluggishly ueWSF woreoverD it is extremely hrd to preipitte elx fter sensitiztion groVUF
Sulphur containing steels

is very deleterious element for the steel gonHIF fut it hs een demonstrted tht hs no e'et on trnsverse rking when the test smples re not rought to the liquid phse efore testing winWWF hus the hosen therml yle for the mehnil tests is of n extreme importne @see rgrph PFQAF
Calcium containing steels

g hs een identi(ed s very ene(il on the trnsverse rking sine it hs gret 0nity for gonHIF he ddition of g is thus preferle nd the reommended gG rtio is of out P or Q gonHIF

1.6.6 Summary of the precipitates study

le IFI ompiles ll the knowledge gthered in the literture review over the preipE ittion stte in periteti steels t high tempertureF his tle helps to hve n esy overview of the preipittion stte tht ould e found in periteti steelsF his work is the sis of the mirosopi study tht is performed in the urrent thesisF st should e mentioned tht the vlues given re men vlues of the di'erent reE serhes for men test on(gurtionF es it hs een showed eforeD the test on(guE rtion nd espeilly the temperture pth efore experimentl mehnil test is the key prmeter to otin the wnted preipittion stteF husD these vlues re only referenes nd the rel preipittion stte hve to e determined on gg steel smples oming from eh grde studiedF

Precipitates Nb V Ti Nb + V

Size [nm] 10-70 <40 ne <20 medium 20-50 coarse 50-350 /

Shape Globular Rosettes Small dendrites / Globular Cuboid

Distribution Strings Random Random Strings Random

Position
grain boundary grain boundary

Precipitation form (Ti,Nb)(C,N) V(C,N) (Ti,V)N Ti(C,S) Ti(C,N) (Nb,Ti,V)(C,N)

Intragranular /

le IFIX ummry of the preipittion stte for the periteti steel grde fmily

1.6 Microalloying elements of peritectic steel grades

QS

1.6.7 Precipitation kinetic

he phenomenon of preipittion kineti should e tken into ount in our studyF iven if no onrete numeril results re ville to predit the preipittes pperE ne nd thusD the preipittes sizeD this phenomenon is presentD espeilly in the gg proess where the sl ools down very fstF yn the urves showing the loss of seondry hrdness @pigure IFPQA where the time is in logrithmi representtionD the x@gDxA preipittes strt to form slowly nd n importnt derese in hrdening is seen fter IHHHs until IHHHHs efore rehing more slow derese ginF he end of the strong hrdness loss ould e relted to the size of the preipittes tht rehes the equiliriumD tht is to syD the mximl dimeterF

pigure IFPQX rrdness of the x ontining periteti steel grde following quenhing nd tempering fter holding for vrious times t WSH g groVU he kineti of preipittion in the iE ontining steel is slower thn in the xE steelsF he preipittes hve low soluility in usteniteD x@gDxA my form t high tempertures of out IPHH g nHSF sn vee9s study veeHSD the smples tken from PSkg melt showed no tre of xg preipittes when ooled with nitrogen t SH gFs1 F husD when quenhedD the xg preipittes do not hve time enough to formF he stti preipittion of @gDxA ws lso followed using the method of loss of seondry hrdeningF es shown for the x ontining steelsD the ontining steels present the sme hrdening urve in funtion of time @pigure IFPR@AAF he hrdness dereses strongly etween IHH nd IHHHsF his oservtion mens tht the kineti of preipittion of prtiles is fster thn the one of the x prtilesF his ft n lso e seen on the dutility urves of ontining steel with two di'erent holding times t high tempertureF he urve of the longer exposed smple is deeper round VHH g @pigure IFPR@AAF he preipittes hve more time to form nd thus to inrese

QT

Chapter 1 Literature review

their detrimentl e'etF

(a) Hardness of the V containing peritectic steel grade following quenching and tempering after holding for various times at 850 C (b) Ductility curves of a V containing peritectic steel for dierent holding times

pigure IFPRX sllustrtion of the dutility loss nd kineti e'et of ontining steels groVU

1.7 Conclusion of the literature review

he literture reserh performed overs lrge rnge of topis @mirostruture of the studied steelsD defets in gg slsD frture mehnismsD mirolloying of steelsAF ell these re relted to the rk pperne in ontinuous sting nd hve een investigted s preisely s possileF rerefterD rief summry of the stteEofEtheErt in the explored domins is providedF he dmge of steels in gg is strongly linked with the microstructure of the steelsF hus it is importnt to know the mirostruture of the periteti steel grde in the temperture rnge where the rks n ourF he grin size informtion found out the periteti grdes shows gret distriution going from VHm to THHm depending on the therml tretment imposedF sn the urrent thesis it is importnt to know the size of the prior ustenite grin present in gg proess without therml tretment in order to reprodue this grin size in the experimentl study nd thus it should e determined through mirosopi nlysisF st hs een reognized y the industril prtner tht intergranular transversal cracks re very deleterious for the periteti steels grdesF husD it is not surprising tht numerous reserhers wrote on this topiF he min onlusions tht ould e rought out from the literture review re the following onesX

1.7 Conclusion of the literature review

QU

he trnsversl rks pper in rnge of tempertures extending from THH g to IIHH g nd is more pronouned t pproximtely WHH g where presene of dutility loss is detetedF he ritil temperture rnge is rehed in the gg sl in the zone where the ending nd the strightening of the sl indues high stresses in the shellF
he im of this thesis is to model the rk pperne etween the grins of gg slF por tht resonD the fracture mechanisms should e known nd underE stoodF he di'erent mehnisms ourring in the di'erent steel grdes studied re the following onesX

usteniti grin oundry slidingD reep rupture omposed of nuletion of mirovitiesD growth nd oleseneF
hese mehnisms re minly due to respetivelyX

the ferrite (lm present t the ustenite grin oundriesD the preipittes forming t the ustenite grin oundriesF
xevertheless other elements ould led to frture s the osilltion mrks or the strong mehnil onstrinsF st hs een reported tht the min prmeters 'eting the rks pperne in steels re the precipitates size nd the precipitation stateF hus literture reserh out the lloying elements of the periteti steel grdes hve een performed in order to know their shpeD distriutionD sizeD position nd the most importntD their e'et on the rk pperneF he onlusions tht ould e rought out re the following onesX

he preipitted ronitrides showing deleterious e'et reX elD xD xD nd F he most deleterious preipittes nd those who re dded to the steel grdes studied reX x nd knowing tht x hs greter e'et on rk pperneF he preipittes re ommonly found t the grin oundryD whih explins the rk pperne t the wekened grin oundriesF x@gDxA egins to preipitte t IPHH gF @gDxA egins to preipitte t IHHH gF
his informtion will e exploited in this study for the retion of the representtive ell @steel mirostrutureAD the hoie of the frture model @frture mehnismsA nd the development of methodology for the experimenttion @steel mirostrutureD preipittion stteAF

Chapter 2

The damage model, its identification methodology and the sample treatment

his hpter tries to set the theoretil methodology nd the experimentl pproh in order to reh the thesis golsF he min ojetive is to determine the rk pperne in periteti steels during ontinuous sting nd to estlish the prllel with the steel ompositionF

sn etion PFID the model used to predit the dmge is presented nd the key prmeters entering the model re identi(edF etion PFIFR presents the explntion of the wy the representtive ell is deE signed for this prtiulr studyF he link etween the mrosopi simultion of the gg nd the mesosopi point of view of this study is given in etion PFIFSF etion PFP presents the methodology of this studyD whih is desried following the severl steps in whih it hs een dividedF he lst prt of this hpter @etion PFQA is devoted to the therml tretment tht will e pplied to the smple efore performing the mehnil testsF his step is lled the sensitiztion nd represents the wy to prepre the smple mirostruture in order to ring it to orrespond to the rel industril seF

2.1 Damage model description

rnsverse rking is severe prolem of the gg proessF e dmge model le to predit this sort of defet hs een developed t the niversity of vige in previous thesis gsHUF his dmge model uses the (nite element method @piwA nd more prtiulrlyD the nonEliner ode Lagamine developed t the w2 p deprtment of the niversity of vigeF his model hs lredy een vlidted on mirolloyed steels nd should e dpted on other steel grdes presenting trnsversl rksF sn the urrent thesisD the prtiulr QW

RH

Chapter 2 The damage model, its identication methodology and the sample treatment

steel grdes studied elong to the periteti steel fmilyF he frture model tkes into ount the frture mehnisms ourring t high tempertures in mirolloyed steelsF hese mehnisms of deohesion nd of grin oundry sliding were explined in ghpter IF he im of this study is to model the gg proess nd the evolution of the dmge t the grin sleF he results of mrosopi sle gg simultion feed the mirosopi sle dmge modelF he reson why model of the whole struture t the mesosopi sle is not possile is tht the mount of omputtionl resoures would e too hugeF es the ritil res for rk initition re well known @see etion PFIFIA spei( zones n e de(ned for the (nite element meshes nd lultions in order to tke into ount the ritil re in whih dmge oursF sn this etion PFI the ojetive is to explin the wy the model hs een impleE mented into the Lagamine ode nd how the di'erent rk mehnisms hve een tken into ountF he (nite element model is developed t the mesosopi sleF e representtive ell hs een designed @etion PFIFRA nd omprises interfe nd solid elements used in omintion with dmge onstitutive lwF he solid elements re presented in etion PFIFPD the interfe elements in etion PFIFQFI nd (nlly the dmge lw is explined in etion PFIFQFPF

2.1.1 Modeling of the continuous casting process

he gg proess hs lredy een studied t the mrosopi sle y numerous uE thors sHQD hoHPD reiHQF he mold geometryD the sting powder ompositionD the seondry oolingD the roll position re some of the prmeters of the proessF he mrosopi study of the gg is done to improve the sting speed nd the qulity of the produt y lolizing the wekest res nd the uses of the defet pperne y modeling vrious gg onditionsF st is then possile to onentrte the work on these speil res nd oserve the dmge t the grin sleF

pigure PFIX imultion of the gg proess nd trnsposition in the lol pproh gsHU he im of the urrent thesisD is the extension of the model developed y F gstgne to predit rk t the grin levelF he mesosopi model requires informtion from the

2.1 Damage model description

RI

mrosopi sleD whih re ville through the previous mrosopi (nite element nlysis of the ontinuous proessF

2.1.2 The grain

sn order to model intergrnulr reep frtureD the present model ontins two dimenE sionl @PhA (nite elements for the grins nd one dimensionl @IhA interfe elements for their oundries ynWWF snside the grinsD lssi elstiEvisousEplsti lw is usedD nd t its oundries dmge lw is de(nedF he grins re modeled y thermoEmehnil REnodes qudrilterl elements of mixed type with one integrtion point huWSF his element ontins ntiEhourglss stresses tht prevent zeroEenergy hourglss deformtion modes to pperF e lw of xortonEro' type sHU is used to quntify the visousEplsti ehvior inside the grin for the studied steelF sts expression in terms of equivlent stress e D strin e nd strin rte e is given y eqution PFIX

e = p4 e(p1 e ) p2 e

3 3 e

p3

@PFIA

where the prmeters p1 to p4 re temperture dependentF p1 de(nes the e'et of softeningD p2 is linked to the mximum vlue of the urveD p3 models the visosity nd p4 the hrdeningF

2.1.3 The grain boundary

2.1.3.1 The interface element
he Ph elements modeling the grins re onneted y interfe elements to ount for vittion nd sliding t the grin oundryF es the thikness of the grin oundry is smll in omprison with the grin size for onventionl onesD the grin oundry n e modeled y Ih interfe elementsF hese elements hve two nodes nd two integrtion points nd re ssoited with onstitutive lw whih inludes prmeters linked to the preipitte nd void densityF he dmge vrile Ddam expliitly ppers in this lw nd is de(ned in etion PFIFQFPFPF he interfe element is de(ned y one ontt element ssoited with one edge of the solid element @solid element iD j or k in pigure PFPA nd set of foundtion segments de(ning ll grin oundriesF he ontt serh lgorithm (nds the losest foundtion segment de(ning the urrent neighoring elementF he triple point etween grins iD j nd k is de(ned y three nodes hving extly the sme oordintesX

i elonging to grin iD f elonging to grin k D r elonging to grin j F

he ontt element DE is linked to the nerest foundtion segment of the neighE oring elements i nd j F sn this seD it is ssoited with AB F ith the evolution of the mesh during deformtion it ould hnge its neighor to tke lwys the nerestF

RP

Chapter 2 The damage model, its identication methodology and the sample treatment

pigure PFPX ilements omposing the grin in the mesosopi model where irles re ssoited to the neighoring lk dots tht represents the mesh nodes he stte vriles for the interfe element re omputed using informtion from the two solids elements in onttF he stte vriles s stress nd strin in the interfe element re the orresponding men vlues of the integrtion points vlue of oth onsidered elementsF he originl ontt element ws desried y rrken et lF rWV nd is usully omined with goulom9s frition lwF his element hs een modi(ed in order to introdue the dmge interfe lw nd ohesion riterionF he stress omponentsD n nd D of the ontt element re represented in pigure PFPD their evolution is desried y the following inrementl reltionshipsX

= ks (u us )

and n = kn c

@PFPA

sn this penlty method the penlty oe0ients ks nd kn re lrge enough to keep the devitions u us ndD c smllF u nd re respetively the reltive sliding veloity of djent grins due to sher stress nd the verge seprtion rte etween two djent grinsF his ltter rte diretion is norml to the ontt elementD nd the norml stress n is responsile of the dmge growthF hese vriles re diretly omputed from nodl displementsF us nd c re the similr vriles to u nd ut relted to the dmge lwF heir evolutions re desried in the etion PFIFQFP @iqutions PFQ nd PFIWAF iqution PFP enfores u nd to e equl to us nd c D respetivelyF

2.1.3.2

The interface material law

es disussed in etion IFQD the mjor dmge mehnisms t the grin sle re visous grin oundry slidingD nuletionD growth nd olesene of vities leding to intergrnulr mirorksD whih susequently leds to the formtion of mrosopi rkF he model ws developed y ynWW nd implemented y ylvie gstgne gsHU in Lagamine pi @(nite elementA odeF

2.1 Damage model description

RQ

2.1.3.2.1

Grain boundary sliding

qrin oundry sliding is governed y reltion linking the pplied stress to the sliding rte us X

us = w

@PFQA

where us is the reltive veloity etween two djent grinsD w is the thikness of the grin oundry nd B is the grin oundry visosityF rowever w/B n e expressed in terms of the strinErte prmeter B de(ned s followsX

B = 0

w0 B d0

n n1

@PFRA

where d is the grin size nd n is the reep exponent ynWWF 0 D 0 re referene stress nd strin rte tht depend on the steel grdeF he intergrnulr sliding n e hrterized y the rtio e /B etween inside grin equivlent deformtion rte e nd oundry strin rte B F his rtio mesures the reltive deformtion resistne etween the grin nd the grin oundryF sn se of free sliding B a H nd e /B a HF hen there is no sliding B nd e /B F he lssi reep lw is de(ned sX

e = 0

e 0

= B (e )n

@PFSA

where e is the equivlent von wises stress inside the grin nd B mteril reep onstntF sing equtions PFR nd PFS the rtio w/B eomesX

w/B = d (B )

n1 n

(B) n

@PFTA

pour prmeters re then neessry to de(ne the oundry slidingX the reep exE ponent nD the reep prmeter B D the grin size d nd the prmeter hrterizing the visosity rtio e /B F he two (rst prmeters n e determined through mroE sopi hot tensile testsD e /B is hosen equl to n intermedite vlue of IH ynWW nd mirosopi mesurements provide the grin sizeF

2.1.3.2.2

Voids evolution

sn the ontext of dmge t high tempertureD the mehnism of voids nuletionD growth nd olesene is estlishedF he model uses n idelized formultion of the grin oundry geometry where the vities re supposed to e distriuted on eh grin oundry segment nd de(ned

RR

Chapter 2 The damage model, its identication methodology and the sample treatment

t eh integrtion point with n verge sping 2b nd dimeter 2aF pigure PFQ illustrtes this idelized representtionY in pigure PFQ@A eh individul void is repE resented nd in pigure PFQ@A the voids re repled y ontinuous vrile c F sts evolution rte c is omputed t the integrtion points of the interfe ontt elements to ount for the evolution of the interfe thikness due to the presene of voids t the grin oundries @iqution PFPAF hetiled equtions for the vriles used for the omputtion of c re presented in the next setionsF e frture riterion is lso proposedF

(a)

(b)

(c)

pigure PFQX hisrete nd ontinuous representtions of the grin oundryX @A el geometryD @A irtul desription t one integrtion pointD @A oid shpe ynWW
Void nucleation, computation of the cavity spacing growth rate b

sn most engineering lloysD vities hve een oserved to ontinuously nuleteF he following experimentl reltion hs een suggested y qieWRX

n e with n 0 @PFUA 0 N is the verge numer of vities per unit length of grin oundryF e is the totl equivlent reep strin rte from iqution PFIF he xorton lw ssumes tht elsti strin rte is negligile nd uses the totl strin rte s reep strin rteF st is omE puted s the verge vlue of the neighoring solid elements ssoited with ontt element nd foundtion segmentF n is the norml stress @omputed s the projetion in diretion perpendiulr to the ontt element of the verge stress tensorAD introE dued to llow fster nuletion on those grin oundries tht re perpendiulr to the loding diretionF is mteril onstnt qieWR whih is relted to 0 nd to Fn F 0 is normliztion onstnt representtive of the verge stress level in the mE teril surrounding the rkF Fn is the mirostruturl prmeter whih in)uenes the nuletion rte t the grin oundryF ones where nuletion is more importnt n e introdued through this prmeterF Fn n modelD mong othersD the preipittion stte or the in)uene of the thin ferrite (lm generted t the grin oundry leding to strin onentrtion winWIF eording to iqution PFUD the nuletion will egin with the plsti(tionF roweverD experiene shows tht nuletion ppers lterD so threshold is used to de(ne the eginning of the nuletionF por this purposeD the prmeter S whih omines the stress nd the umulted equivlent strin is de(nedX
2 N = n e = Fn

S = (n /0 )2 e

@PFVA

2.1 Damage model description

RS

he prmeter S hrterizes the stte of the mteril efore nuletionF st will grow with the strin until the threshold vlue Sthr is rehedF Sthr is ssumed to e relted to the minimum vity density NI from whih nuletion n e oserved nd to the ftor Fn telling the importne of the nuletion tivity of the mterilX

Sthr = NI /Fn
yne nuletion egins the prmeter S is not used nymore in the modelF

@PFWA

pinllyD experiene shows tht the vity density tends to sturte for lrge reep strinsD then the nuletion of new vities stops when N rehes the vlue Nmax F sf Pb is the vity sping @pigure PFQ@AAD N is omputed yX

N=

1 b2

@PFIHA

he evolution of the vity sping is found y derivtion of iqution PFIHX

1N b b= 2N
fy sustituting iqutions PFU nd PFIH in iqution PFIID we hveX

@PFIIA

2 b = b3 n e 2

@PFIPA

he nuletion rte N @iqutions PFU nd PFIIA is relted to the internl stte of the mteril N s well s to the stress n nd strin rte e sttes on the grin oundryF ith oneEdimensionl elementD this nuletion rte N n e interpreted F sn prtieD the (nite element s mesure of the evolution rte of the vity sping b model uses s leding equtionsD iqutions PFU nd PFIID to ompute the derese rte of b due to ontinuous nuletion of vitiesF
Void growth, computation of the cavity size growth rate a

e detiled formultion of the vity growth under di'usion nd reep deformtions ws proposed y vergrd veVRF por vity tip ngle @pigure PFQ@AAD the vity growth rte isX

a = V / 4a2 h () = V1 + V2 / 4a2 h ()
where h () =
(1+cos)1 0.5cos sin

@PFIQA

is shpe funtion of the vity nd V is the totl vity volume growth rteD whih is divided into di'usion growth rte V1 @iqution PFIRA nd reep deformtion rte V2 @iqution PFISAX V1 = 4D n ln (1/f ) (3 f ) (1 f ) /2
@PFIRA

RT

Chapter 2 The damage model, its identication methodology and the sample treatment

3 m +C A 2n e n 3 2 = V A +C 2n n 3 m A +C 2n e

for for for

m < 1 e m 1 e m >1 e
@PFISA

where C = [(n 1) (n + 0.4319)] /n2 nd A = 2 e a3 h ()F D is the di'usion prmeE ter @iqution PFIUAD n the reep exponentD n D e nd m re respetively the normlD equivlentD nd men stresses pplied to the grin oundry @verge vlue of the two solid elements linked to the ontt element nd the foundtion segment de(ning the grin oundryAF he vrile f D used in iqution PFIR is de(ned s followsX

f = max (a/b)2 , [a/ (a + 1.5L)]2

where L = (De /e )1/3 F

@PFITA

he oupling etween di'usive nd reep ontriution to void growth is introdued through the length sle LF por smll vlues of a/LD vity growth is dominted y di'usion while for lrger vluesD reep growth eomes more nd more importntF he di'usion prmeter n e expressed s funtion of the temperture yX

D=

Qb Db0 b exp kT RT

@PFIUA

with Db0 b the grin oundry di'usion oe0ientD the tomi volumeD Qb the tiE vtion energyD T the temperture in uelvinD k = 1.3807 1023 tu1 D the foltzmnn9s onstnt nd R = 8.3145tmol1 u1 D the universl gs onstntF he prtiulr vlues for usteniti steel re the following onesX Db0 b = 7.51014 m5 s1 D = 1.21 1029 m3 nd Qb = 159ktmol1 xeeVHF pinlly the disrete vity distriution is repled y ontinuous distriution on the ontt element of the grin oundry so tht the verge seprtion etween two grins c D whih is equivlent to grin oundry thiknessD evolves in ontinuous wy on the ontt element @pigure PFQ@AAF c is determined using the volume of grin oundry vities V nd their verge sping bX

c =

V b2

@PFIVA

henD the seprtion rte c used in iqution PFP is given yX

V 2V b c = 2 2 b b b

@PFIWA

2.1 Damage model description

RU

o solve the equtions of this setionD the following dditionl independent prmE eters hve to e de(nedX the initil void size a0 nd the voids sping b0 D the nuletion prmeter Fn D the normliztion onstnt 0 D the vity tip ngle D the vity density for nuletion strt NI nd the mximum vity density Nmax F oD seven input prmE eters re needed in order to model the progression of the rkF yne dditionl Ddam prmeter is implementedF his one de(nes the rupture nd is desried herefterF
Voids coalescence and fracture criterion

golesene tkes ple when vities re su0iently lose to eh other to ollpseF he prmeter used to de(ne the olesene tivtion is the rtio a/bF

a nd b re the leding vriles tht re (rst omputedF heir vlues llow to updte the other prmeters like N nd c llowing the evolution of the rk in the mteril nd (nlly the dmge is qunti(ed trough a nd b rtioF
he rtio a/bD the dmge vrileD in the urrent modelF hen this rtio rehes ritil threshold Ddam D olesene is triggered nd rk ppersF et this moment the ontt is lost etween the foundtion nd the ontt element of the interfe element where the riterion hs een rehed nd rk physilly ppers in the (nite element modelF

2.1.3.3

Law parameters

he di'erent prmeters tht hve prtiulr role to ply in the physil understndE ing of the rupture phenomen re used in the dmge lw to determine the evolution of the filure during the severl stges of mirosopi hnges in the steel when going through the ontinuous sterF he prmeters tht needs to e determined in this study re listed in le PFIF

2.1.4 Representative cell design

he retion of the representtive mesosopi ell is sed on the method proposed y F gstgne gsHUF st is omposed of entrl prt @pigure PFR@AA tht is the mesosopi ell ontining the grins with their grin oundries nd surrounding prt lled the trnsition zone @pigure PFR@AAF he trnsition zone serves to get homogeneous stress nd strin (elds round the ellF o it is possile to know quite preisely the verge of the stress nd strin (elds in the ell nd to ompre them to the tul vlues ourring in the tensile test or the gg proessF he grins nd the trnsition zone re modeled with elements following xortonEro' reep lw given y iqution PFIF st represents the on wises equivlent stress e s funtion of the equivlent strin e nd the equivlent strin rte e F he grin oundries re modeled thnks to Ih elements tking into ount the vittion nd the sliding t the grin oundry s desried in etion PFIFQF hese elements re ssoited with the dmge lw whih inludes prmeters linked to the presene of preipittesD voidsD etF sn this lwD dmge prmeter expliitly de(nes the rk phenomenonF his lw follows the rking of the ell nd determines the

RV

Chapter 2 The damage model, its identication methodology and the sample treatment
Parameters d [mm] Db0 0 [mm5 s1 ] [mm3 ] Qb [Nmmmol1 ]
e /B a0 [mm] b0 [mm] [ ] Fn [mm2 ] NI [mm2 ] Nmax a/b n (T )

Description Mean grain size Boundary diusivity Atomic volume Activation energy Grain viscosity parameter Initial cavity size Initial distance between cavities Cavities angle Nucleation parameter Initial density of cavities Nucleation threshold Rupture criterion Creep exponent Creep parameter Normalization stress Penalty coecient on the contact pressure Penalty coecient on the shear frictional stress

Determination of the value

Microscopic analysis

Literature [Nee80] data for austenite Micrographic analysis of the Hot tensile tests with dierent sample shapes (cylindrical, notched) 700 C < T < 900 C = 1 102 s1 to 1 103 s1 Compression and tensile tests for T = 700, 800, 900, 1000, 1100 C and = 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001s1 Adjustment of the Norton-Ho law parameters (Equation 2.1) Literature [Cas07b]
precipitation state

[MPan s1 ] 0 (T ) [MPa]
kn [MPamm1 ] ks [MPamm1 ]

B (T )

le PFIX ummry of the di'erent dmge lw prmeters nd their wy of identi(E tion (rst rk pperne ourring through the mehnism of grin oundry sliding or voids nuletionD growth nd olesene t high tempertureF he wy to proeed in order to rete the representtive ell is the following oneX
Step A: pirstD rndom set of n points is de(ned in hosen re in funtion of the grin size nd the numer of grins wntedF wo di'erent pprohes re studiedX he mirogrphi nd the orono pprohesF
Micrographic approach for the design of the representative cell

et the study eginningD the representtive ell is designed on the sis of the mirogrphy pigure PFS representing the primry usteniti grinsF ih node of triple point etween grins is determined nd introdued mnullyF he segE ments joining them nd representing the grins ontour nd the segments for the dmge omputtion @ontt elements nd foundtionsA hve een introdued lso mnullyF
Vorono approach for the design of the representative cell

es the meshing of the mesosopi ell represents huge work nd lot of timeD it ould e possile in the future to tke dvntge of the orono tringulE tion in order to utomtilly rete the representtive ell @pigure PFTAF uh representtive ells hve lredy een designed y viu viuWV using the orono tringultion s well s the sme dmge lw used in this studyF
Step B: he seond step is to mesh the ell grinsF
Micrographic approach for the design of the representative cell

2.1 Damage model description

RW

(a) Transition zone and mesoscopic cell

(b) Mesoscopic cell

pigure PFRX epresenttive ell

(a)

(b)

pigure PFSX @A wetllogrphi inspetion of the susurfe of periteti steel @A with the ustenite grins nd ferrite grinEoundry @dt provided y erelor eserhA

SH

Chapter 2 The damage model, its identication methodology and the sample treatment

pigure PFTX hi'erent wys of utomti meshing with the helunyEorono digrms wer sn the mirogrphi pprohD the nodes re mnully linked to eh other in orE der to rete the mirostruture representtive grinsF hen the softwre gmaill is used in order to uilt the mesh of the representtive ellF
Vorono approach for the design of the representative cell

sn the orono pprohD this is done with the help of the orono tesselltionF he orono tesselltion onsists in prtitioning the plne with n points into onvex polygons suh s eh polygon ontins extly one generting point nd every point in given polygon is loser to its generting point thn to ny otherF he ells produed re lled orono polygonsF efter this stepD the softwre gmaill ould e used in order to rete the pi meshF
Step C: he third step is to rete the ontt elements nd their ssoited founE dtion segment list in the sme wy F gstgne implemented for her thesisF

es explined eforeD the grins re le to split o' from their neighorsF his is possile euse eh grin is onsidered s seprted entity tht is (xed to its neighor thnks to interfe elementsF he ontt element tthed t one side of grin heks nd detets the nerest foundtion segments linked to the oundry of nother grin @the neighorAF sn order to e le to detet the foundtionD the orienttions of eh ontt nd foundtions elements re importnt s it determines the orienttion of the externl norml vetors whih re used to hek if the ontt is possileF he ide for the ell design isD in (rst stepD to ple the ontt elements ounterElokwise y following eh grin ontour nd de(ning the nodes of n element when no one hs lredy een detetedD s shown in pigure PFUF he prt of the grin where there is no ontt element reeives foundtion element tht is de(ned lokwiseF fy this wyD the ontt element mesh is orretly orientedF
Step D: he lst step is to produe the trnsition zone round the representtive ell in order to otin n homogeneous zone of stresses pplied to the mesosopi representtive ell desried efore @pigure PFRAF eround this mesh @mesosopi ell nd trnsition zoneAD fores nd displements re pplied nd the stresses

2.1 Damage model description

SI

pigure PFUX sllustrtion of the meshing proess for the grin oundries gsHU nd strins generted inside the ell re then homogeneously distriuted on the representtive ellF he orono pproh n e helpfulD knowing tht the representtive ells for the di'erent steel grdes studied hve to e designedF roweverD in (rst pproh the mirostruture is ssumed to e the sme for the three periteti steel grdes so the representtive ell does not hnge with the grdeF o e more e0ient in the ell retionD the development of the orono method should e investigtedF

2.1.5 Macro-Meso link

he mrosopi mehnil dt hve to e trnsferred to the representtive ell s fores ndGor displements long the ell mesh oundriesF hus it is neessry to preisely de(ne the wy of trnsfering the dtF es explined in etion PFIFI the dmge evolution is nlyzed t the grin sleF husD spei( res of the sl should e de(ned for the (nite element lultionsF ome modelsD s the one ville t the niversity of vige sHQ nd the piw model herst used y erelorwittlD provide results on the possile mrosopi lotion of the rk @pigure PFVAF he stress nd strins in the steel sl t the integrtion point re omputed nd stored y vg progrmF he tempertureD stress nd displement (elds re provided t eh node y herstF he risk res re identi(ed nd the vlues of tempertureD stress nd strin (elds nd of their histories re extrted from the mrosopi simultionF e representtive mirosopi ell is then meshed in this zone nd the history of the thermoEmehnil loding is pplied on the edges of the mirosopi ellF prom mehnil point of viewD the mesosopi ell is slie in generalized plane strain stateF his formultion llows pplying fores ndGor displement histories in the outEofEplne diretionF sn pigure PFW thin slieD perpendiulr to the sting xis is modeledF he middle plne of this slie is meshed @pigure PFIHA nd its thikness e t ny point of oordinte @xDy A in the domin is governed y three degrees of freedom

SP

Chapter 2 The damage model, its identication methodology and the sample treatment

pigure PFVX vongitudinl elongtion rte of the gg of wrinelleD de(ning the risk of trnsversl rking sHQ

2.1 Damage model description

0 D 1 nd 2 ording to the following eqution sHQX e(x, y) = 0 + 1 x + 2 y

SQ

@PFPHA

where 0 orresponds to the thikness of the slie t the origin of the xes x nd y F 1 nd 2 re representtive of the grdient of thikness respetively long x nd y xesF

pigure PFWX ixmple of slie extrted from the gg sl tht hs to e modeled in generlized plne strin stte for the rk predition sHQ

pigure PFIHX hikness of the slie in generlized plne strin stte sHQ he results provided y the mrosopi numeril simultion of the gg proess re the thermlD the stress nd the strin (elds sHUD sHQD sHTF he results from the mrosopi simultions hve to e trnsformed nd dpted to the representtive ellF everl dispositions hve een tested s the following ones knowing tht imposed fores re etter for the lultions uryF

he pplition of fores in the three diretion led to onvergene di0ultyF he pplition of two fores nd one displement in z diretion @lowest strin diretion in the tensile test smpleA is onlusiveF

SR

Chapter 2 The damage model, its identication methodology and the sample treatment

he lst tested on(gurtion hs een tken into ount in the urrent thesis @pigure PFIIAF

pigure PFIIX epplition of the fores nd degrees of freedom on the representtive ell where the plne xy is ssoited to plne Q in pigure PFI o llow the trnsfer of dt from the mrosopi model to the mesosopi oneD the mesosopi ell hs to e surrounded y trnsition zone s shown in the previous setionF he mehnil (eld is imposed on eh node of the oundry of the trnsition zone through ove edge lodingF he stress nd strin omponents found in this trnsition zone should orrespond to the one tken from the mrosopi simultionF he therml (eld is imposed on eh node in oth trnsition zone nd mesosopi ellF

2.2 Methodology to identify the damage model parameters

he gol of the experimentl mpign is to determine rheologil nd dmge pE rmeters for eh mterilF he mteril prmeters should e mesured in identil loding onditions thn gg proessF hey will desrie the mehnil nd dmge ehvior of the di'erent steels studiedF st is importnt to (nd single set of prmeters to predit rks t the grin interfe in ggF sn order to reh this (nl golD di'erent steps summrized in pigure PFIP re neessryX
Step A: he grin model @xortonEro' typeA is identi(ed y hot tensile or ompresE sion tests on lssil tensile or ompression smples @not nothedAF Step B: rot tensile tests pplied on smples with di'erent nothes re performed in order to get di'erent mrosopi stressEstrin historiesF hey llow to vlidte the prmeters identi(ed in the Step A nd to ollet dt out ruptureF

2.2 Methodology to identify the damage model parameters

SS

Step C: e representtive mesosopi ell is designed with the sme mirosopi feE tures s the mteril in the spei( gg onditionsF Step D: he representtive ell is loded y the mrosopi stressD strin nd temE perture histories reovered from Step BF foth urvesD the one oming from the experimentl tensile test @Step BA nd the one oming from the mesosopi simultion re ompredF he dmge simultion of the nothed smples should predit the rk pperneF Step E: he (nl dt set is used in the simultions dedited to rk preditions in the gg proessF

ell these di'erent steps re desried herefter nd the results of eh prt re given in the following hptersX

Step A Step B Step C Step D Step E

rgrph QFIFQFR etion QFP etion QFQ etion RFQ ghpter S

rerefterD more detils re given on eh stepF

2.2.1

Step A,

the material rheology

he (rst step of this work is to determine the mehnil ehvior of the studied mteril for di'erent strin rtes nd temperturesF he tempertureD the displement nd the strin rte re hosen to over the loding history pplied on the smple in gg proessF he rheologil model used is n elstoEvisoEplsti lw type where the prmeter re temperture dependentF he lw used here is the xortonEro' lw given in the etion PFIFP @iqution PFIAF st ontins four prmetersD p1 to p4 F sn prtieD the rheologil prmeters re determined y hot tensile testsF he hosen strin rtes re lose to the one in ggY 1 103 D 5 103 nd 1 102 s1 @ summry of hot tensile test mpign is presented in le PFPAF he smple geometry is desried in pigure PFIQF he temperture is lso vried etween the tests in order to determine the dependene of the prmeters to this vrileF he temperture rnge in gg where the dmge might our is etween UHH nd IIHH g s seen in literture wohHPF hus the tempertures hosen re WHHD IHHH nd IIHH gF enother importnt dt for eh steel grde is the dutility urveF his urveD s explined in etion IFRFRD helps to identify the temperture rnge where the dutility is wekerF his experimentl result is used in the Step B to hoose the test tempertures round the wek reF

ST

Chapter 2 The damage model, its identication methodology and the sample treatment

pigure PFIPX higrm of the di'erent steps whih de(ne the glol strtegy of modeling the rk predition for periteti steels during the ontinuous sting

2.2 Methodology to identify the damage model parameters

SU

2.2.2

Step B,

tensile tests on dierent geometries

sn order to determine single set of dmge prmetersD di'erent mehnil tests re performed to generte vrious stress nd strin histories t di'erent temperturesF he wy to otin di'erent types of )ow urves is to modify the smple shpeF he smple shpe is de(ned in pigure PFIQF he shpe is similr to the one used in the Step A ut with the ddition of smll round noth mhined in the enter prt of the smpleF he presene of the noth modi(es the distriution of the stresses nd thus the trixility vlue in the rossEsetion of the smpleD espeilly t the noth rootF he di'erent ses re ompiled in le PFPF

(a)

(b)

pigure PFIQX rious smple shpes used in the hot tensile test mhineD @A without nothD @A with P nd Rmm nothes mm

2.2.3

Step C,

the representative cell

en importnt step of the experimentl pproh is the identi(tion of the representE tive ellF st ontins the mirostruturl informtion of the steelX the shpe nd size of the grinsF his ell will e used in Step D to pply the mehnil stresses oming from Step B in order to determine one single set of dmge prmetersF he oservtion of the steel mirostruture gives the primry usteniti grin size nd the preipittion stte t determined tempertureF he grin size found is exploited in order to ompute the required size of the representtive ellF

SV

Chapter 2 The damage model, its identication methodology and the sample treatment

Shape Strain rate [s1 ]

H P R

B A C [ C]

1 103 1 102 5 102 1 103 5 103 1 102 1 103 5 103 1 102

UHH IQSH g @SH g stepsA WHHD IHHHD IIHH Q tempertures round the dutility trough Q tempertures round the dutility trough

le PFPX ummry of the test mpign on hot tensile test smples he oservtion of the preipittes present in the steel mtrix enles to identify ertin numer of prmeters in the dmge lw s the initil vity sizeD shpe nd their interdistne for eh steel grde studiedF he voids re ssumed to form y deohesion etween the mtrix nd the preipittesF sn order to proeed to oservtionsD two di'erent pprtus re usedF he (rst nlysis is done thnks snning eletron mirosope @iwA nd the seond nlysis with trnsmission eletron mirosope @iwA for loser lookF sndeedD the ustenite grin size is in the mirometer rngeF he preipittes re in the nnometer rngeF his di'erene requires the use of the two di'erent types of pprtus with their spei(ities in terms of nlysis rngeF he iw enles the urte view of elements in the mirometer rngeF efter smple preprtion @fehetEfeujrd ethingAD the primry usteniti grin is reveled nd ould e nlyzedF he eletron em hits the surfe of the smple nd the eletrons re emitted y the surfe re nlyzed in order to hrterize the surfe of the smple nd to detet the grin oundriesF he preipittes tht re smller thn the mirometer re not oservle with the iwF hus n pprtus tht permits the nlysis of smller elements is usedF his pprtusD the iwD permits the nlysis of nnometri elements euse of its higher mgni(tion pilitiesF yne of the drwks of this pprtus is tht it is more di0ult to useF yne reson is tht the smples preprtion is omplexF yne hs to ut very thin slie of mteril so tht the eletron em is le to ross the smple in order to e ptured y the the sensor nd nlyzedF

2.2.4

Step D,

the determination of the damage law parameters

he fourth step of the study is to lod the representtive ell to determine y inverse nlysis the prmeters of the dmge lw used in the grin oundry t the interfe etween two grins @etion PFIFSAF he fores nd displements pplied on the mirosopi ell re determined vi piw simultion of hot tensile tests on di'erent speimen shpesD tempertures nd strin rtesF he tensile test simultion provides stressD strin nd temperture (eldsF hese re tken in the re where the stresses re the highest s explined in etion

2.2 Methodology to identify the damage model parameters

SW

RFIFPF pinlly they re pplied on the edges of the representtive ellF he simultion of the dmge in the mesosopi ell is then performed nd the prmeters of the lw re dpted using n inverse method so tht the frture moment identi(ed when the dmE ge prmeter a/b rehes the ritil threshold orresponds to the experimentl hot tensile test results on di'erent speimen shpes nd with di'erent therml onstrintsF

2.2.5

Step E,

the simulation of the CC process

he (nl stge is to use the dmge lw in gg seF he dmge lw prmeters were determined in the previous step for prtiulr steel grdeF his lw is pplied on the ontt elements of mesosopi ell dpted to the gg se @pigure PFIRAF his ell is surrounded y trnsition zone tht serves to homogenize the stress nd strin (elds round the ellF he stresses pplied on the edges of the trnsition zone re oming from the gg proessF he stressD strin nd temperture (elds re tken from slie of numeril simultion of the whole gg slF his pproh enles to pply the whole foreD displement nd temperture histories of the steel during the gg proessF husD we re le to detet the dmge pperne in the sl t vrious positions in the sl or in the ontinuous sterF

pigure PFIRX heme of the gg se modeling y extrtion of the dt reorded through mrosopi numeril simultion of the gg nd pplition to the edges of the trnsition re of the representtive ell

TH

Chapter 2 The damage model, its identication methodology and the sample treatment

2.3 Thermal treatment of the sample and test description

sn litertureD di'erent wys to perform hot tensile tests re used in order to impose oundry onditions lose to the one enountered in ggF sndeedD eh uthor using tensile testsD pplies di'erent therml pth to the smple efore nd during testingF ih solution is more or less dpted to generte the rel mehnil stress nd temE perture (elds supported y the sl during gg nd the identil initil mirostruture within the smpleF wore espeillyD the di'erent phses of the therml pth efore nd during testing hve to e onsidered nd seriously tken into ount s it strongly modi(es the mirostruture whih in)uenes the dmge ehviorF everl therml pths re pplied in literture @see ghpter IA nd the one pplied here is desried herefter @pigure PFISAF

pigure PFISX hemti desription of the therml pth pplied for the tensile test to mth the rel gg onditions

he (rst step is the elevtion of the smple temperture until sensitiztion temE perture nd then the pplition of onstnt temperture (eld during deE termined holding timeF his prt is very importnt euse the gol is to strt from mteril tht hs the sme properties s in the solidi(ed shell of the gg proessD tht is to sy without preipittes nd with the dequte grin sizeF he seond phse is the derese in temperture to the test tempertureF he est wy to perform this derese in temperture is to tke the ooling ondition of the gg nd to pply it to the smpleF nfortuntelyD this is usully not possile

2.3 Thermal treatment of the sample and test description

TI

s the temperture history of the shell is quite omplex nd the temperture is usully onstntly deresed t vrile speeds tht must e determinedF husD men temperture slope should e determined @see etion PFQFPFRAF

he lst importnt step is the temperture hosen to perform the tensile test t onstnt tempertureF rowever in some rtiles ueWSD the temperture is onstntly inresed or onstntly deresed during the testF sndeedD in the gg proess the sl temperture is ontinuously hngingF
hese three stges re seprtely disussed in the following setionsF fut t (rst the testing mteril should e presented in order to know the pity of the tensile testing pprtus usedF

2.3.1 Tensile test apparatus

he pprtus used for this study is the usul hydruli tensile test mhineD with (xed nd moile gripF he smple is srewed etween these grips in order to impose tensile strength on itF he prtiulrity of the ifiv pprtus used t the r of ehen is tht the smple is pled in ontrolled tmosphere @inert gs or vuumA hmer s shown in pigure PFITF he smple is held in glss tue in order to e le to elevte the temperture over the melting point with the help of n indution oil surrounding the smpleF

pigure PFITX rot tensile test pprtus t the r of ehen he moile grip n e driven y displements with speeds going from HFHHImms1 to IHmms1 or y foresF fut the most interesting possiility is to pply onstnt

TP

Chapter 2 The damage model, its identication methodology and the sample treatment

strin rte s it esily llows to identify the visosity term through tests t di'erent strin rtesF ueeping onstnt during the whole test is possile y imposing non liner displement on the moile trnsverse emF elso interesting is the pity of the mhine to reord with ury wide rnge of foresF sndeedD the mesured fores n go from Pkx to IHHkx y pling the dpted lod ell in the pprtusF hen performing the tests on heted smplesD the fores reorded re very lowF he ooling of the smple is lso n key point euse the derese of temperture hs to e mstered during the test in order to remin lose to the one oserved in ggF nsuited ooling impliesD with our steelsD missing the desired mirostrutureF sndeedD too fst ooling n impt on the preipittion stte wheresD too slow ooling extends the testing time nd hnge the grin size of the studied steelF he mximum ooling rte on the ifiv pprtus is Tus1 F

2.3.2 Thermal path

2.3.2.1 Elevation of sample temperature
he (rst inrese in temperture n generlly e done in two di'erent types of furneF he (rst one is ommon radiation furnaceF sn this type of furne the temperE ture of the smple is inresing very slowly nd the usteniti grin growth hs the time to egin nd to ontinue over long period of timeF his grin growth indues orse usteniti grins not representtive of the rel mirostruture generted in the gg seF husD we hoose to use seond type of furneY the induction furnaceF his tehnology permits to inrese the smple temperture very quiklyF he temperture inresing rte n go up to IHH gmin1 F hus the temperture n e rought to IHHH g in few minutesF his rte limits the usteniti grin growth sine the temperture threshold for quik usteniti grin growth is rehed ut held for short timeF purtherD with well hosen holding time nd sensitiztion tempertureD the grins hve the dequte size nd the preipittes re dissolved s demonstrted y wintz winWWF

2.3.2.2

Sensitization temperature

he holding temperture hs to e refully hosenX not too highD in order to void to hve too strong inrese of the size of the usteniti grinsD nd not too lowD in order to dissolve ll the preipittes in the smpleF he sensitiztion temperture depends on the di'erent preipittes found in the smpleF sndeedD the preipittion nd dissolution tempertures re di'erent for eh omponentF st is ssumed tht for x nd steel grdes sensitiztion t temperture higher thn IQHH g is enough to ompletely dissolve the preipittes winWWF vooking t pigure PFIU this is vlid for the periteti steel grdes studiedF et the equilirium stteD the oserved x omponent preipittes round IIHH g nd t pproximtely THH gF hese tempertures of preipittion re slightly dependent on the glol steel omposition ut they give good pproximtion

2.3 Thermal treatment of the sample and test description

TQ

of the eginning of the phenomenF ememer however tht the preipittion is time dependentF
700 600
Ti in TiCN

500 Quantity [ppm] 400 300 200 100 0 350

Nb in NbCN Al in AlN V in VCN Ti in Ti4C2S2

550

750

950 1150 Temperature [C]

1350

1550

pigure PFIUX reipittes formtion t the equilirium lulted for steel B @dt provided y erelor eserhA with the CEQCSI model enother wy to eliminte ll the preipittes y stying lose to the gg onditions is to melt the smpleF ome uthors prefer this therml pth euse it is muh loser to the one supported y the smple during ggF sndeedD the smple life strts in the liquid phseD then it is ooled down s in the gg proessF he preipittes tht were initilly dissolved re growing nd the mirostruture of the smple is the sme s the one of the steel during ggF nfortuntely this test proedure hs some drwksF he most importnt one is the ft tht fter ooling the smple presents hole in its ore @pigure PFIVAoserved during experimentl tests t the rF he test is then not performed on simple ylindril smple ut on defetive smple ontining shrink holeF st ppers euse the ooling of the smple strts from the surfe lyer to the ore nd n empty volume is thus generted in the enter of the smpleF his hole is supposed to strongly in)uene the fores nd displementsF sts ext shpeD size nd lotion is rndom nd unknownF pinllyD the numeril simultion of this test is di0ult to perform s the hole size nd ple re unknown vrilesF sn onlusion it is more onvenient to hose therml pth not going through the liquid phse to void di0ult nlysisF ithout holeD the stress nd strin histories re esily extrted from the hot tensile tests nd they re (nlly loser to the one of the gg proess without meltingF e generl sensitiztion temperture rnge found in literture is IIHH to IQHH g vudHUD nHSD wohHPD winWWF

2.3.2.3

Holding time

he holding time t the sensitiztion temperture hs its importneF sndeedD t this elevted temperture the grin growth ontinuesF roweverD the temperture of the

TR

Chapter 2 The damage model, its identication methodology and the sample treatment

pigure PFIVX hrink hole of tensile test smple @dt provided y siruD PHHTA smple hs to e homogenized nd ll the preipittes must dispperF hus it is importnt to (nd lne in order to otin the right grin size nd n homogeneous smple without preipitteF he trend is to proeed s fst s possileF o most of the uthors hoose to het the smple up s fst s possile in indution furne nd to hold the temperture during I minute winWID uzVRF st is importnt to keep in mind tht this holding time hs to e dpted to the temperture level hosen efore nd to the mteril studiedF his temperture pth should therefore e studied y testing di'erent ses nd studying the mirostruture of the smple s done in etion QFIFIF

2.3.2.4

Cooling of the sample

he ooling of the smple fter sensitiztion is s importnt s the sensitiztion itselfF qenerlly the temperture is deresed onstntly down to the test tempertureF he ooling rte hs to e the sme or should pproh the one of the rel seF sn the rel se the temperture is tully )ututing euse of the trnsition etween wter sprysD surplus of wter on rollsD lind res tht re not spryed nd rolls @pigure PFIWAF he ooling urve shows di'erent ooling speeds during the proess @H to I meterD I to Rm nd R to PQmAF sully this omplex therml pth is simpli(ed nd onstnt ooling rte is hosenF sn generl the ooling rte used is men vlue of the one otined in gg nd is TH gmin1 wohHPD winWIF pew experiments hve een done with iliner onstnt oolingF his wy of ooling is loser to the gg seF sndeedD the temperture dereses very quikly from the melt to pproximtely IIHH g with rte of out QHH gmin1 while the steel is ooled down in the moldF his stge requires strong ooling in order to otin solid shell t the exit of the moldF efter the moldD the men temperture derese is the sme s the one hosen if only one rte is dptedD iFeF TH gmin1 F yf ourse these two ooling rtes depend on the ooling strtegies used in the industry ut these ove rtes re ommonly seenF nfortuntelyD the mteril used to perform the tests do

2.3 Thermal treatment of the sample and test description

TS

pigure PFIWX xumerily determined ooling urve of the lrge fe of A sl @PFTm lrgeA t PHm from the orner during the gg proess @dt provided y erelor eE serhA not llow to derese the temperture t rte of QHH gmin1 F husD the monoliner seD to give men ooling to the smple hs een hosenF

2.3.2.5

Tensile test

pinlly the third prt of the test is tully the tensile test of the smpleF sn most of the sesD one the presried temperture is rehedD it is held for few minutes in order to homogenize the smple temperture efore pulling on the smpleF he testing tempertures go generlly from SHH g to the sensitiztion temperture or just elow the melting tempertureF hese testsD t di'erent temperturesD enle us to drw representtive dutility urve on whih we n see the di'erent stges of zero dutility @ZD AD zero strength @ZF A trHU nd mirostruturl hnging hppening s desried in pigure PFPHF xow the tensile test in itself is delite proedureF sndeedD the strin rte hs to e determined to (t lso the rel seF hus the strin rte used lys etween IH3 s1 nd IH4 s1 s they re mesured in the gg proess during ooling nd strightening respetively winWQ nd s predited y gg pi simultions sHTF qenerlly the tensile tests re performed with onstnt temperture in order to drw the dutility urve ut in some sesD onEheting nd onEooling tests re performed ut s sid eforeD ording to ueWS the onEooling tests give wrong results nd the onEheting tests re not suited to the gg seF hese tests re more dpted to welding simultions hvHR nd therefore not used in this studyF

TT

Chapter 2 The damage model, its identication methodology and the sample treatment

pigure PFPHX tges of the dutility urve oserved in funtion of the steel morphology nd the fores reorded during hot tensile test nHS

2.3.3 Conclusion on the damage model, its identication and the sample treatment
he following topis hve een treted nd explinedF

he dmge pi model nd the wy it is implemented in the Lagamine ode hve een presentedF he mteril prmeters re ompiled in one tle in order to hve good overview of the prmeters plying role in the dmge nd the wy they n e determinedF he onstrution of the mesosopi representtive ell hs een detiledF he sle trnsition etween mrosopi nd mesosopi numeril simultions hs een desriedF he proedure of the model identi(tion through experimentl nd numeril test omprisons hs een setF he therml tretment methodology of the test smples hs een explined in order to otin smples representtive of the gg seF

Chapter 3

Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

he experimentl prt of the reserh is strutured nd divided into two mjor prtsF

he (rst one is the mrosopi prt tht helps to uild the foundtions of this study y hrterizing the mteril in mehnil nd mirosopil wyF he seond prt is mesosopi numeril study tht enles to determine the dmge ehvior of the mterilF
sn order to explin the studyD the (rst prtD tht is more tehnil is disussed in the urrent hpter when the seond prt is desried in ghpter RF es presented in etion PFPD the mrosopi prt onsists in three di'erent setionsX

Section 3.1. rot ensile ests @rA on ylindril smples re done in order to
determine the rheologil prmeters of the mteril studiedF

Section 3.2. wrosopi numeril simultions without dmge elements of the exE
perimentl tensile tests on ylindril smples nd on nothed smples re done in order to generte the vrious stressEstrin historiesF uh dt re pplied on the representtive ell t the mesosopi level to identify the dmge model prmetersF ttive ell le to ret like the mteril t the grin levelF

Section 3.3. wirosopi nlyses re done in order to e le to design represenE

3.1 Determination of the rheological parameters

es detiled in etion PFQD it is importnt to study the therml yle tht hs to e pplied to the smples efore rF sndeedD the dmge ehvior is relted to the preipittion stte @iFeF sizeD numerD shpe of the preipittesA of the mterilF es this TU

TV

Chapter 3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

in)uene is studied hereD the mteril should present the sme properties s the steel in gg onditionsF his sujet hs een often disussed in literture nd some prtiulr vlues re tken into ount s the sensitiztion tempertureF nfortuntelyD the therml yle hnges for eh volume of mteril nd lloying elements onentrtionF husD mirostruturl study hs een performed on the r s shown herefter in order to preisely determine the therml yles needed in orreltion with the mterils hosen for this studyF

3.1.1 Study of the thermal cycle applied to the tensile samples

he wy the tensile tests re performed is of highest relevne s explined in the ghpter PF he gol of the therml yle study is to reh in the r smples n usteniti grin size of PHHm s determined on mirogrphy pigure PFS of etion PFIFRF oD (rst of llD the wy to impose the therml pth on the tensile smples efore performing the experimentl tests is studiedF es the steel grdes studied elong to the sme fmilyD similr ehvior is ssumedF hereforeD the reserh of the therml yle is performed on only one grde @BA ut pplied to the three di'erent mterilsF

3.1.1.1

Experimental process

he tensile tests re performed in n indution furne nd the smple is pled in n inert hmer s explined in etion PFQFIF wo di'erent therml pth strtegiesD hve een pplied to the smples in order to modify their mirostrutureF

he (rst strtegy is to inrese the temperture onstntly until the temperture nd to mintin it during ertin timeF he sensitiztion temperture will in)uene the preipittion dissolution wheres the holding time minly in)uenes the grin sizeF he seond strtegy onsists in pplying one or more therml yles on the smE pleF he temperture is (rst inresed just enough @WHH gA to form ustenite grins @(rst sizeAD then deresed to otin ferrite nd inresed gin to form smller ustenite grinsF his yle n e repeted nd the lst time the sensiE tiztion temperture is mintined in order to dissolve the preipittes tht re ught in the mirostrutureF his strtegy should enle redution in the usteniti grin sizeF
hese di'erent strtegies re desried in detils herefterF
Strategy 1: Classical thermal cycle

he lssil therml yle onsists in elevting the smple temperture nd to hold it for determined time s we n see in pigure QFID with the following test hrteristisX

T gs1 @generl vlue used for wrming t the siru in ehen to otin n homogeneous tempertureAY
Warming: Sensitization temperature:

IPSH nd IQSH g @two temperture levels re tested in order to know if preipittes re dissolvedAY

3.1 Determination of the rheological parameters

Holding time:

TW

growthAY
Cooling:

ID PD S nd IH minutes @four holding times to quntify the grin

quenhing in rgon @quenhing to freeze the mirostruture t the end of the testAF

pigure QFIX imeEemperture urves for the smples I to V

Strategy 2: Phase transformation thermal cycle

he seond pproh presents di'erent yles efore the mintining step tht hs een hosen equl to S minutes t the temperture of IQSH g s shown in pigure QFPF he yles re supposed to redue the ustenite grin size of the steel y suessive phse trnsformtionsF his pproh lnes the (nl usteniti grin growth hpE pening t the sensitiztion tempertureF he holding time is not redued in order to dissolve the preipittesF he yling e'et ould e explined this wyX when the steel struture trnsforms into usteniti phseD the grins hve ertin sizeF ith the k trnsformtion to ferriteD the grins split in severl little grins sine ferrite nuletes t di'erent ples in the ustenite grinF sf the temperture is inresed nd the trnsformtion from little ferrite grins to ustenite hppensD the grin size of the ustenite is smller thn the (rst oneD s the originl grin size is now the one of the former ferrite grinsF hus speil yling sheme should e pplied to the smpleF his yling sheme ould e reprodued few times in order to redue more nd more the usteniti grin sizeF he pplied yle onsists in elevting the temperture of the smple to WHH g @the mirostruture is ustenitiA then ooling down to THH g with nturl ooling @the mirostruture is ferritiAF his yle is done one to four times @pigure QFPA in order to know if the grin size of the smple is redued y this ylingF he test hrteristis re the following onesX

UH

Chapter 3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

Warming:

T gs1 @idemAY IQSH g @temperture t whih ll preipittes re

Sensitization temperature:

supposed to e dissolvedAY
Holding time:

Smin @medium holding time supposed to e enough to dissolve the preipittesAY

Cooling:

quenhing in rgon @idemAY I to R @four yles to quntify the redution of the ustenite

Number of cycles:

grin sizeAF

pigure QFPX imeEemperture urves for the smples W to IH with provisionl yle

3.1.1.2

Sampling

Size and quantity of samples

he smples used for the experimentl study nd prtiulrly for the dutility urve drwing nd the determintion of the dmge lw prmeters re tensile test smplesF he mhined ylinders re IQHmm long with dimeter of PHmm @pigure PFIQ left smple without the nothAF vooking t the twelve di'erent therml pthsD twelve re not repeted euse of restrited udgetF
samples

re neededD s tests

3.1 Determination of the rheological parameters

Extraction of samples in the slab

UI

he zones sujeted to the highest onstrints nd where trnsversl rks hppen re the intrdos nd the extrdos shells of the slF husD in order to perform represenE ttive testsD the smples re tken in these resD so their grin sizes nd preipittion ontents re representtive of the studied mteril stteF es shown in pigure QFQ slies of THmm re tken from the sl on the intrdos nd the extrdos surfesF he smples re tken in ny diretionsD the xil length of the smple prllel to the surfe plne of the slF

pigure QFQX eres of the sl tht re used for smpling

pigure QFRX iletron dishrge mhining of the ylinders in the sl slie @with pigure QFQ orienttionA
Sample mechanical preparation

he prts extrted from the sl re prllelepipedsF he future smples hve to e turned in order to otin the ylindril shpeF nfortuntelyD to turn the smples into the (nl ylindril shpeD they hve to e ylindril from the strt onF sndeedD the turning of prllelepipedi smples is detrimentl for the tools nd (nlly for the metl working ltheF hus the smples re extrted from the sl slies into ylindril shpe thnks to the eletron dishrge mhiningF

UP

Chapter 3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

he sl slies re ut into di'erent prts of dimensions IQHxIQSxTHmm in order to e onvenient to enter the eletron dishrge pprtusF ih prt of this size n provide T tensile test smples s they re tken with the height in the IQSmm diretion @pigure QFRAF por the needs of this studyD P prts hve een ut downF

3.1.1.3

Metallographic results
hesription mple xme

sn order to reognize the smplesD they were renmed s shown in le QFIF

1min 2min 5min rolding tempertureX 1250 C 10min 1min glssil therml yle 2min 5min rolding tempertureX 1350 C 10min 1yle hse trnsformtion therml yle 2yles 3yles rolding temperture nd timeX 1350 C, 5min 4yles
glssil therml yle

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12

le QFIX henomintion of the smples for the therml pth study heir grin size hs een mesured @le QFPA using two di'erent methodsF he (rst method is the men line interept method s desried in ew tndrd i IIPEVVF eording to this methodD the test line should ut SH grin oundriesF nfortuntely the mgni(tion did not llow the presene of SH grin oundries ut mostly IH to PHF he interept method is however usedF st exists two di'erent wys to mesure the grin sizeX

he (rst one is to ount the intereptsF en interept is the segment of the test line whih overlys one grinF 1 is ounted for eh interept nd 1/2 eh time n end of the test line flls in grinF he seond one is to ount the intersetionsF en intersetion is the point where the test line uts grin oundryF por eh intersetion 1 is ountedD for eh tngentil intersetion 1 is lso ountedD 1/2 is ounted when n end of the test line extly ends on grin oundry nd 1.5 when the intersetion ours t triple pointF
he strtegy hosen is to ount the intersetions on Q lindly seleted lines tht re oriented di'erently in order to void ny in)uene of orientted struture of the steel grins on the mirogrphs shown in eppendix eF es explined eforeD the interept method requires huge numer of grins in the pitureD so seond grin size determintion method is used in omplementF his method is less urte for the grin size qunti(tion ut will help us to know the rnge of the grin sizeF his method is sed on syTRQ nd it is lled the omprison

3.1 Determination of the rheological parameters

UQ

methodF he mirogrphs otined through optil nlysis re ompred to stndrd mirogrphs @eppendix hA otined for the sme mgni(tionF hey re lssi(ed into di'erent tegories so tht the grin size ould e estimtedF rerefter re the results of the mirogrphi study of the therml pth in)uene on the mirostruture of B grdeF he grin sizes not determined y the interept method hve een estimted thnks to the syTRQF hey re mrked with n sterisk in the results tleD le QFPF mples sy TRQ W V T S R R Q I Q Q Q I qrin size @mA holding onditions IminD IPSH g PminD IPSH g SminD IPSH g IHminD IPSH g IminD IQSH g PminD IQSH g SminD IQSH g IHminD IQSH g I yle P yles Q yles R yles

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12

15* 19 27 42 80 81 87 250* 84 81 73 250*

le QFPX qrin size of the thermlly treted smples nlyzed y interept method @results with * hve een determined y omprison methodA he results show tht two di'erent therml pths ould e dpted to otin the trget grin size @PHHmF hese two solutions re S8 nd S12F S12 therml pth shows strnge ehvior sine the grin size is growing while it should derese with inresing the numer of grin re(ning ylesF hus it ws deided to drop this solutionF he remining therml pth is the S8 one onsisting in holding time of IH minutes t sensitiztion temperture of IQSH gF roweverD some omplementry mirogrphi nlysis should e performed in order to on(rm the grin size s it hs een determined y the omprison method tht is less urte thn the interept oneF

3.1.1.4

Conclusion of the thermal path study

hese results re plotted in order to hek the evolution of the grin size s funtion of time for the di'erent holding tempertures @pigure QFS@AA nd the e'et of the numer of therml yles on the grin size @pigure QFS@AAF
Evolution of the grain size with time and temperature

e n see in pigure QFS left tht the grin size grows with longer holding time ut lso with higher sensitiztion tempertureF

UR

Chapter 3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

300

300

S12
250

250

Grain size [m]

Grain size [m]

1350C
200

200

150

150

100

100

S7

S9

S10

S11

1250C
50

50

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Time [min]

Grain refinement cycles

(a)

(b)

pigure QFSX qrin size evolution for oth tested therml pth omprisonsX @A onstnt holding temperture @IPSH nd IQSH gAD @A therml yles t IQSH g during Smin sndeedD the grin size evolves with timeF por eh mintined temperture the size of the grin grows from IWm @S2A to RPm @S4A nd from VHm @S5A to VUm @S7AF e n remrk tht the grin size is evolving fster when the grin size is smller nd for lower temperturesF his oservtion is ertinly due to the ft tht the grin growth rehes sturtion stte fter whih it evolves more slowlyF his ssumption ould e veri(ed y testing longer holding times t IPSH g to reh the predited sturtionF e lso remrk tht the grin size grows with the temperatureF es we n oserve in pigure QFID oth tempertures @IPSH g nd IQSH gA re rehed t lmost the sme time ut we oserve tht the grin sizes re muh lrger t IQSH g @VUm for SminA thn t IPSH g @PUm for SminAF his n e due to the ft tht over ertin temperture the grin growth is elerted efore rehing the sturtionF enother explntion is tht the grin growth ours just round IPSH g ut with n extremely fst kinetis nd the extr time spent to inrese the temperture from IPSH g to IQSH g is enough to show these di'erenes in the grin sizesF
Evolution of the grain size with the number of cycling

sn the se of the smples tht hve een sujeted to therml yles efore minE tining the temperture t IQSH g for SminD we oserve derese in the grin growth when the numer of yles is inresingF his oservtion is in relity the expeted e'etF sndeedD y elevting the temperture to WHH gD usteniti grins re formed nd growF es the temperture is deresedD the usteniti grins split prt in little ferE riti onesF es the temperture inreses ginD the usteniti grins forms themselves strting from the little ferriti grins nd so re evolving to smller grins t the endF por two yles the grin size is redued one gin efore elevting the temperture to the holding tempertureF st hs lso een oserved tht the grin sizes of S9D S10 nd S11 therml pths re lmost equl to those found for the (rst test with no yling nd the sme holding temperture nd time onditions S7 @VHmAF his results on(rms tht the results

3.1 Determination of the rheological parameters

US

etween the di'erent therml pths re onsistent nd ould e keptF roweverD the result for S12 hs to e tken with re euse the grin size is extremely higher thn the previous onesF

3.1.1.5

Further work

sn onlusionD it hs een oserved tht the required grin size @PHHmA is hieved thnks to the test S8 without ylingF es explined in ghpter ID the preipittes should hve een dissolved sine x preipittes re dissolved under IPHH g nd preipittes under VSH gF rowever it is importnt to e wre tht these vlues of preipittion tempertures re lulted for stti onditions nd not for dynmi ones s oserved in our testsF husD it is importnt to know if ll the preipittes hve een dissolved during this sensitiztion t IPSH gF his nlysis ould e performed thnks sg @sndution goupled lsmA nlyses ut hs not een performed within the thesisF

3.1.2 Determination of the ductility trough

o know in whih temperture rnges the dutility troughs re lolized for eh steel grdeD enh of tests t di'erent tempertures over the temperture rnge going from IQSH to UHH g every SH g t strin rte of IH3 s1 on unnothed smples hve een performedF he intervl uilt round this minimum will e used to derese the numer of experimentl tests performed on nothed smples to determine the dmge prmetersF edditionl tests on nothed smples llow to investigte the strin rte e'et on the dutility troughsF

3.1.2.1

Results of the ductility trough analysis

por A grdeD the dutility trough is situted etween UHH nd WSH g s presented in pigure QFTF he intervl studied for dmge identi(tion ws hosen from VSH to WSH g efore the results for the temperture rnge from UHH to VHH g were determinedF nlukily these results show seond dutility trough even deeper t USH g thn the (rst oneF hus it ould hve een interesting to investigte lower tempertures for the dmge determintionF roweverD the reserh shedule prevents ny new investigtionF he dutility trough ws nlyzed in etion IFPFIF he (rst dip is representtive of preipittes formtion nd the seond one represents the uilding of thin ferrite (lm t the ustenite grin oundriesF por grde BD the dutility trough hs een hosen over wide rnge of tempertures going from USH to WSH g even if the test result t UHH g shows seond derese of the dutility s it is oservle in pigure QFTF his derese ould e representtive of the seond prt of the dutility trough tht is ment to e due to ferrite formtion even if t these low tempertures it n lso e due to the usul derese of dutility with tempertureF vower tempertures should e tested in order to determine the reson of the dutility derese for grde B under USH gF sn the se of C grde the dutility loss is high nd perfetly mrked nd the intervl hosen goes from UHH to WHH g where the vlue of the neking is lwys lower thn SS7F

UT

Chapter 3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

100 90 80

Necking [%]

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Test temperature [C]

pigure QFTX hutility trough results for the three steel grdes studied t IH3 s1 strin rte on unnothed smples @ AD BD C CA his dutility trough nlysis will e used lter @etion QFPFIA in order to determine the hot tensile tests performed on nothed smples for the dmge lw prmeters identi(tionF he dutility study done permits lso to disuss out the strin rte e'et on dutility nd di'erenes hve een shown etween the three studied steel grdes s explined herefterF
Effect of the strain rate

es seen in pigures QFU to QFWD n inresing strin rte indues less deep dutility troughF his e'et is heked for B nd C grdes ut not for A grde even if the lowest strin rte indues lwys the deepest troughD the fstest produes not neessrily the smllest troughF iven thoughD it seems logi tht the trough eomes deeper for lower strin rtesF hen the strin rte deresesD the mteril hs time to dpt to the deformtion nd produe thus more importnt neking in the enter prt of the smpleF
Differences between steel grades

es shown in pigure QFTD the three grdes studied hve very di'erent ehviorF sndeedD the B dutility trough is not relly mrked nd it seems to e less deleterious thn A nd C whih hve more or less the sme level of nekingF fetween these two lst steel grdesD the di'erenes re the doule dutility trough nd the strt temperture of the loss of dutilityF hese di'erenes ould e explined through n nlysis of the preipittion stte nd the prtiulr e'et of eh preipitte present in the steel mtrixF he dutility trough shift etween steel grde ould lso e explined y the phse trnsformtion from ustenite to ferrite s presented in next setionF

3.1 Determination of the rheological parameters

UU

100 80 Necking [%] 60 40 20 0 700

750

800

850

900

950

1000 1050 1100 1150

1x10-3, R0 1x10-3, R2

Test temperature [C]

50x10-3, R0 10x10-3, R2 10x10-3, R0 5x10-3, R2

pigure QFUX hutility urves of grde A for vrious smple shpes nd strin rtes
100 80 Necking [%] 60 40 20 0 700

750

800

850

900

950

1000 1050 1100 1150

1x10-3, R0 1x10-3, R2

Test temperature [C]

50x10-3, R0 10x10-3, R2 10x10-3, R0 5x10-3, R2

pigure QFVX hutility urves of grde B for vrious smple shpes nd strin rtes
100 90 80 Necking [%] 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 700 750 800 850
1x10-3, R0 5x10-3, R2

900

950

1000 1050 1100 1150

10x10-3, R2 1x10-3, R2

Test temperature [C]

pigure QFWX hutility urves of grde C for vrious smple shpes nd strin rtes

UV

Chapter 3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

3.1.2.2

Analysis of the precipitate eect on the ductility trough

Precipitation calculations at the equilibrium (CEQCSI)

he preipittion kineti lultions hve een performed with the softwre giE gs developed y erelorwittlF hese results ompute the temperture where the di'erent omponents of the steel preipitte into the solid phseF his preipittion phenomenon is one of the explntion for the presene of dutility loss of the mteril in given temperture rnge s explined in etion IFQF he seond reson of the dutility loss is the formtion of thin ferrite (lms t the grin oundry during the phse trnsformtion from ustenite to ferriteF he results give the pperne of ll the omponents in the steel under vrious forms nd omintions during ooling nd thus their preipittion ehvior @pigures QFIH to QFIPAF elso the phse trnsformtion hs een plotted into grph for eh steel grde studied @pigure QFIQAF hese results re exploited in the following nlysis of the preipittes e'etF et high temperturesD i will ret very fst with xF es soon s there is no free x nymoreD it will ret with ronF efter iD x will preipitte followed y elF i is the (rst omponent to preipitteF es sid eforeD it will ret fst nd tke x nd g out of the mtrixF sn eh seD x strts to preipitte very erlyF et (rst slowly nd round IHHH g the preipittes eome more frequentF por elD the preipittion strt depends on the quntity of el present t the eginE ning in the melted steelF he more el is in the mtrixD the erlier it will preipitteF he ontent in preipittes is lwys very low nd this omponent preipittes lter thn the othersF sts preipittion moment depends lso of its quntity t the eginningF es for elD the higher is the ontentD the erlier is the preipittion during oolingF vooking t the grph of phse trnsformtions @pigure QFIQAD it is ovious tht grde B hs di'erent ehvior from A nd CF B smples should rek erlier s the ferrite (lm tht is formed erlier thn for the other two steel grdesF he omintion of the e'ets of preipittion nd ferrite formtion hs to e studied in order to hve ler view out these two detrimentl pssges of the steel during ooling in the ontinuous sterF
Precipitates effect on the ductility trough shape

o hve generl point of view on the e'et of lloying elements dded within di'erent steel grdes studiedD it is interesting to summrize the knowledge out those nd their ene(il or detrimentl e'et on dutilityF ome preipittes re well known nd their e'ets hve een studiedF por instneD el nitrides form smll preipittes tht re detrimentl for dutility in gg steelsF sn ontrryD i hs fvorle e'et euse it forms ix t the eginning of the preipittionF hese nitrides re ig in size nd spred out rndomly through the whole mtrix nd soD they help to void too importnt retion of other detrimentl nitrides s xxD elx or xF hese nitrides re mostly situted t the grin oundry

3.1 Determination of the rheological parameters

UW

160 140 120 Quantity [ppm] 100 80 60 40 20 0 350

Ti in TiCN Nb in NbCN Al in AlN V in VCN Ti in Ti4C2S2

550

750

950

1150

1350

1550

Temperature [C]

pigure QFIHX ivolution t the equilirium of the iD xD el nd preipitte quntity s funtion of temperture for steel grde A @dt provided y erelor eserhA
700 600
Ti in TiCN

500 Quantity [ppm] 400 300 200 100 0 350

Nb in NbCN Al in AlN V in VCN Ti in Ti4C2S2

550

750

950 1150 Temperature [C]

1350

1550

pigure QFIIX ivolution t the equilirium of the iD xD el nd preipitte quntity s funtion of temperture for steel grde B @dt provided y erelor eserhA
180 160 140 Quantity [ppm] 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 350
Ti in NbTiCN Nb in NbTiCN Al in AlN V in VCN Ti inTi4C2S2

550

750

950 1150 Temperature [C]

1350

1550

pigure QFIPX ivolution t the equilirium of the iD xD el nd preipitte quntity s funtion of temperture for steel grde C @dt provided y erelor eserhA

VH

Chapter 3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

1.2

Ferrite
1

Austenite

Liquid

0.8

Proportion

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 350

500

650

800

950

1100

1250

1400

1550

Temperature [C]
pigure QFIQX hse trnsformtions for the three steel grdes studied t equilirium @flk AD ed BD flue CA

3.1 Determination of the rheological parameters

VI

nd they present smll dimetersF preipittes with wnF hey do not hve speil e'et ut if stys lone it ould uild vities round the other preipittesF husD su0ient wn ontent should e present to prevent low mount of sulfur to remin in the steel nd to void its deleterious e'etF et this stge of the studyD the studied periteti steel grde ompositions should e reminded @le QFQAF

Steel grade
qrde A qrde B qrde C

g IURV SUT IUWH

i IVQ PPPT QPSQ

wn IRUHP ITPPH IPIRW

IIU IIW VH

i ISI ITQ QU

x SR RS SV

V Nb el 60 139 QIQ TT 20 668 QWT PR 1 161 RHQ V

le QFQX gomposition of the studied periteti steel grdes @in ppmA he dutility trough for B grde @pigure QFTA is not very deepF his ould e explined y the smll mount of g tht indues smll grin sizeF he grin size otined will shift the solidi(tion temperture to lower vlue nd dely the ustenE ite grin growthF ithin this grdeD x is lso the only element tht inreses the preipittion t the grin oundryF iven if the ontent in is highD it does not form preipittes until pproximtively TSH gF he formtion of elx egins lso very lte nd in limited wy s the ville mount of x is lowered y the high mount of i nd xF he seond derese in neking ould e due to the formtion of ferrite tht strts erlyD t VHH g for B grdeF ith slight kineti e'et due to ontinuous oolingD the derese ould e shifted to lower tempertures thn hereD UHH gF his ssumption should e nlyzed y mirogrphi nlyses in order to hrterize the mirostruE ture t this tempertureF xote thtD kineti e'ets ould e voided y very low derese of tempertureF xeverthelessD the study performed here hs een designed to e representtive of the rel ehvior of therml nd mehnil vriles of the gg proessF husD only ssumptions ould e mde out this lst derese of nekE ingF es explined erlierD tests t lower tempertures should e performed in order to ensure tht the lst derese in dutility does not orrespond to preipittions or trnsformtion within of the mtrixF he trough for C grde is very pronouned euse of the high x nd the low i nd x ontentF he remining x fter i omintion preipittes very erly with elD nd is detrimentl for dutilityD elx ompounds ould e t the origin of the strong dutility lossF he inrese of x@gDxA t pproximtely IHHH g joins the elx detrimentl e'et nd produes pronouned trough s it is oservle in pigure QFITF
A grde lys etween the two others in the view of mirolloying omponents nd thus presents n intermedite trough sizeF he trough is omposed of two dipsF es presented in etion IFPFID the (rst oneD less deepD is relted to preipittion @pigure QFIRAF ispeilly x seems to e the dutility loss useF he seond one is relted to ferrite formtion t pproximtely VSH gF his seond reson of dutility loss deepens the (rst troughF

VP

Chapter 3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

1 0.9 Relative proportion, Necking [%] 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3
necking austenite ferrite Ti in TiCN Nb in NbCN Al in AlN V in VCN Ti in Ti4C2S2

160 140 120 100 80 60 40

0.2 0.1 0 400 600 800 1000 1200 Temperature [C] 1400
20 0

1600

pigure QFIRX hutility trough ginst phse trnsformtion nd preipittion stte t the equilirium for steel grde A
1 0.9 necking austenite ferrite 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 100 0.1 0 400 0 1600 Ti in TiCN Nb in NbCN Al in AlN V in VCN Ti in Ti4C2S2 300 400 500 700

Relative proportion, Necking [%]

600

200

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Temperature [C]

pigure QFISX hutility trough ginst phse trnsformtion nd preipittion stte t the equilirium for steel grde B
1 160 0.9

Relative proportion, Necking [%]

0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4

120 100 80 60

0.3 0.2 0.1 0 400 40 20 0 1600

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Temperature [C]

pigure QFITX hutility trough ginst phse trnsformtion nd preipittion stte t the equilirium for steel grde C

Quantity of precipitates [ppm]

0.8

necking austenite ferrite Ti in TiCN Nb in NbCN Al in AlN V in VCN Ti in Ti4C2S2

140

Quantity of precipitates [ppm]

0.8

Quantity of precipitates [ppm]

3.1 Determination of the rheological parameters

VQ

pigure QFIUX uineti of preipittion of xD i nd for steel omposition lose to B @dt provided y erelor eserhA
Analysis of the ductility trough start

he dutility derese n e ssoited with the eginning of the forming of preE ipittes in the steel mtrixF sn prtiulrD the x@gDxA formtion moment orresponds to the eginning of the dutility gpF he x@gDxA ontents is the highest for BD nd higher for C thn A grdeF sts formtion rtes present strong grdients for B nd C when A presents lower one over lrge temperture rngeF fothD the ontent nd kineti of x@gDxA n explin the delyed strt of the dutility trough for A grdeF
Knowing about precipitation kinetics

st is interesting to tke loser look t the preipittion kineti s the ontinuous sting never llows equiliriumD exept if the preipittion strts very fst depending on the omponentF his hs to e tken seriously into ount euse it hs n importnt impt on the lultions s shown in the exmple herefterF es it is possile to oserve in pigure QFIU for B grde t WHH gD the gigs lultions predits onentrtion of SVTppm of xF yn the ontrryD the kineti mesurements fter R hours of mintenne t temperture gives onentrtion of QQVppmF st hs een demonstrted tht x hs low preipittion kinetisF st is lso E epted tht i hs high kinetis euse of its erly pperne t high temperturesF in ontrry hs n extremely low kinetis nd thusD proly very low mount of @gDxA will preipitte t the ustenite grin oundryF

3.1.3 Rheological parameters

he xortonEro' rheologil lw used in this study ontins four prmeters tht re determined y rF hey re temperture dependentF es the stress urve is strin rte dependentD the prmeters should e determined y tests t di'erent tempertures nd strin rtesF

VR

Chapter 3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

fefore the r mpignD previous ompression test mpign t high temperE ture hd een performed in order to determine spei( tendenies of the steel grdes studiedF st should e notied tht the reson why the whole mpign hs not een mde with ompression tests is tht this test is not representtive of the stresses found in the mteril during gg while r isF

3.1.3.1

Hot compression tests

he three steel grdes studied were tested t the niversity of vige in ompression t three di'erent tempertures @UHHD WHH nd IIHH gA nd three di'erent strin rtes @1 102 D 1 103 nd 1 104 s1 AF
200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 Strain 0.8 1.0
200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 Strain 0.8 1.0

Stress [MPa]

(a) = 1 102 s1
200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 Strain

Stress [MPa]

(b) = 1 103 s1

Stress [MPa]

0.8

1.0

(c) = 1 104 s1

pigure QFIVX xumeril )ow urves provided y xortonEro' lw (tted on ompression tests for A @drk gryAD B @lkA nd C @light gryA t UHH g sn generl we n see tht the urves otined thnks to the (tted xortonEro' lw prmeters t di'erent tempertures nd vrious strin rtes re lose for the three grdes studied @pigure QFIVAF xevertheless it ould e notied tht in some spei( ses the urves re not extly identilF st is possile to onlude from this urve nlysis tht the B grde hs di'erent ehvior from the others nd tht A nd C re lose t eh temperture nd eh strin rteF

3.1 Determination of the rheological parameters

VS

he onsisteny of the experimentl results from ompression nd tension ws difE (ultF he reson for this disrepny ws prtilly nlyzedF he tensile tests were performed in ehen @rA where the therml yle determined in etion QFIFIFI ould e pplied on the smplesF he ompression tests were performed in vige @vgA where nother therml yle ws pplied due to the limittion of the furne pity @see pigure QFIWAF he mirostruture generted y eh tretment ws di'erentF sndeedD ording to etion QFIFIFID the tensile test smples hve grin size of PHHm when the one mesured on vg smples is IHHHm @pigure QFPHAF

pigure QFIWX herml yle omprison etween ompression nd tensile tests

Temperature measurement Sample core Sample surface

Furnace Lige Aachen Halogen lamps Induction

A 2 Cs1 6 Cs1

B 5min 1100 C 5min 1350 C

C 2min 60 Cmin1

D 2s Test temp. 20s Test temp.

E Test time Test temp. Test time Test temp.

le QFRX herml yle desription of othD hot ompression nd tensile tests driven respetively t vige nd ehen he di'erenes ould e explined y too low sensitiztion temperture in vigeF es the preipittes re not dissolvedD they ould 'et the plsti stress in di'erE ent wyF he holding time hs een lengthened in order to ompenste the lower tempertureF enother possiility is test prolemF por instneD spei( strin rtes tests were dropped from r results euse of non relile ehviorF prom n historil point of viewD ll this informtion did not rrive simultneouslyF es it ws neessry to go on with the test mpignD it hs een hosen to perform

VT

Chapter 3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

pigure QFPHX enlysis of the grin size of the ompression test smple used t the vg whole set of tensile tests euse their therml tretment produed smples loser to the mteril stte in ggF enother rgument to justify this hoie is tht tensile stte in loser to the loding produing rks in ggF etion QFIFQFT demonstrtes the (nl greement tht ould e found etween exE perimentl tensionD ompression nd numeril xortonEro' predited urvesF sn onlusion this ompression study gve us rguments to deide tht the hot tensile tests to determine the rheology will only e performed on B nd A steel grdesF he prmeters otined from the B experimentl hot tensile tests will e used only for this steel grdeF gontrryD the A prmeters determined through (tting of the experimentl hot tensile test urves will e used to model the ehvior of othD A nd C grdesF his hoie enles the redution of the numer of expensive rF

3.1.3.2

Hot tensile tests

he rheology of the two steel grdes @B nd AA is tested t three di'erent tempertures @WHHD IHHH ns IIHH gA nd with three di'erent strin rtes @5 102 D 1 102 nd 1 103 s1 A on the ifiv hot tensile testing pprtus desried in etion PFQFIF he temperture rnge hosen for the tensile tests is less rod thn for the omE pression testsF et this step of the studyD tests t tempertures lower thn VHH g ould not hve een performed euse of the limittions of the fore reording ellF

3.1.3.3

Identication of the Norton-Ho law

he (rst ttempts mde to (t the rheologil prmeters to otin similr urve in simultion s in experiene hve een performed tking the whole experimentl urve into ountF es shown in pigure QFPI@AD the (tting follows lmost the experimentl urveF st is espeilly eptle t the end of the deformtionF fut t the eginningD where the vritions of slope re importntD the (tting is not stisfyingF hus it hs een deided to proeed to seond type of (tting tht fouses on the (rst PH7 of strinF his hoie is justi(ed y the ft tht low strins hppen in ggF he neking event fter the urve mximum derese lso the reliility of the urveF

3.1 Determination of the rheological parameters

VU

his (tting enles etter predition of the ehvior of the mteril for strins under PH7 s shown in pigure QFPI@AF ht is lso importnt is tht the )ow urve presents neking t pproximtely PH7 strin @pigure QFPI@AAF he urte moment of the neking event n e di0ult to model with rheologil modelsF huring the r in ehenD there is no optil or mehnil mesurements of the setion historyF oD the experimentl stress is omputed s the fore mesured y the lod ell divided y the setion omputed from n hypothesis of volume onservtion nd homogeneous stress stteF yne neking hs strtedD this experimentl stress is fr from eing urteF ith the xortonEro' lw nd the softening prmeter p1 D one n predit the nekingF roweverD s the experimentl trget is not relileD it ws hosen to keep non softening lw @p1 = 0A identi(ed only on the (rst PH7 of strinD s the urve mxim hppen round PP7 strinF

80

Stress (MPa)

60

Stress (MPa)

5x10-2s-1 1x10-2s-1 1x10-3s-1 Fit 5x10-2s-1 Fit 1x10-2s-1 Fit 1x10-3s-1

80

60

40

40
5x10-2s-1 1x10-3s-1 Fit 1x10-2s-1 1x10-2s-1 Fit 5x10-2s-1 Fit 1x10-3s-1

20

20

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25

Strain

Strain

(a) Whole experimental curve

(b) Focus on 20% strain

pigure QFPIX pitting of the )ow urve of B grde t IHHH g vooking t these (guresD it is possile to oserve tht the numeril urves re loser to the experiments when limited to PH7 of strinF his lst model is urte when the mteril undergoes only smll strinsF sn the mrosopi simultions of the gg proess the mximum expeted strins re I to P7F sn the mesosopi modelD higher strin n hppen due to lol grin deformtion ut it remins under PH7F he results otined for eh studied steel grde re presented in the following prtF

3.1.3.4

Norton-Ho law parameters

he (tting of hot tensile tests with the lest squre method hs een used to identify the prmeters of the xortonEro' lwF he (tting gives the results for prmeters p1 to p4 for A nd C in le QFS nd B in le QFTF
Parameters for A and C grades

pigures QFPP to QFPR present the (tting of A steel grde t WHHD IHHH nd IIHH gF et WHH g the orreltion etween experimentl nd (tted urves is good until PH7 of strinF et IHHH g the men vlues found for the prmeters orretly (t the stress

VV

Chapter 3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

120 100

Stress (MPa)

80 60 40 20 0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25

5x10-2s-1 1x10-3s-1 Fit 1x10-2s-1 1x10-2s-1 Fit 5x10-2s-1 Fit 1x10-3s-1

Strain

pigure QFPPX gomprison of the xortonEro' model preditions with the experimentl )ow urves of A grde tested t WHH g t severl strin rtes
80

60

Stress (MPa)

40

20

5x10-2s-1 1x10-3s-1 Fit 1x10-2s-1

1x10-2s-1 Fit 5x10-2s-1 Fit 1x10-3s-1

0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25

Strain

pigure QFPQX gomprison of the xortonEro' model preditions with the experimentl )ow urves of A grde tested t IHHH g t severl strin rtes
60

Stress (MPa)

40

20
5x10-2s-1 1x10-3s-1 Fit 1x10-2s-1 1x10-2s-1 Fit 5x10-2s-1 Fit 1x10-3s-1

0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25

Strain

pigure QFPRX gomprison of the xortonEro' model preditions with the experimentl )ow urves of A grde tested t IIHH g t severl strin rtes

3.1 Determination of the rheological parameters

VW

strin urves t strin rtes 102 nd 103 s1 ut the highest strin rte gives slight di'erenes etween experimentl nd numeril urvesF pigure QFPRD t IIHH gD shows more di0ult orreltion etween urvesF he slowest strin rte is lerly not well (ttedF xeverthelessD the two other urves for strin rtes 102 nd 5 102 s1 re pproximtively (ttedF he rheologil lw prmeters re given hereunderF
AE C

WHH g IHHH g IIHH g

p1 H H H

p2 w IHVFUP UWFQP TQFQR

p3 HFII HFIR HFPR

p4 HFPI HFIU HFIH

le QFSX pitted A nd C prmeters of the xortonEro' onstitutive lw for the r he prmeter p2 dereses with inresing tempertureF es explined in etion PFIFP this prmeter in)uenes the level of the urveF sndeedD with higher temperturesD the stress rehed will e lower for the sme strinF he mteril is more deformleF p3 D whih is linked to the visosityD is inresing with inresing tempertureF his mens tht the strin rte e'et eomes more mrked t higher temperturesF he lst prmeter p4 models the hrdening e'etF st dereses with temperture so tht the stress for high tempertures inreses slowerF
Parameters for B grade

pigures QFPS to QFPU present the (tting of B steel grde t WHHD IHHH nd IIHH gF vooking t the urves t WHHD IHHH or IIHH gD the xortonEro' lw perfetly (ts the experieneF he only urve where the djustment is relile only until IS7 of strin is the one t the highest temperture @IIHH gA nd the lowest strin rte @103 s1 AF et this temperture the stress otined is very lowF his is reinfored y the slow strin rte e'et tht lowers little it more the stressF husD in these onditionsD the fores nd the displements re di0ult to reord with the ifiv mhineF he )ow urves should e refully tken into ountF o B (tting results re totly eptle nd the prmeters used nd implemented in the rheologil lw re the following ones @le QFTAF
B

WHH g IHHH g IIHH g

p1 H H H

p2 w IIUFRP UQFIU SHFIQ

p3 HFHWRWR HFHWRVP HFHWRUH

p4 HFPQ HFIT HFIU

le QFTX pitted B prmeters of the xortonEro' onstitutive lw for the r es for AD the prmeter p2 of the lw (tted for B dereses with inresing temE pertureF gontrryD p3 hs n other ehviorF he vlue of this prmeter dereses with inresing tempertureF husD for BD the strin rte e'et in)uenes less the )ow urve t higher temperturesF p4 presents the sme ehvior s for AF st dereses with tempertureF

WH

Chapter 3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

120 100

Stress (MPa)

80 60 40 20 0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25

5x10-2s-1 1x10-3s-1 Fit 1x10-2s-1 1x10-2s-1 Fit 5x10-2s-1 Fit 1x10-3s-1

Strain

pigure QFPSX gomprison of the xortonEro' model preditions with the experimentl )ow urves of B grde tested t WHH g t severl strin rtes
80

Stress (MPa)

60

40
5x10-2s-1 1x10-3s-1 Fit 1x10-2s-1 1x10-2s-1 Fit 5x10-2s-1 Fit 1x10-3s-1

20

0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25

Strain

pigure QFPTX gomprison of the xortonEro' model preditions with the experimentl )ow urves of B grde tested t IHHH g t severl strin rtes
60

Stress (MPa)

40

20
5x10-2s-1 1x10-3s-1 Fit 1x10-2s-1 1x10-2s-1 Fit 5x10-2s-1 Fit 1x10-3s-1

0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25

Strain

pigure QFPUX gomprison of the xortonEro' model preditions with the experimentl )ow urves of B grde tested t IIHH g t severl strin rtes

3.1 Determination of the rheological parameters

WI

3.1.3.5

Extrapolation of the results to all the required temperature

sn order to feed the gg simultion the rheologil prmeters hve to e extrpolted to extend the rheologil prmeter vlues to lower nd higher temperturesF sndeedD the steel running through the ontinuous ster ools down from the liquid phse to the solid stteF his overs more or less temperture rnge from ISSH g t the exit of the mold to UHH g t the end of the proessF he xortonEro' lw is implemented in the Lagamine pi ode with no extrpolE tion when the temperture is out of the given temperture rgeF roweverD the nerest given vlue is tken into ountF his proedure is implemented in order to void flse extrpoltions ut is suitle only for smll temperture rnge exeedingF sn our seD the temperture rnge is exeeded t the upper ound y RSH g @ISSHEIIHH gA nd t the lower ound y PHH g @WHHEUHH gAF he extrpoltion is thus done for eh prmeter seprtely nd the onsisteny is heked fterF
Parameters p2

por the prmeter p2 the extrpoltion hs een performed in two stepsF et (rstD the low tempertures hve een extrpolted @UHH nd VHH gA nd thenD nother exE trpoltion hs een mde for the higher temperturesF his proedure is neessry euseD when extrpolted to low temperturesD the urve is the one given in pigure QFPVF hen using this urve for higher tempertures vluesD p2 eomes negtive whih is inonsistentF oD hnge of slope hs een imposed for this prmeter for oth steel grdes @pigures QFPV@A for A nd QFPV@A for BAF sn ftD the high temperture extrpoltion is mde etween the vlue t IIHH g nd given vlue t ISSH g tht is lose to zeroF
200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 600
200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 600

Parameter value [MPa]

Low temperature extrapolation High temperature extrapolation

Parameter value [MPa]

NH fitting

NH fitting Low temperature extrapolation High temperature extrapolation

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

Temperature [C]

Temperature [C]

(a)

(b)

pigure QFPVX xortonEro' p2 prmeter extrpoltion to lower nd higher tempertures

et high tempertures p2 hve the sme ehvior for oth steel grdesF hen t low tempertures the prmeter presents higher vlues for B grdeF B grde presents higher strength t low temperturesF es lredy disoveredD the grin size of the steel nd the preipittes of x gives to grde B stronger struture with more grin

WP

Chapter 3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

oundries nd preipittes tht re le to stop rk when trying to go through the steel mtrixF his hrteristi yields lso to higher strengthF
Parameters p3

xeither for AD nor for B grdeD the urve eqution hd to e dpted t high temperture in order to keep the prmeter vlues onsistentF sndeedD the p3 prmeter stys etween H nd I fter extrpoltionF es introdued erlierD the slopes of p3 prmeters re di'erent for A nd B grdes @pigure QFPWAF por BD the strin rte dependeny of the xortonEro' lw is more or less onstnt in funtion of tempertureF st vries from HFHWS to HFHWR tht is lmost the sme t this levelF sn ontrryD the A grde presents n other ehvior for p3 F st strts t the level otined for B grde nd inreses exponentilly with tempertureF o for A grdeD the strin rte in)uenes more the rheologyD prtiulrly t high temperturesF
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 600 0.1
NH fitting NH fitting

Parameter value

Parameter value

Low temperature extrapolation High temperature extrapolation

0.098 0.096 0.094 0.092 0.09 600

Low temperature extrapolation High temperature extrapolation

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

Temperature [C]

Temperature [C]

(a)

(b)

pigure QFPWX xortonEro' p3 prmeter extrpoltion to lower nd higher tempertures

Parameters p4

endenies of prmeter p4 re equl for A nd BF he vlues derese with temE perture from pproximtely the sme level @HFQA nd end oth t HFHPSF he immedite response of the mteril to loding is equl for oth steel grde t eh temperture even if the (tting hd to e djusted for A euse of too fst derese t high temperturesF sn the rnge of r A is more sensitive to temperture hnges for p4 F por BD the it hs een hosen to keep onstnt derese of p4 prmeter even if the results show n inrese of this vlue fter IHHH gF
Validation of numerical flow curves generated by Norton-Hoff model

he lst step of the rheologil prmeters (tting is to hek the onsisteny of ll the prmeters together in the xortonEro' lw y drwing the numeril urves t the sme strin rte @102 s1 A nd for vrious tempertures for A nd B steel grdesF sn pigure QFQI it is possile to oserve the ontinuity of the evolution of the xortonE ro' )ow urves s funtion of tempertureF he stress level rehed for oth grdes

3.1 Determination of the rheological parameters

WQ

0.35

0.35
NH fitting

Parameter value

0.3 Parameter value 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 600 800

0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05

NH fitting Low temperature extrapolation High temperature extrapolation

Low temperature extrapolation High temperature extrapolation

1000

1200

1400

1600

0 600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

Temperature [C]

Temperature [C]

(a)

(b)

pigure QFQHX xortonEro' p4 prmeter extrpoltion to lower nd higher tempertures is lmost the smeF his result is onsistent with the ft tht oth steel grdes elong to the sme fmily nd thus should hve lose mehnil propertiesF yserving the stress levelD it is ovious tht t low tempertures @UHH gA A nd B presents the sme stress levelF xeverthelessD from VHH g to very high tempertures this tendeny is inverted nd B presents the highest stress level s expeted y p2 prmeterF xumerillyD this ould e explined y the ounterlning A p3 prmeter tht is lower thn the one for B t UHH gF prom this point of viewD it is importnt to ompre ll the prmeters working together in order to identify potentil errors in prmeter djustmentsF
250 700 200 Stress [MPa] 150 900 100 1000 50 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Strain 1 1100 1300 1500 1.2 1.4 Stress [MPa] 800 200 800 150 100 50 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Strain 1 900 250 700

1000 1100 1300 1500 1.2 1.4

(a)

A and C

(b)

pigure QFQIX gurves of the xortonEro' lw determined t vrious tempertures with the prmeters determined through r for strin rte of IH2 s1

sn onlusionD despites some disrepny etween the model preditions nd experE imentsD espeilly for AD the identi(ed prmeters generte n expeted ehvior nd the di'erent steel grdes ould e modeled with themF he prmeters otined for A re pplied on C in the rheologil point of view @xortonEro' modelA ut not for the dmge modelF hese prmeters will e used to model the mteril ehvior during rF

WR

Chapter 3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

3.1.3.6

Comparison of the tensile and compression tests and numerical results

sn order to (nish up the whole experimentl studyD the results of the r performed t ehenD the hot ompression tests done t vige nd the rheologil xortonEro' lw )ow urves with the identi(ed prmeters hve een olletedF he three studied steel grdes )ow urves results hve een ompred for the strin rte of 1 103 s1 on H smples for the ville temperturesD UHHD WHH nd IIHH g @see le QFQPAF he stress nd the strin @iqutions QFI nd QFPA re lulted without neking in tensionF he retions reorded on the hot tensile testing mhine re tken supposing n homogeneous elongtion nd volume onservtionF es the neking ppers t n unde(ned moment no orretion n e usedF

Force Section

@QFIA

= Ln(1 +

L ) L

@QFPA

sn ompressionD the stress is lulted using rreling orretion @iqutions QFQA desried in n vg internl report sed on yrown theoryF

compression =

F 2 Rreal (d)

@QFQA

where the stress is lulted on the sis of the rel smple rdius with rrel shpe Rreal t given trnsverse em displement dF he rel rdius is lulted the following this equtionX

Rreal (d) = RH (d) +

d df inal

(Rreal,f inal RH,f inal )

@QFRA

with RH the homogeneous rdius lulted through volume onservtionF he rreling ppers s soon s the test smple is loded nd thus the orretion n e pplied long the ompression testF his n explin some di'erenes in the experimentl results t the moment where the neking ppers in tensionF he experimentl ompression nd tensile tests re in good orreltionD for strin rte of 1 103 s1 D in lmost ll the ses even if the therml yle nd therefore the mirostruture is di'erentF he divergene re more elevted t IIHH g s the ompression tests t the niE versity of vige were di0ult to relize t suh elevted temperturesD knowing tht IIHH g is the limit of pity of the furne nd tht the reording noise ws more or less of the sme level s the fores reordedF ht is why the ompression urve for C t IIHH g hs not een exploitedF he xortonEro' lw prmeters vlues re in onordne up to the threshold strin vlue equl to HFPF reneD the extrpolted vlues of the rheologil lw re ssumed pertinent in order to simulte the steel ehvior t these temperturesF

3.2 Tensile histories for mesoscopic application

UHH g
160 140 120 Stress [MPa]
Stress [MPa] 100 90 80 Stress [MPa] 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Strain Strain 30 40

WS IIHH g

WHH g

100 80 60 40 20 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Strain

20

10

160 140 120 Stress [MPa] Stress [MPa]

100 90 80 Stress [MPa] 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Strain Strain 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Strain 30 40

100 80 60 40 20 0

20

10

160 140 120 Stress [MPa] Stress [MPa]

100 90 80 Stress [MPa] 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Strain Strain 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Strain 30 40

100 80 60 40 20 0

20

10

pigure QFQPX gomprisons of the hot tensile nd ompression tests nd the numeril results of the simultion for ses t 1 103 s1 strin rte where lk lines represents the experimentl tensile testsD the gry lines the ompression tests nd the dshed lines the lultion of the xortonEro' lw with the determined prmetersA

3.2 Tensile histories for mesoscopic application

sn order to determine the dmge prmeters of the lw presented etion PFID it is neessry to perform enh of tensile testsF o redue the numer of testsD it is importnt to fous on tempertures within the dutility troughF he test tempertures were determined in etion QFIFPF hi'erent strin rtes tests lso help us to properly (t the dmge prmetersF

3.2.1 Determination of the studied cases

he hot tensile tests performed for the dmge lw prmeters djustment re deterE mined through the vrition of three vrilesX

he smple geometryY he strin rteY he tempertureF

Determination of sample geometry

sn order to hve di'erent stress nd strin historiesD vrious smple shpes hve een hosenF he one seletedD P nd RD present di'erent trixilities @A t the noth root @justi(tion of the lotion in etion RFIFPAF

WT

Chapter 3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

he (rst point is to determine the di'erent trixilities @iqution QFSA given y vrious noth rdii @P nd RmmA in order to e sure tht the strin stress histories will e di'erentF reneD the tensile tests hve een simulted with the di'erent noth rdiiF he trixilities hve een reorded s funtion of time within the middle ross setionF he vlue t the noth root t the eginning of the test is given @pigure QFQQAF

(xx + yy + zz ) /3 m = eq eq

@QFSA

(a) R0 - = 0.33

(b) Notch R2 - = 0.48

(c) Notch R4 - = 0.55

pigure QFQQX lues of the trixility t the noth root for eh speimen shpe t the simultion strt he trixility is growing with inresing noth rdiusF sndeedD the smooth smple gives low trixility @HFQQAF heresD the Pmm rdiusD tht is the intermedite oneD gives higher trixility @HFRVA nd thus di'erent stress nd strin history ompred to Rmm rdius @HFSSAF H shpe lso ould hve een used ut the numeril pplition of this se is more di0ultF sndeedD the neking does not pper esily within the simultions s hrdening visoplsti lw hs een hosenF yne should dd n rti(il defet in the smple enter prtF es the stress strin history of the middle setion shpe ws not reorded during the testD this rti(il defet should e determined ritrrilyF reneD H shpe smples is only used for the hot dutility trough lotion nd not for the dmge prmeters determintionF sn onlusion the smple shpes P nd R re dequte to model di'erent histories nd provides vrious ses exploited lter in the mesosopi study @ghpter RAF
Determination of strain rate

es the rheologil lw depends on the strin rteD three di'erent strin rtes hve een hosen in order to e le to (t prmeters s lose s possile to the rel industril ses studiedF he strin rte in gg is ner to 105 to 104 s1 F husD the strin rtes hve een hosen to e very lowD knowing tht the lower ound of the tensile test pprtus is 103 s1 F he vlues 102 D 5 103 nd 103 s1 hve een hosenF

3.2 Tensile histories for mesoscopic application

Determination of temperature

WU

hree tempertures hve een hosen depending on the dutility troughs deteted for eh steel grde s presented in etion QFIFPF por A grdeD the dutility trough ws ssumed to e entered etween VSH nd WSH g from the prtil results ville t the moment of deisionF he three hosen tempertures to study re VSHD WHH nd WSH gF por B grdeD the dutility trough is situted etween USH nd WSH g whih is lrger rngeF iven thoughD three tempertures hve een hosenX USHD VSH nd WSH gF he studied tempertures for C whih hs deep dutility situted etween UHH nd WHH gD re UHHD VHH nd WHH gF
Overview of the studied HTT cases

sn onlusionD nine di'erent ses re ville for eh steel grde s summrized in le QFU where ll the performed tests on nothed smples re ompiledF

Shape
P R

[s1 ] 1 103 5 103 10 103

A [ C]

B [ C]

C [ C]

VSH WHH WSH

USH VSH WSH

UHH VHH WHH

le QFUX est mpign plnning for determintion of the dmge model on P nd R smple shpes por eh steel grde the tested ses re di'erent due to the determintion mde on the sis of the dutility troughs oservtionF xot ll the ses re villeF ome tests hve not een performed euse of mteril lk or the results re not exploitle s presented in the following hpterF

3.2.2 Experimental and numerical correlation of the HTT

he numeril simultions of the tensile tests hve een performedF sn order to vlidte thoseD the results of fore ginst displement hve een onfronted to the experimenE tl dtF he displement vlues pplied on eh test hve een extrted from the experE imentl dt nd pplied on the numeril smple in order to e the nerest possile to the test seF he displement hs een reorded in funtion of the loding t the noth root of the numeril simultion in order to ompre oth resultsF he mesured nd predited fores re ompiled in eppendix iF hepending on the testD some results re in very good orreltion nd others notF he vlidted ses nd the dropped results re shown in le QFV for the three steel grdes studiedF por AD V ses re ville wheres U re for B nd W for CF sn generl point of viewD the results for R smple shpe re not in good orreltion with the numeril resultsF his ould e due to the lower stress level rehed nd

WV

Chapter 3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

thusD smll fore vluesF roweverD the r tests for C present good orreltions with rheologil lw on R smplesF e ler orreltion etween smple shpe nd the ury of the mesured nd experimentl urves omprison hs not een estlishedF por the following studyD the old ses in le QFV will e used for the dmge prmeter study in order to sty s urte s possileF P
A

1 103 s1 5 103 s1 10 103 s1

850 900 850 900 950 850 900 950

WSH

R VSH WHH WSH VSH WHH WSH VSH WHH WSH

750 850 750 850 950 850 950

WSH

R USH VSH WSH USH VSH WSH USH VSH

700 700 800 VHH 900 900 700 UHH 800 VHH 900 900
UHH VHH WHH UHH VHH WHH

le QFVX gorreltion study etween experimentl nd numeril r t vrious strin rtes nd on di'erent smple shpes with vlidted ses in old style

3.2.3 Analysis of the dierences between experimental and numerical simulations

he disrepny etween the experimentl nd the numeril results even in the non softening prt ws ig onernF snvestigtions hve een led in severl diretionsF

3.2.3.1

Finite element choice

he element used initilly is the element fvP s the dmge element in the repreE senttive ell is ssoited to this type of elementF sn order to e sure tht the fvP element gives right results for the loding performed it hs een ompred with vv @pigure QFQRAF vv is lssil isoprmetri elementD while fvP is mixed typeD ruE shizu vritionl element with hourglss stress nd one integrtion pointF heir results re identil for similr meshes s long s the following riteri on the element shpe of fvP re respetsX

good rtio etween the element length L1 /L2 < 3 @implemented in the odeAY no shrp or too lrge ngles @visul hekAF

3.2.3.2

Mesh density

e rpid study of the mesh density impt on the ury of the results showed us thtD when hnging the mesh densityD the vlues resulting from the lultions re presenting di'erenesF

3.2 Tensile histories for mesoscopic application

WW

pigure QFQRX pinite element used for the stress strin omprison ome tests hve een performed in order to determine the est strtegy to mesh the smple during the numeril simultionsF he lultions hven een performed on smple shpe PF he test temperture ws UHH g nd the strin rteD 1102 s1 F hree di'erent mesh densities hve een tested in this study @pigure QFQSAF he root element size for eh se is ompiled in le QFWF wesh denomintion
Mesh1 Mesh2 Mesh3

xumer of elements IHSH VHHH IQSHH

ize of the root element tht will e studied mm IFWRIS IH2 @HFPTTSH x HFHUPVSA WFPSPR IH4 @HFHPWHS x HFHQIVSA RFSURV IH4 @HFHIRSH x HFHQISSA

le QFWX gomprison of key prmeters of the mesh density study sn order to ompre the onsisteny of the di'erent meshes studiedD the fores ginst the displement in the setion of the smple @pigure QFQT@AA hve een plottedF et the eginningD the retions re equl nd thus the meshes re equivlentF rowE everD the urve of the Mesh1 mesh diverges from the others fter round Qmm of displement whih pproximtely orresponds to strin of T7F vooking t the )ow urves in pigure QFQT@A it is possile to nlyze the lol ehvior of the di'erent meshesF sndeedD lolly the stress distriution will e 'eted y the mesh densityF rowever drwing the )ow urve of the equivlent stress t the root of the nothD the glol loding is identil for eh seD the sme urves re reovered s expetedF fut even soD the stress omponents entering the omposition of the equivlent stress n follow di'erent slopesF vooking t the stress omponents @pigure QFQT@AAD the rdilD xil nd irumferentil stresses re put together in order to e le to ompre themF st is possile to oserve tht the mesh Mesh1 hs di'erent slopes for eh stress while meshes Mesh2 nd Mesh3 tht re equivlentF husD mesh Mesh1 is not (ne enough for these numeril simultionsF he results for meshes Mesh2 nd Mesh3

IHH

Chapter 3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

pigure QFQSX wesh design for the mesh density impt study with numer of elements per side in green re equivlentF oD these results ould e tken s the refereneF hus mesh used for further lultions in order to optimize the lultion speedF
Mesh2

is

3.2.3.3

Sensitivity of the rheological law

he sensitivity of slight modi(tions of the p1 D p2 D p3 nd p4 of the xortonEro' lw hs een hekedF he e'et on the glol poreEhisplement urves hs een plottedF es strin rte in the simultion of the noth test @max = 7.5 102 s1 t the root of the P noth t WSH g nd strin rte imposed to the smple of 2102 s1 A n lolly e lrger thn the one in the tests used to djust xortonEro' prmeters @mximum strin rte 102 s1 AD it ws deided to fous on prmeter p3 F roweverD only lrge modi(tion of p3 llowed to eome loser from experimentl nothed testsF sn this se the resonle greement found on the r ws lostF

3.2.3.4

Comparison of R2 and R4 sample shapes

enlysis of P nd R simultion results for B grdeD demonstrtes tht trixility nd plsti grdient re higher in R nd less homogeneous thn in P simultionF fut this vrition seems still too low to indue ny numeril prolem requiring non lol lw nd explining the huge inohereny etween experimentl nd numeril resultsF ell these investigtions helped to identify simultion giving relile stle results for resonle omputtion time ut did not solve the disrepny etween simultion nd experimentsF

3.2 Tensile histories for mesoscopic application

IHI

6000 5000
Mesh1 Mesh2 Mesh3

Reaction [N]

4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Displacement [mm]

(a) Reactions in the cross section

200 180

Equivalent stress [MPa]

160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Mesh1 Mesh2 Mesh3

1.8

Strain

(b) Equivalent stress

220 200 180 160 Radial stress Axial stress Circumferential stress

Stress [MPa]

140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Strain

(c) Stress-Strain curves

pigure QFQTX plow urves for smple meshing omprison of r numeril simultion with lk lines representing Mesh1D red linesD Mesh2 nd lue linesD Mesh3

IHP

Chapter 3 Rheology and damage tests: description, results and analyzes toward the representative mesoscopic cell

3.3 Representative cell design

3.3.1 Macroscopic level - grain design
he design of the ell is sed on mirogrphy of n usteniti steel grde whih ws provided y the industril prtners @pigure PFSAF st is representtive of the periteti grde studied hereF yn this mirogrphy the grin size hs een pproximted to PHHmF he size of the ell @pigure PFR@AA is lulted in order to hve more or less IHH grins in the enter ell @pigure PFR@AAF oD with n pproximtive lultion the dimensions re the following onesX gell gell C trnsition zone a a PxPmm PHxPHmm

sn order to drw the inner ell with representtive grin shpeD the grins from the mirogrphy pigure PFS hve een drwn on sheet of pper nd extended to the wnted size of the PxPmm ellF he method used to drw the ell ws mnul oneF sndeedD the grin size is lmost the sme for eh steel grde studied nd soD the sme ell is used for eh grdeF reneD eh point hs een lolized with its oordintes nd the grins nd grin oundries hve een designed one y one s explined in etion PFIFRF

3.4 Conclusion on the rheology and damage tests chapter

he determintion of the rheologil prmeters hd to e strted with the study of the right therml pth to pply to the smple in order to reprodue the est wy the industril prolemti nd to otin omprle steel mirostrutureF rving the therml pthD the low dutility re of eh steel grde is determined y r t vrious temperturesF his study permitted to know in whih temperture rnge the rks re expeted nd to fous on itF he lotions of the dutility troughs is explined with the preipittion formtion t the equilirium nd the phse trnsformtion urvesF efter the study of the temperture rnge in whih the dmge oursD the rheology is determined y mking r on three di'erent tempertures nd three di'erent strin rtesF he xortonEro' elstoEvisoEplsti lw prmeters where set for eh steel grde studiedF he test mpign for the determintion of the dmge lw prmeters is deterE mined y hoosing the studied smple geometriesD the test strin rtes nd temperE tures in order to otin di'erent stressEstrin histories for the mesosopi pplitionF he experimentl tests hve een driven t the siru in ehen nd hve een omE pred to the numeril simultion results of the sme r modeled with vgmine nd the previously determined rheologil lw prmetersF pinllyD the si representtive ell design is explinedF

Chapter 4

Damage model identification, damage parameter analysis

sn ghpter Q the mrosopi point of view hs een exposedF he rheology of the periteti steel hs een determined nd the representtive ell designedF he present hpter desries the dmge prmeter identi(tion tht onstitutes the mesosopi prt of this studyF he (rst prt of this hpter is dedited to the nlysis of the rk initition lotion in tensile test smplesF he stressEstrin history t this prtiulr lotion yields to rupture nd is required to identify the dmge lw prmetersF sn the seond stepD the prmeters of the dmge lw re nlyzed to determine their sensitivityX wht is the e'et of reltive vrition of eh prmeterc he third prt explins the determintion of the dmge prmeters nd presents the results otined for eh grde studiedF

4.1 Tensile test sample to representative cell

4.1.1 General view of the representative cell position in the tensile test sample
sn the (rst trils of F gstgneD displements were imposed in the three diretions s the simultions usully hve etter onvergene when the lodings re imposed through displements onlyF elthough the orret equivlent stress ws pplied to the mesosopi ellD it ppered tht the stress omponents distriution ws not orretF his is due to the formultion of the elstiEvisousEplsti lwD whih is given in terms of equivlent stress nd strinF sndeedD di'erent stress omponents distriutions n orrespond to the sme equivlent stressF he ell loding should thus e studied nd the dt trnsfer from the mrosopi tensile test to the mesosopi representtive ell hs to e msteredF huring the dt trnsferD the ojetive is to reprodue in the mesosopi ell the stressEstrin (eld reorded t the ritil point of the prent mrosopi simultionF IHQ

IHR

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

he representtive ell will then e sujeted to fores ndGor displementsF sn her previous workD ylvie gstgne demonstrted tht the est wy to lod the represenE ttive ell is to pply fores in y nd z diretions nd displement in x diretion orresponding to those extrted from ompression simultion of the mrosopi smple s showed in pigure RFIF his loding pttern hs een espeilly hosen in order to e s urte s possile y imposing the fores in the two diretions where the stresses re the lrgestF he experimentl tests ylvie used to djust the dmge prmeters were ompression testsF he xil nd irumferentil stresses re pplied in form of fores in y nd z diretions respetivelyF he displement in x diretion is dedued from the rdil displementF sn this seD the loding pttern rules re respetedF sndeedD the rk initites long the grin oundries perpendiulrly to the mximum prinipl stressF huring the ompression testsD this stress orresponds to the irumferentil stress F et the ritil point where the rk is initited in ompressionD the rdil stress r is equl to zero s well s the sher stress r F hey were not tken into ount during the dt trnsferF sn the se of this studyD the tests performed to djust the prmeters re tensile testsF his (rst loding pttern hs een tested on the representtive ell with results oming from the noth root of the simultion of hot tensile testF sn onlusionD pplying the loding history in tension is not the est strtegy to get the orret resultsD s the stress (eld in the trnsition zone of the representtive ell ws not in greement with the one in the mrosopi tensile testF sn tension testsD s oserved in di'erent test simultionsD the highest vlues of stress omponent is found in the xil diretion zz @pigure RFPAF he rk is supposed to pper in the noth root perpendiulrly to the xil mrosopi diretion s oserved y during experimentl testsF he ell should then e pled in the following wy @pigure RFPAX

xmicro rdil diretion of the tensile speimen @rr A ymicro xil diretion of the tensile speimen @zz A zmicro irumferentil diretion of the tensile speimen @ A
he lodings should pply to the ell the fores oming from the highest stress omponent of the tensile testF husD in the ymicro diretion the highest stress zz is ppliedF foth other stresses re equivlent t the eginning of the simultion so it hs een hosen tht fore is pplied in the xmicro diretion @rr A nd displement in the zmicro diretion @ AF his rule hs een hosen independently on the ft tht fter little deformtionD the irumferentil stress inreses nd eomes lrger thn the rdil stressF unowing this ftD the seond fore should hve een pled in the zmicro diretion nd the displement in the ymicro diretionF ristorillyD the (rst tests hve een performed on smple without nothesD so tht rr = 0F roweverD the results @stressEstrin (eld in the trnsition zone = stressEstrin history of the hosen mteril point in mro tensile smpleA provided y this loding pttern re stisfying nd exploited in the rest of this study in order to determine the dmge lw prmetersF

4.1 Tensile test sample to representative cell

IHS

pigure RFIX yrienttion of the mirosopi ell with regrd to the mrosopi models nd view of the representtive ell within the trnsition re s F gstgne did gsHU

pigure RFPX eferene system of the mrosopi simultion nd trnsfer to the repreE senttive ell

IHT

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

4.1.2 Determination of the location of the numerical stressstrain sampling

et the eginning of this study the lotion where the numeril stressEstrin vlues hd to e onsidered ws not lerF sndeedD the stress trixility (eld shows tht in the entrl prt of the smpleD the trixilities re more elevted thn t the irumferene of the smpleF ith this result one ould hose the mteril point within the enter prt s it ould e ssumed tht the mximum of trixility indues the mximum dmgeF xeverthelessD this setion presents the results otined ompring root nd ore reords of the hot tensile test simultionF st hs een found tht this ssumption hd to e veri(ed euse the mximum prinipl stress is situted t the noth root nd ould lso generte high dmge s seen herefterF he stressEstrin (eld hs een oserved in the ore nd t the noth root of the sme simultion @smple shpe PD strin rte 102 s1 D temperture VSH gD lw prmE eters A divided into ore nd root resultsD pigure RFQAF he rheologil lw prmeters used t this moment were not the lst ones (tted ut the results of the performed simultions gives good view of the stresses present in the smple during hot tensile testF

pigure RFQX votion of the two stressEstrin (elds reorded in representtion of the P nothed tensile test smple
Tensile test simulation results

he results of the tensile test simultion on P nothed smple show tht in generl ll the stresses omponents re lrger t the noth root thn in the smple ore s one n oserve in pigure RFR@AF sn oth ses @ore nd rootAD the sher stress is negligileF sn the enter of the smplesD the rdil nd irumferentil stresses re equl @irumferene a Hmm on the symmetry xis of the smpleAF vooking t the trixilities @pigure RFR@AA in the tensile test smpleD the root element presents shortEtime more elevted trixility thn in the oreF roweverD this tendeny is quikly reversed nd the trixility in the ore eomes muh higher thn

4.1 Tensile test sample to representative cell

t the rootD s deformtion is going onF
250 200 Stress [MPa] 150 100 50 0 0 -50 Time [s] 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Radial Axial Shear Circumferential Equivalent

IHU

0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 Triaxiality 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 0 5 10 15 20 Time [s] 25 30 35

(a) Flow curves

(b) Triaxiality values

pigure RFRX PD VSH gD IH2 s1 tensile test simultion results t the root @EA nd in the ore @CA of the smple sn this oservtion lys the miguity of the lotion seletion of the referene mteril point history providing highest dmgeF sts mrosopi stressEstrin history will feed the mesosopi representtive ellF o void mking d hoieD oth root nd ore stressEstrin (elds re pplied on the representtive ell through fores nd displements nd the mesosopi nd mrosopi stress (elds re ompred s well s the dmge (eld generted y thoseF
Representative cell results

epplying the two di'erent loding @the (rst one in the tensile smple9s enter nd the seond on the noth rootAD the )ow urves re nlyzedF he (gures representing the di'erent stresses s funtion of equivlent strin @pigures RFSA lerly show tht the stresses in the inner pr of the smple re muh lrger thn those in the root for sme strinF his hs to e onneted to the ft tht the smple is less deformed in the enter prt of the smpleF sn pigure RFT@A it n e oserved tht the equivlent strin t the noth root is lrger thn in the smple9s ore t sme moment of the simultionF his indues tht higher stress level will e rehed t the noth root of the smple t given displement even if for the sme strin the stress is higher in the ore s seen in pigures RFSF sndeedD the leding prmeter for the tensile test simultion in this study is the timeF vooking t pigure RFT@AD it is possile to oserve tht the dmge grows fster t the noth root thn in the enter prt of the tensile test smple for the sme set of prmetersF husD the dmgeD in the se of this studyD hs to e relted to the high stress nd strin levels nd soD the dt tht hve to e reorded from the hot tensile test hve to e situted t the noth root in order to e le to oserve the very (rst rk ppering in the struture of the test smpleF st hs lso een demonstrted @etion QFPFIA tht the histories otined with oth smple shpes @P nd RA re di'erent nd will e helpful for the identi(tion of

IHV

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

300

80 70 60 Root Core

250 Radial stress [MPa] Root 50 Core 0 0.0 0.5 1.0 Equivalent strain 1.5 2.0 Axial stress [MPa]

200

50 40 30 20 10 0 0.0 0.5 1.0 Equivalent strain 1.5 2.0

150

100

80 70 60 Axial stress [MPa] 50 40 30 20 10 Root Core

7 6 5 Axial stress [MPa] 4 3 2 1 0 Root Core

0 0.0 0.5 1.0 Equivalent strain 1.5 2.0 -1

0.0

0.5

1.0 Equivalent strain

1.5

2.0

pigure RFSX tresses from the PD VSH gD IH2 s1 tensile test simultion @A t the root nd in the ore of the smple ompred to the results otined y loding the representtive ell @EA with the tensile test simultion reords

2.5 Root 2.0 Equivalent strain

0.7 0.6 Core Damage value [a/b] 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 0 5 10 15 20 Time [s] 25 30 35

0.0 0 5 10 15 20 Time [s] 25 30 35

(a) Equivalent strain with for the tensile test (b) Damage value with - for the root and + for simulation and - for the representative cell results the core results

pigure RFTX P ensile test simultion results t the root nd in the ore of the smple

4.1 Tensile test sample to representative cell

the dmge prmetersF

IHW

4.1.3 Calculations performed for the representative cell loading

sn order to prepre the wroEweso dt trnsfer from the mrosopi numeril simultion to the prtiulr PHxPHmm mesosopi ell @pigure RFUAD some prmeters re reorded during the numeril lultion nd ompiled in test (le used to lod the representtive ellF he severl steps of this work re the followingX

he initil position in x nd y diretions of the R nodes of the studied element @element I s written t line 14A re reorded for further use @line 17 to 26AF ivery S time stepsD the urrent x nd y positions of the R nodes re reorded @line 28 to 36AF he strin (eld is the element is lulted following iqution RFI @line 38 and 39A for the lultion of the rdil strinD iqution RFP @line 40 and 41A for the irumferentil strin nd iqution RFQ @line 42A for the xil strinF radial = 1 log 2 Xt,3 Xt,4 Xi,3 Xi,4 + log Xt,2 Xt,1 Xi,2 Xi,1
@RFIA

axial =

1 log 2

Yt,3 Yt,4 Yi,3 Yi,4

+ log

Yt,2 Yt,1 Yi,2 Yi,1

@RFPA

circumf erential = log

Xt,1 + Xt,2 + Xt,3 + Xt,4 Xi,1 + Xi,2 + Xi,3 + Xi,4

@RFQA

where Xt,1 represents the position in x diretion t time t of the lultion for node I @I in the following odeAD Xi,1 represents the initil x position @HI in the following odeA nd the vlues eginning y Y represents the positions in y diretion for eh node of the studied elementF

he orresponding displement in the representtive ell is lulted in funtion of the ell size @line 44 to 46AF he representtive ell is the sme for ll the lultions done t the mesosopi sleF he size of the ell hs een disussed in etion QFQ where it hs een set tht in x nd y diretionsD the trnsition zone surrounding the ell is PHxPHmm squre nd the thikness of itD tht enles the plne generlized plne strin mesures Imm @z diretionAF BFdep (le tht represents the imposed displements during the lultion is prepredF he time where the displement is imposed is written in n BFpUU output (le nd the displement in the z diretion @hA of the generlized plne strin previously lulted is dded for eh time step lulted @line 48 and 49AF

IIH

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

BFlo (le where the fores to impose to the lultion is prepred in n BFpUR output (le @line 51 to 69AF his prt n e seprted into T prts depending on the nodes driven y fore @RFRAF hi'erene is mde etween diretions nd node position @edge or ornerAF Fdirection = Surface direction Number of edge divisions
@RFRA

upper orner nodes of the ell in y diretion @nodes SHT nd SHUAF upper edge nodes of the ell in y diretion @nodes IHWV to IIITAF

line 52 to 54X glultion of the Fy fores @iqution RFSA to impose on the

line 55 to 57X glultion of the Fy fores @iqution RFTA to impose on the

DTX DTZ DTX DTZ yy @RFSA Fy,edge = yy @RFTA 40 20 line 58 to 60X glultion of the Fy fores @Fy,corner of iqution RFSA to impose on the lower orner nodes of the ell in y diretion @nodes SHR nd SHSAF Fy,corner =

line 61 to 63X glultion of the Fy fores @Fy,edge of iqution RFTA to impose on the lower edge nodes of the ell in y diretion @nodes IHTH to IHUVAF line 64 to 66X glultion of the Fx fores @iqution RFUA to impose on the right orner nodes of the ell in x diretion @nodes SHS nd SHTAF line 67 to 69X glultion of the Fx fores @iqution RFVA to impose on the upper edge nodes of the ell in x diretion @nodes IHUW to IHWUAF
Fx,corner = DTY DTZ xx @RFUA 40 Fx,edge = DTY DTZ xx 20
@RFVA

pigure RFUX xodes of the representtive ell edges for the loding through BFlo (le

4.1 Tensile test sample to representative cell

III

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72

C ==================================================================== C C SCHWARTZ IDENT 67 xx ( TREBELVERSUCH _ TRACTION IEHK ) C AUG 06 - JAN 10 C C Modeling of the hot tensile test performed at C the University of Aachen - RWTH C C Calculations in order to prepare the *. loa (*. F74 ) C and *. dep (*. F77 ) files used for the mesoscopic simulation C C ==================================================================== C C if ( IELEM ==1 . AND . IDENT ==6714) then Remember the values of the initial coordinates of the first element 's node used for the further calculations of the deformation of the element if ( ISTEP ==1) then XI (1) = CONEC ( NODES (4) ,1 ,1) XI (2) = CONEC ( NODES (1) ,1 ,1) XI (3) = CONEC ( NODES (2) ,1 ,1) XI (4) = CONEC ( NODES (3) ,1 ,1) YI (1) = CONEC ( NODES (4) ,2 ,1) YI (2) = CONEC ( NODES (1) ,2 ,1) YI (3) = CONEC ( NODES (2) ,2 ,1) YI (4) = CONEC ( NODES (3) ,2 ,1) endif if ( MOD ( ISTEP ,5) ==0) then XT1 = CONEC ( NODES (4) ,1 ,1) XT2 = CONEC ( NODES (1) ,1 ,1) XT3 = CONEC ( NODES (2) ,1 ,1) XT4 = CONEC ( NODES (3) ,1 ,1) YT1 = CONEC ( NODES (4) ,2 ,1) YT2 = CONEC ( NODES (1) ,2 ,1) YT3 = CONEC ( NODES (2) ,2 ,1) YT4 = CONEC ( NODES (3) ,2 ,1) . . EPSR = 0.5 D0 *( DLOG (( XT3 - XT4 ) /( XI (3) -XI (4) )) + DLOG (( XT2 - XT1 ) /( XI (2) -XI (1) )) ) EPSV = 0.5 D0 *( DLOG (( YT3 - YT2 ) /( YI (3) -YI (2) )) + DLOG (( YT4 - YT1 ) /( YI (4) -YI (1) )) ) EPSC = DLOG (( XT1 + XT2 + XT3 + XT4 ) /( XI (1) + XI (2) + XI (3) + XI (4) ) ) DTX = DEXP ( EPSR ) *20. D0 DTY = DEXP ( EPSV ) *20. D0 DTZ = DEXP ( EPSC ) *1. D0 write (74 ,6705) TIME write (74 ,6703) 3141 , 1, DTZ ! *. F74 -> *. dep

write (77 ,6705) TIME ! *. F77 -> *. loa do IncDepCoinY =506 ,507 write (77 ,6704) IncDepCoinY , 2 , DTX * DTZ /40. D0 * SIGVA (2) enddo do IncDepY =1098 ,1116 write (77 ,6704) IncDepY , 2, DTX * DTZ /20. D0 * SIGVA (2) enddo do IncDepCoinYNeg =504 ,505 write (77 ,6704) IncDepCoinYNeg , 2, - DTX * DTZ /40. D0 * SIGVA (2) enddo do IncDepYNeg =1060 ,1078 write (77 ,6704) IncDepYNeg , 2, - DTX * DTZ /20. D0 * SIGVA (2) enddo do IncDepCoinX =505 ,506 write (77 ,6704) IncDepCoinX , 1 , DTY * DTZ /40. D0 * SIGVA (1) enddo do IncDepX =1079 ,1097 write (77 ,6704) IncDepX , 1, DTY * DTZ /20. D0 * SIGVA (1) enddo endif endif

IIP

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

! Format for *. F74 -> *. dep ! Format for *. F77 -> *. loa ! Format for *. F77 and *. F74 time line

73 74 75

6703 format (2( I5 ) ,1 F20 .18) 6704 format (2( I5 ) ,1 F20 .15) 6705 format (1 F9 .4)

4.2 Sensitivity analysis of the damage law parameters

he 4sensitivity nlysis4 onsists in determining the sensitivity of the rk pperE ne to the di'erent prmeters of the dmge modelF his study is done y running numeril simultions on the representtive ell lwys with the sme mrosopi hisE toryD representtive of the sme shped smples nd modifying the vlue of only one dmge prmeterF emong the input prmeters of the dmge lwD seven hve een studiedF he impt of slight hnge in these vlues on the lultions hve een studiedF yne vlue hs een held onstnt during the whole studyX the rupture riterion a/b tht is imposed t 0.5F his study hs een led (rst on the prmeters determined y ylvie gstgne in order to understnd their e'et on the dmgeF efter the prmeters hve een orretly (tted on eh steel grde @etion RFQAD the set of prmeters otined for C hs een exploited in order to hve urrent view of the leding prmeters of the dmge lw nd their in)uene on the dmge ehviorF ynly these lst results re shown in this hpterF ell the sensitivity nlysis is sed on the omprison of the e'et of severl hnges of dmge lw prmeters on the dmge ehvior s funtion of referene set of prmetersF he referene vlues of the dmge lw prmeters re presented in the le RFI in the prtiulr olumn 4eferene vlues4F es nnouned in the sme tleD the referene vlues re modi(ed y inresing or deresing the referene y PH7F ih se will e tested seprtelyD tht produes IS ses to studyF he referene se nd the positive nd negtive vritions of the referene vluesD one y oneF he seven prmeters whih hve een modi(ed re the initil vity size a0 D the initil distne etween vities b0 D the nuletion prmeter Fn D the initil vity denE sity for pperne of nuletion NI D the visosity prmeter e /B D the multiplition ftor Nmax /NI of the threshold of the end of the nuletion Nmax nd the vity tip ngle F he e'et of eh prmeter is studied through the nlysis of their e'et on the di'erent steps of the dmge urve nd espeilly the instnt of the three (rst rk events hs een hekedF

-20% Reference values +20%

a0 @IH5 A b0 @IH2 A Fn @IH5 A NI @IH2 A e /B Nmax /NI
PFR R IFP RFV V QP UP Q S IFS T IH RH WH QFT T IFV UFP IP RV IHV

le RFIX lues of the referene nd modi(ed prmeters for the sensitivity nlysis

4.2 Sensitivity analysis of the damage law parameters

IIQ

4.2.1 Damage path

sn order to understnd the ting of the prmetersD the di'erent stges of the dmge should e understoodF he pigure RFV desries the ommon dmge pthF he urve is divided into di'erent steps tht re representtive of grin nuletionD growth nd oleseneF

pigure RFVX endeny of the dmge in the representtive ell

tep I D where the slope of the urve is lowD extends to the threshold Sthr tht is the eginning of the nuletion of vitiesF his (rst step is led y the growth of the vitiesD relted to the preipittes lredy present in the studied mtrixF rereD the prmeters Fn nd NI hve mjor mening nd led the juntion to the seond stepD prtiulrly NI D tht is the initil density of vities needed to nuleteF tep P strting from Sthr nd ending t the following slope hnge is hrterized y relly fst growth of the dmgeF sndeedD this step desries not only the ontinE uing growth of the vities ut lso the germintion of new vities in the mtrix tht implies the fst derese of the vity interdistne b nd thusD the inrese of a/bF he speed of the growth only depends on Fn F hen Fn is lrgeD the nuletion is esy nd the slope eomes steepF sn ontrryD when Fn is smllerD the slope dereses in intensityF es soon s the threshold interdistne etween vities bmin is rehedD the nuleE tion of new vities stops nd only the growth of the tul ones ours s hrterE ized y the hnge of slope from P to Q F he rk event ours s soon s the rtio a/bD representtive of the rtio of dmged mteril over helthy mteril rehes the dmge threshold lled Ddam F es introdued eforeD the sensitivity nlysis is performed in order to identify the ritil prmeters of the lwF hose who hve n importnt prt on the dmge evolution ut lso on the rk eventF hese oth phenomenons re studied herefterF

IIR

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

4.2.2 Analysis of the damage evolution

sn order to nlyze the vrious e'ets of the prmeters on dmgeD (gures hve een onstruted for eh prmeter vrition so tht the di'erenes ould e well seen on the whole dmge urveF e representtion of the whole urve is given in the lower right ornerF his (gure is ompnied y zooms mde on the min prts of the initil urveF he min prts re the two slope hnges of the dmge evolutionF he (rst one round the eginning of the nuletion in the lower left ornerD the seond round the end of the nuletion in the upper left orner nd lst zoom inludes the dmge moment in the upper right ornerF e detiled desription is given in eppendix fF ih prmeter in)uenes the dmge evolution s oserved in pigures RFW nd RFIH for Fn nd NI nd in eppendix f for the other dmge lw prmetersF he (rst (gure represents the e'et of hnge y C nd E PH7 of the nuletion prmeter vlueF st is ovious tht the whole nuletion prt hnges drmtilly etween the referene vlue nd the two vritionsF he seond (gure represents the e'et of the vrition of the prmeter NI on the dmge evolutionF rereD from the nuletion strt until the dmge momentD the urve is impted y the prmeter vritionF
0.08 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.46 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.42 0.05 0.04 10.0 0.0030 0.5 0.0025 0.4 0.0020 Damage value [a/b] 0.40 150 0.50

0.48

0.44

12.5

15.0

17.5

20.0

155

160

165

170

175

180

185

190

0.3

0.0015

0.2

0.0010

0.1 0.0005 0.0 0.0000 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0 50 100 Time [s] 150 200

pigure RFWX sn)uene of the vrition of the prmeters Fn on the dmge evolution @C efereneD eferene E PH7 D eferene C PH7A sn the urrent studyD hot tensile tests provides the stress nd strin history until the rk ppersF ynly this informtion ould e used to identify the dmge prmetersF yn the dmge urveD the only inditor will e the dmge ourreneF husD the

4.2 Sensitivity analysis of the damage law parameters

IIS

0.08 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.46 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.42 0.05 0.04 10.0 0.0030 0.5 0.0025 0.4 0.0020 Damage value [a/b] 0.40 150 0.50

0.48

0.44

12.5

15.0

17.5

20.0

155

160

165

170

175

180

185

190

0.3

0.0015

0.2

0.0010

0.1 0.0005 0.0 0.0000 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0 50 100 Time [s] 150 200

pigure RFIHX sn)uene of the vrition of the prmeters NI on the dmge evolution @C efereneD eferene E PH7 D eferene C PH7A identi(tion of the prmeters whih ply role on the dmge moment will e esier to identify nd their vlues will e more urteF st is hene importnt to know nd to understnd the ontriution of eh prmeter to the dmge ehviorD y nlyzing preisely the dmge urves otined y the vrition of eh dmge lw prmeterF heir respetive e'et on the dmge evolution is explined herefterF
Effect of a0

he (gure of the e'et of a0 is in eppendix fD pigure fFPF e hnge in the vlue of a0 n e used to de(ne n initil dmge tht ould e di'erent in the severl prts of the mtrixD etween two grins of di'erent struture or simply to insert some wekened zones in the mterilF st shifts the whole urve whether to higher dmges with n ugmented vlue or lower when deresing the vlue of the vity sizeF his ppers to e logil euse when the dmge strts on vities with igger dimetersD the dmge will grow from more elevted vlue t the strtF his smll di'erene etween modi(ed vlues nd the referene is kept during the whole evolutionF he vrition round the referene vlue do not eome greter so the hnge in this prmeter ould modify slightly the rk eventF
Effect of b0

b0 hs n e'et on the (rst prt of the dmge evolution @pigure fFQ in eppendix eppendix fAF hen the vities interdistne is smller it mens tht there re more preipittes in the mtrixF husD the initil dmge is t higher level when b0 is

IIT

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

deresed of PH7F he nuletion strt is 'eted y the vrition of this prmeter ut is fstly overed y the nuletion e'et tht provides muh more vitiesF his wyD the vlue of b0 hs not remrkle e'et on the dmge momentF st ould e interesting to nlyze the se whereD from the strt onD huge mount of preipittes re present nd the nuletion is very lowF sn this seD the vrition of b0 might hve n e'et on the end of the dmge evolutionF
Effect of Fn

Fn D s mentioned eforeD hs gret in)uene on the nuletion phse of the dmge evolution @pigure RFWAF hen Fn is inresed y PH7D the nuletion is fster nd egins erlierF roweverD when the nuletion is fsterD it rehes erlier the threshold of the mximum vities tht ould e uilt in the mtrixF oD s it is oservle in pigure RFW in the zoom on the nuletion endD the dmge fter this point evolves on extly the sme slope until dmgeF husD the e'et on the rk pperne moment is nullD exept if the dmge ours during nuletionF sn this lst seD the nuletion vrition will hve huge e'et on the dmge of the mterilF he prmeter Fn ould e used in order to speify di'erent nuletion ehviors due to severl mirostruture hnges like grdients of grin size depending on the distne from the surfeF sn this studyD it is tried to produe the dmge fter the nuletion ompletly ouredF oD this prmeter will e very hrd to determine nd other experimentl tests should e designed in order to rterize this prt of the dmge evolutionF
Effect of NI

sn the dmge lultionD NI stnds for the minimum vity density from whih the nuletion n e oservedF st is sort of inutorF sf NI is inresedD the nuletion is delyedD then the nuletion tkes pleD nd the end of the nuletion will end lter lso @pigure RFIHAF por derese of the vlueD the dmge evolves otherwiseF he nuletion strt hppens erlier nd thusD the end of the nuletion ours efore the one of the referene vlueF his di'erene t the end of the nuletion step is kept until the dmge ppersF st mens tht it is less detrimentl for the mteril to strt the nuletion erlier nd it ould e interesting to think out provoking this nuletion t the wnted moment in order to otin the desired mirostruture ording to the duties of the end mterilF oD the rk pperne is very sensitive to ny modi(tion of this prmeter nd thusD it will e esy to identify it preiselyF
Effect of e /B

he visosityD e /B D hs n in)uene on the lst prt of the urve @eppendix fD pigure fFRAF sndeedD the visosity hs n importnt e'et only when the stresses re huge enough to generte sliding etween two grinsF et the eginning of the dmgeD when the fores re lowD the visosity hs no e'et on the dmgeF sn this prtiulr seD the e'et egins to pper during nuletionF he inrese of the visosity hndips the grins sliding nd thus diminishes the dmge used y this phenomenonF hen e /B vlue is deresed y PH7D the sliding etween two grins eomes esier nd the dmge evolves fster to the thresholdF he vrition of this prmeter indues then di'erent dmge momentsF sn this studyD it hs een hose to keep this prmeter onstntD t IH euse the tests performed ould not give inditions on this phenomenon tht is ment to e more relted to the steel fmily

4.2 Sensitivity analysis of the damage law parameters

IIU

or temperture thn to the nuletion of vitiesF hi'erent tests should e used to hrterize this prmeter independently from the othersF
Effect of Nmax /NI

he vrition of the ftor Nmax /NI in the lultion of Nmax hs extly the sme e'et s the modi(tion of the prmeter NI @eppendix fD pigure fFSAF Nmax /NI hs n e'et on the end of the nuletionF his mens thtD with n inrese of this vlueD the nuletion lsts longerF husD more vities re formedD tht is more detrimentl for the mterilF he di'erene with the modi(tion of NI only lys in the dmge evolution prt tht is 'eted (rstF e hnge in NI provokes di'erene lredy t the nuletion strt where the modi(tion of Nmax /NI only ppers t the endF xeverthelessD the results otined re the sme euse the lultion of the threshold bmin tht hrterizes the end of the nuletion provides the sme resultF oD the hnge in oth vlues NI nd Nmax /NI ould hve huge impt on the dmge evolution nd these prmeters hve to e determined preiselyF
Effect of

he prmeter is used in the lultion of the evolution of the vity size aF husD is hs n e'et on the whole dmge evolution @eppendix fD pigure fFTAF por vlue PH7 over the refereneD a evolves slower nd thusD the dmge vlue is lso lowered nd the rk ppers signi(ntly fter the referene rkF he e'et of this lst nlyzed prmeter is present during the whole dmge proess nd thusD the di'erene etween referene nd vritions eomes lwys igger nd igger until the rk ppersF sn this prtiulr seD the e'et of is more importnt thn the one of NI F ht mens tht the mirostruture nd espeilly the preipittes shpe is of highest importne for the dmge evolutionF hen the preipittes present pltelet shpe with shrp nglesD the dmge will grow fster thn with uoid or ig round preipittesF he dmge ould then e lowered ording to the needed mterilD with ontrolled preipittes pperne nd shpeF

4.2.3 Analysis of the crack event

he moments of the pperne of the three (rst rks were lso reorded nd the digrm of the (rst rking grin oundries hs een drwn on one (gure @pigure RFIIA in order to ompre the e'et of the dmge lw prmeters on the moment of the dmgeF es explined eforeD this moment of dmge will e the referene for the dmge lw prmeters (tting of this study y ompring the numerilly to the experimentlly otined onesF yn pigure RFIID it is possile to see lerly whih prmeter vrition hs n e'et on the dmge momentF rmeters a0 D b0 nd Fn hve no e'et on the moment where the dmge rehes the threshold Ddam F his is not relly relevnt for the two (rst prmeters euse they will e determined through mirogrphi study of the preipittes nd set to these vluesF por Fn D this mens tht the preise determintion of this prmeter will e more di0ult thn the following onesF sndeedD the only riterion tht ould e imposed to Fn is tht the dmge hppens fter the nuletion hs (nishedF

IIV

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

Psi + 20% Psi - 20% Nmax + 20% Nmax - 20% Visc + 20% Visc - 20% Ni + 20% Ni - 20% Fn + 20% Fn - 20% b0 + 20% b0 - 20% a0 + 20% a0 - 20% Reference 140 150 160 170 180
Time [s]

3rd crack 2nd crack 1st crack

190

200

210

220

pigure RFIIX hree (rst rk ppernes for the vrition of di'erent prmeters es lredy oservedD NI nd Nmax /NI produes the sme modi(tion on the dmE ge evolution nd thus on the three (rst rks reordedF heir e'ets re lerly mrked nd their determintions will thus e esier thn the one of Fn F he hnge of the visosity prmeter hs lso slight e'et on the dmge moment ut s mentioned eforeD this vlue will e set s onstnt during the whole studyF xeverthelessD the in)uene of this prmeter should not e negleted nd further studies should e performed in order to determine this prmeter for the studied steel grdesF he prmeterD whih vrition shows the hugest e'et in this se is F his prmeter will e determined s a0 nd b0 through mirogrphi nlyzesF husD the ngle of the vities in the lw will e diretly relted to the oservtion of the preipittes shpeF his prmeter ould e used s n inditor of the presene of severl types of preipittes with di'erent shpes nd thusD di'erent severity on the dmge of the mtrixF ome fundmentl prmeters of the used dmge model were nlyzed with other referene prmeters pulished in hHU nd the nlysis gives the sme kind of nE swersF row the model rets to eh prmeter ws studiedF st hs een seen in etion PFI tht a0 nd b0 re the guiding prmeters nd lso thresholds for the dmgeF es soon s the rtio a/b rehes the vlue of 0.5D rk n pper in the struture nd the grins re seprting from eh otherF sn ft ll the prmeters desried in the le PFI re relevnt for the lultion of the dmgeF st is hene importnt to notie tht the determintion of ll these prmeters hs to e done in the est wy in order to get the most urte vlues for these prmetersF ome prmeters re esier to

4.3 Damage law parameters tting for peritectic steel grades

IIW

determine thn others ut ll the prmeters hve their own role to ply in the dmge evolutionF yf ourseD not only the dmge lw prmeters presented efore hve n impt on the dmge ut the vrition of the dmge moment n lso e shifted to other vlues ording to the needs nd the experimentl ppropriteness of the numeril simultionsF

4.3 Damage law parameters tting for peritectic steel grades

he le PFI of etion PFIFQFQ gives the list of ll the prmeters required within the dmge lw of the Lagamine odeF ome of them re tken from the litertureD others determined through mirosopi nlyses or lulted s funtion of the rheologil lw determined eforeD nd few re left nd hve to e (tted using hot tensile tests in vrious onditionsF he gol of this study is to (nd one sole set of prmeters for eh steel grdeD desriing the mteril ehvior during dmgeF

4.3.1 Parameters taken from the literature

sn the dmge lwD one prmeter is mteril onstntX D the tomi volume of the ompound studied hs een tken from litertureF he generl tomi volume of steel is hosenD = 1.21 1020 mm3 D even if it ould e slightly di'erent ording to the lloying elements dded nd the primry prodution proess usedF yther prmeter vluesD like the grin visosity rtio etween ore nd grin oundE ry e / = 10 the oundry di'usivity Db0 0 = 7.5 105 mm3 s1 nd the tivtion B energy Qb = 159 IH6 mt mol1 re ll tken from xeedlemn nd ie study xeeVHF he two lst prmeters tken from literture re kn nd kp tht re penlty oE e0ients within the interfe element given y iqution PFPF hey impose identil displement of the rk edges expressed y the nodl displements nd omputed y the dmge lwF hese oe0ients hve een determined y ylvie gstgne on si ellsF he found kn nd kp equl to IH5 wmm1 in her study gsHUD so tht the stresses in ell ontining dmge elements orrespond to the ones in ell free of ny dmge elementF ell these prmeters tken from the literture re the sme for eh steel grde studiedF hey re reltive to the periteti steel fmily studiedF

4.3.2 Damage law parameters determined on the basis of rheological parameters determination
he prmeters determined on the sis of the experimentl test used to determine the rheologil lw re B D n nd 0 F B D the reep prmeterD nd nD the reep exponentD re used in the lultion of the grin oundry sliding s explined in rgrph PFIFQFPFIF 0 D desried in rgrph PFIFQFPFPD is temperture dependent onstnt nd is representtive of the verge stress level in the re surrounding the rkF

IPH

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

Determination of B and n

sn eqution PFSD the lssil reep lw gives B nd n s funtion of the equivlent stress nd the equivlent strin rteF ith the prmeters dedued from the xortonE ro' reep lwD the prmeters B nd n ould e determinedF he following eqution @iqution RFWA presents the reltion etween the lssil nd the xortonEro' reep lw prmetersF he reep oe0ient B is determined for hosen vlue of the equivlent strin e F

B=

1 3

p2 3

1 p3

nd

n=

1 p3

@RFWA

Determination of 0

he determintion of 0 is mde visully on the )ow urves otined through rF he vlue is dedued from the tensile test )ow urves t the vrious wnted temperturesD strin rte of 103 s1 nd strin equl to U7F he urves t WHHD IHHH nd IIHH g re used nd the other vlues re interE or extrpolted on the sis of the three vlues visully determinedF
Results

es explined in the mrosopi studyD the rheologil prmeters for A nd C re the sme s they re tken from the sme experimentl testsF emperture g WHH IHHH IIHH

B 5.29 1022 1.38 1016 1.64 109

A n

WFPS UFQI RFIW

0 w SQ QS IW

B 2.81 1025 3.84 1023 1.95 1021

B n

IHFSQ IHFSS IHFST

0 w SW RH QH

le RFPX lues of the prmeters B D n nd 0 of the dmge lw

4.3.3 Parameters determined through micrographic analysis

he (rst prmeter tht hs to e (tted is the primry ustenite grin sizeF his dimeter hs een determined in the mrosopi study presented in etion QFQ in order to design the representtive ellF he dimeter of the grins hs een determined y optil mirosopy nd set to PHHmF he other prmeters a0 D b0 nd re relted to the mirosopi stteF sn etion PFID the lw is sid to e led y vity growthF sn the industril seD the preipittes re ment to use dmgeF sndeedD s explined in etion IFRFRFPD the dmge is used y the preipittes round whih vities re growingF essuming tht mtrix preipitte deohesion yields to voidD the initil vity size needed will e onneted to the preipittes size found in the steel mtrixF sn the sme wyD the vity interdistne will e ssoited to the preipittes interdistne nd the vity ngle n e found through the preipittes shpeF

4.3 Damage law parameters tting for peritectic steel grades

IPI

he following prmeters re determined through mirosopi study with iw nd iw pprtusX a0 D the initil vity sizeY b0 D the interdistne etween vitiesY D the vity ngleF he preipittion stte hs een oserved on the sl oming from the ontinuous ster with the help of iwGih @inergy hispersive petrometryA nlysisF his nlysis llows knowing the size nd distriution of the preipittes in the steel grdes oserved under the industril gg onditionsF

4.3.3.1

SEM study on A steel grade

Sampling and preparation

sn order to perform the iwGih nlysisD one smple hs een tken in the studied re of the gg sl desried in etion QFIFIFPD where the therml nd meE hnil onstrints led to trnsversl rkingF e ue smple from grde AD with very restrited size @mxF IxIxImA is neededF he smple is emedded in fkelite smple holder nd it is polished mehnilly s explined in eppendix g where the mirogrphi results of the iw nlysis re villeF
Results

he mirogrphs of the preipittes deteted in the studied smple re shown in eppendix gF hree types of results for the sme snned re re givenF

he (rst is the seondry eletron mirogrphy where Qh piture is givenF sndeedD the seondry eletron is low energy eletron tht omes from the surfe of the smpleF st revels the surfe omposition nd its topogrphyF he seond (gure ssoited to the studied re is the ksttered eletron whih is representtive of deeper re of the smpleF he high energy eletrons enter the mtrix nd show the omposition di'erenes of the steelF revier toms ould e visulized thnks this methodF he lst type of eletrons studied re the photons tht hve hrteristi energy representing eh lyer of n tomF
hese three piees of informtion enle the determintion of the steel mirostruture nd the omposition of the steel nd the preipittesF sn order to quntify more in detils the resultsD ep qunti(tion is performed s presented in le RFQF he ep nlysis enles the orret qunti(tion of the weight onentrtion of n element @only the mtrix for this studyA in the smpleF ih ep qunti(tion is de(ned lgorithm whih gives n estimtion of the ontent of n element right from the re under the relted pek ppering on rys spetrumF ih ep qunti(tion leds to rough vlues of the hemil ompositionF en overestimtion of ron ontent is lwys done in those lultionsF hough vlE ues otined for other elements re then underestimtedD the results n show possile segregtions on the smpleF

IPP

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

elted spetrum in eppendix g pigure gFQI pigure gFQR pigure gFQS pigure gFRI

egion T T drk gry T light gry U

g @% E wtA PFQI PFSU PFSS PFRR PFRUHFIP

i @% E wtA HFRH HFSI HFRU HFSH HFRUHFHS

wn @% E wtA PFPV IFWT PFQR IFUP PFHVHFPW

pe @% E wtA WSFHI WRFWT WRFTR WSFQR WRFWWHFPW

Average

le RFQX esults of ep qunti(tion on mtrix sn this studyD the ep qunti(tion hs een used to ompre hemil nlyses from one zone to nother one of the given smple nd the results re ompiled in the following tle @le RFQAF
Observations and conclusions

he ep qunti(tion shows no di'erene etween the di'erent res of the steel mtrixF st is homogeneous round the preipittesF he onlusion tht ould e mde from the results shown in eppendix g is tht most of the inlusions found re of g gloulr type @glium sulphurA with mxE imum size round SmF hese sulphurs re often ssoited with oxides @elumin or omplex iA found in the viinity of spei( g inlusion tht seems to e relted to n emedded nitrideF
Further work

he preipittes involved in the dmge phenomenon re mostly ronitrides typesF hese preipittes re very smll nd thus hve not een oserved in the urrent studyF snEdepth nlyses re needed for the ext oservtion of the preipittes nd the qunti(tion of their size nd distriutionF he ronitrides reserhed re known to hve mximum dimeter of pproxiE mtely SHnmF purthermore @D xD iA@gDxA re mostly loted t grin oundriesF he oservtion of these oundries ould not e performed during the iw study eE use the spei(ed ething ws not e0ient on thoseF xeverthelessD during the following mirogrphi studiesD the grin oundry oservtion ontinues to e doneF he pproprite tool to study smll preipittes is iwD where higher mgni(E tions re expetedF RH HHH times on iw ould llow the identi(tion of @D xD iA@gDxA preipittesF

4.3.3.2

TEM study on the peritectic steel grades studied

he gol of the following mirosopi work is to hrterize the preipittion stte nd in prtiulr to oserve the preipittion ehvior of the lloying elements known to e detrimentl for the periteti steel fmily studied in this thesisF he elements oserved re x nd in prtiulrF yther lloying elements re dded to this study in order to oserve the potentil omintions with other elements nd to oserve their the e'et on the dmgeF he smples for this study re tken in sme on(gurtion

4.3 Damage law parameters tting for peritectic steel grades

IPQ

for ll the steel grdes studiedF hus it hs een hosen to perform the mirosopi nlyses on the enter prt of the tensile test smples tht hve undergone the following therml nd mehnil pth desried in le RFRF hpe P H H emperture g WSH WHH WHH trin rte s1 5 103 1 103 1 103

grde A grde B grde C

le RFRX mple on(gurtions for mirosopi nlysis he preipittion stte found during the test is supposed to e the one t equiliE rium euse the therml tretment during the testing period let to the preipittes the time to developF woreoverD the smples re not quenhed fter the testsF e etter view of the preipittes for this study ould hve een to tke the smple just fter the primry therml pth nd just efore the tensile testF he quenhed speimen would hve shown the preipittion stte needed in order to djust ertin prmeters of the dmge lwF nfortuntelyD this study ould not hve een performed euse the primry therE ml pth tests should hve een performed gin nd the smples quenhedF he time nd the money were not enough for this study nd it hs een tried to use tested smples in the sme on(gurtionF he other reson for thisD is tht the steel stte rehed fter quenhing did not permit the oservtion of preipittes in iw nlysis for the (rst ttemptF st n e notied tht grde A is not oming from the sme test se thn B nd CF sndeed the test on this grde were performed efore the two others nd thusD euse of udget questionD the iw oservtion on the smple oming from the sme test on(gurtion hs not een performedF xevertheless the results seem to e onsistent with the ones of the two other steel grdesF he preipittes oserved were situted in the steel mtrix @pigure RFIRA when they were expeted t the former ustenite grin oundry @pigure RFIQAF xeverthelessD few preipittes strings hs een oserved t grin oundry for grde B @pigure RFIPAF he sttistilly nlyzed preipittes re those found in the steel mtrix s their numer were more representtiveF por grde BD the preipittes re strongly present euse of their hevy ontrst nd their frequeny s shown in pigure RFIRF he preipittes seem to e igger thn those seen in the C pitureF xevertheless the ontrst of these preipittes is lso very good nd thus re reltively esy to hekF yn the ontrryD the preipitte distriution is not ler in grde AF et some ples drker dots re oservle nd were used for the lultion of the men preipittes dimeter nd the surfe frtion of thoseF he results re shown in the following tle @le RFSA where it n e seen tht A nd C present lmost the sme preipittes on(gurtion t the equiliriumF

IPR

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

pigure RFIPX reipittes string otined for grde B through iw oservtion

pigure RFIQX qrin oundry oserved on the iw mirogrphs of B grde

4.3 Damage law parameters tting for peritectic steel grades

IPS

(a)

(b)

(c)

pigure RFIRX itures otined y iw for grdes AD B nd C with n enlrgement of IWFHHHx reipittes men dimeter nm QH SH QH urfe frtion of preipittes 7 HFHSW I HFHT

grde A grde B grde C

le RFSX esults of the mirosopi iw nlysis he results of le RFS re n pproximtion of the preipittes men dimeter for eh steel grde studiedF he men dimeter hs een determined through the nlysis of more thn IH grins rndomly hosen for eh steel grde nd more thn IHH preipittesF por eh grphD the iw imges hve een nlyzed with n imge nlysis softwre in order to otin men preipitte reF gonsidering in (rst pproximtion tht the preipittes re spherilD men dimeter ws derived from the mesurement of the preipitte re nd reported le RFSF he men dimeter ould e diretly relted to the initil preipittes sizeD a0 F elso the surfe frtion of preipittes is givenF he surfe overed y the preE ipittes hs een divided y the surfe of mtrix of eh steel smpleF his vlue permits (rst pproximtion of the initil interdistne etween vrious preipittesD b0 F he lst vlue tht hs een extrted from the iw study is the preipittes tip ngle F es it hs een oservedD the preipittes present uoid formF husD for ll the steel grdes studiedD the vlue of hs to e set to RS F por the steel grdes A nd CD oth vlues of the preipittes dimeter nd the surE fe frtion re loseF sndeedD the omposition of oth steels is more or less equivlent in regrd to the x ontentF B presents orser preipittes nd huger surfe frtion of preipittesF his is onsistent following the x ontentF his grde presents S to T times more x thn A or CF

IPT

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

hese di'erenes in surfe frtion of preipittes will led to di'erenes in the b0 vlue tht is dedued from the (rst pproximtionF ome lultions nd hypothesis re needed in order to determine the vity interdistne b0 F hese re explined herefterF
Calculation of b0

yn the sis of the primry ustenite grin size determined efore @daPHHmAD the preipittes size @SHnm for B grdeA nd the proportion of preipittes in mtrix estimted with iw imges @I7 for BA the interdistne n e estimted y mking n importnt hypothesis on the preipittes position in order to simplify the lultionF he preipittes re supposed to e rndomly distriuted on the grin oundry even if it is oviously not the seF sndeedD it hs een shown in etion IFT tht the preipittes on whih this study is foused ould e found under olony form on the grin oundriesF xeverthelessD it hs not een shown in the urrent iw study s the onentrtion of preipittes is not elevtedF fy onsidering one grinD it is possile to lulte the grin oundry size @qfAF

GB = d = 628m

@RFIHA

sf I7 of the grin oundry is overed with vitiesD one grin is surrounded y TFPVQIVSm vities nd the numer of vities ould e dedued from this vlue divided y the preipittes sizeX IPT vities re present on one grin oundryF et the endD y dividing the grin oundry size y the numer of vities presentD the pproximtive interdistne of the preipittes is lultedF por the exmple of B grdeD the vlue of b0 is SmF his (rst pproximtion on b0 is su0ient for the determintion euse this pE rmeter hs een shown to hve low in)uene on the dmge predition s previously oserved in pigure RFIIF woreoverD s oserved on the mirogrphs @pigureRFIPAD when the preipittes re situted on the grin oundryD they re not distriuted rndomly ut in oloniesF his mens tht this prmeter should e djusted in funtion of some prmeters tht hve to e determined y further mirogrphi nlyzesF he vriility of b0 in funtion of the grin oundry oserved ould e tken into ount y giving di'erent vlues to eh oundry in the Lagamine odeF he other steel grdes vity interdistne hs een lulted the sme wyF
Values of the parameters a0 , b0 and

es explined eforeD the prmeter a0 nd 1 re diretly linked to the preipitE tion size nd shpe found in the mirogrphi iw nlysisF rmeter b0 hs een lulted s presented efore nd the vlues of the prmeters tht will e used for the vrious steel grdes studied oming from these oservtions nd lultions re given in le RFTF

value of the tip angle used throughout the calculations and applications of this study is 90 . This is due to the misinterpretation of Figure 2.3. has been misinterpreted as the whole tip angle instead of 2 .

1 The

4.3 Damage law parameters tting for peritectic steel grades

a0 nm QH SH QH b0 m SH S SH RS RS RS

IPU

grde A grde B grde C

le RFTX lues of the dmge lw prmeters a0 D b0 nd determined y iw nlysis he prmeters sed on this mirogrphi study re espeilly the preipitte size a0 nd their interdistne b0 F yne should think out djusting these prmeters ording to the kineti of the preipittion of eh omponent of the steel s funtion of the temperture nd the time for future workF

4.3.3.3

STEM study on B and C steel grades

purther iw @nning rnsmission iletron wirosopyA nlyzes hve een perE formed on B nd C steel grdesF his nlysis onsists in fousing on one preipitte in order to determine the hemil omponents present on this prtiulr spotF he elements tested were the one expeted to e present in the steel mtrix studiedF hese elements re xD iD D g nd other s presented in pigure RFISF hese nlyzes on B grde showed tht the oserved preipittes in the steel mtrix minly ontins x @xEuD xEvAD g @gEuA nd i @iEuD iEvAF he spot where high ontrst di'erenes re visile on the pitures of le RFIS is representtive of the presene of this element on the spei( preipitte pleF his preipitte is proly gthered s ix@gDxAD formed t the equiliriumF xo nd no wn ould hve een found s presented in the tle hereunderF

gEu

peEu

peEv

wnEu

wnEv

xEu

xEv

xEu

iEu

iEv

Eu

Ev

pigure RFISX iw nlysis of di'erent B steel omponents on preipitte prom the nlysis of one preipitte of grde C in le RFU it is possile to oserve tht the pe omponent is the most presentF sndeedD the mtrix round the preipitte is tken into ount in these resultsF fy ompring these results to the one of BD it is possile to oserve in le RFIS tht pe is loted in the right lower prt s the preipitte is situted in the left upper ornerF husD the lst one is ment to e the preipitteD where the other prt is the steel mtrix ontining peF

IPV

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

he other omponents present re xD gD iD wn nd in deresing order of tomi perentgeF wn ws not omponent expeted to e in the preipitteF fy ompring with B resultsD even if the olor ontrst is not high nd knowing this lst resultD it ould e distinguished tht wnEv nd wnEu seems to e loted in the mtrix s peF ilement g@uA i@uA @uA wn@uA pe@uA x@uA eight 7 HFRP HFSU HFPS HFSV WQFSH RFTS etomi 7 IFWU HFTT HFPV HFSW WQFTU PFVH nertF 7 HFVQ HFQS HFQU HFRI PFPU IFSU

le RFUX unti(tion results of iw nlysis on one C preipitte et the endD xD g nd i re present in importnt perentge nd on the miroE grphs lerly situted on one prtiulr spot tht is expeted to e the preipitte on whih the study hs een performedF he tomi perentge on(rms the presene of these three omponents when the preipitte is fousedF gonerning D the onentrtion is not very high nd on the mirogrphs it is not possile to determine the position of this omponent even if B grde hs een hosen for this study euse of its highest onentrtionF st ould e interesting to ontinue this study y fousing the tests on severl preipittes in order to hrterize representtive numer of thoseF nfortuntely this iw nlysis does not exlude the el preseneD s this omE ponent hs not een registeredF his ould hve een interesting to do euse of the potentil detrimentl e'et of elF

4.3.4 Parameters adjustment

his prt of the study onsists in Step D of the methodology @pigure PFIP in etion PFPFRAF sndeedD the gol is to lod the representtive ell ontining dmge elements with the stresses nd the strins otined through di'erent r nd to ompre oth foreEdisplement urvesF pinllyD the loding prmeters of the ell should e djusted so tht the di'erene etween othD mesosopi nd mrosopi stressEstrinE time urves eomes smll enough nd the dmge lw prmeters should e identi(ed so tht the rupture of the ell hppens s good s possile t the sme time thn in the experimentl onditionF he prmeters of the dmge lw tht hve to e determined through orreltion of numeril simultion results with experimentl tests re listed hereunder nd hve een desried in etion PFIF

Fn X xuletion prmeter NI X snitil vity density for nuletion

4.3 Damage law parameters tting for peritectic steel grades

IPW

Nmax /NI X wultiplition ftor of NI to determine Nmax D the mximum vity density Ddam @a/b rtioA X upture riterion

he (tting of the dmge prmeters hs to strt from referene pointF husD the initil prmeters vlues were extrted from ylvie gstgne9s study on low lloyed steels @le RFVAF

Fn mm2 NI mm2 Nmax /NI Ddam

0.169 105 1.273 104 RH HFU

le RFVX snitil vlues of the djustle prmeters of the dmge lw used to predit frture extrted from gsHU

4.3.4.1

Fitting of the damage parameters

he (tting of the dmge prmeters is sed on mnul inverse methodF he prmeters of the lw will e hnged until the numeril dmge (ts the experimentl oneF fy mnipulting one prmeter fter the otherD they n e set for one se nd then extended to the others y shrper djustment of these prmetersF husD with the help of r the prmeters will e dpted to the se of dmge in tension under high tempertureF sndeedD the trnsverse rks pper lmost lwys in the unending reF sn this re tension is present in the inner urve of the slF he temperture of this re is situted more or less etween VHH nd IHHH g @pigure PFIW for grde CA where the mteril undergoes loss of dutilityF his wekness is used y the deohesion etween the mtrix nd preipittes due to preipittion of some speil lloying elements s x or under roEnitrides formF hese preipittes re the one expeted to use trnsversl rking in periteti steels under gg onditionsF he r tests hve een performed ndD depending on the steel grdeD di'erent set of r re ville s shown in etion QFPF V tests re ville for grde AD U for B nd W for grde CF he initil referene se is hosen ritrrily throughout the ville r testsF he dmge prmeters re (rst djusted on this se nd thenD thnks to ll the r sesD the prmeters re djusted seond time in order to (t to ll the experimentl tests villeD the est wyF es explined eforeD the dmge vrile a/b should reh its threshold @rk preditionA when the experimentl rk hppensF his is not fesile extly for ll r ses hosenF husD the hosen prmeter set should yields to predit rks in the est wy for ll the sesF sn order to hve glol view on the results nd the wy they (t the experimentl oservtionD they re ompiled in le RFW nd the di'erent olumns re explined herefterF

IQH

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

el strin rte ixperimentl displement xumeril displement eltive di'erene

gse

hi'erene

le RFWX truture of the dmge prmeters ury y numeril rk predition nd experimentl oservtion omprison golumn Case ontinsD strin rteD noth sizeD tempertureD nd steel grdeF e single designtion hs een found for eh se studied to desrie ll these prmetersF st ontins ll the se informtion nd is desried in pigure RFITF

pigure RFITX hetiled designtion of the testing ses studied he seond olumn of the omprison tle etween numeril nd experimentl dmge moments is the Real strain rateF his olumn is neessry euse the r hve not een performed with the expeted strin rteF he ft tht the strin rte pplied is not the one sked forD is not of high relevneF sndeedD the tensile test simultion is the sme s the experimentl one in terms of smple displement s the one pplied to the simultion hs een tken from the experimentF roweverD it yields to di'erent strin rtes etween tests tht were ssumed identilF his olumn gives n indition of the strin rte di'erenes in our studyF he Experimental displacement @in mmAD is the displement rehed y the moile prt of the tensile test mhine when rk hppensF st is reorded during the experimentl testF he simulted nd experimentl initil smple length eing identilD the experimentl nd numeril displement should de(ne identil vlueF he experimentl dmge moment hs een hosen y nlyzing the vodE hisE plement urves otined y rF por some urves the reording stopped t the dmge moment s it is oservle on the experimentl urve PPHVSf of pigure RFIUF sn other sesD like for se PPHWHf of pigure RFIUD the reording ontinues nd reE mrkle point hs to e hosenF qenerlly the dmge is hrterized y more or less visile in)exion point on the urveF sn the lst ited seD the dmge point hs een hosen t the pproximtely IImm nd mterilized y lk dot nd hnge of urve styleF prt of the simulted smple t the moment of the pperne of the (rst rkF ht forD the dmge prmeter hs een set to the vlue of HFSF his vlue hs een hosen di'erent to the one used t (rst y ylvie gstgneF wo resons for this hnge re

Numerical displacement lso in mm represents the displement of the upper

4.3 Damage law parameters tting for peritectic steel grades

25000. 25000.

IQI

20000.

20000.

Load [N]

10000. Exp Simu Damage

Load [N]

15000.

15000.

10000. Exp Simu Damage 5000.

5000.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. Displacement [mm] 8. 10. 12.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12.

pigure RFIUX vodEhisplement urves otined for experimentl nd numeril se PPHVSf @leftA nd PPHWHf @rightA mentionedF he (rst one is thtD t the end of her studyD ylvie gstgne redued her dmge prmeter from HFU to HFS in order to (t with the experimentl tests she performedF he seond reson is tht the (rst ttempts of djustment showed etter ehviors when this vlue hs een set to HFSF es the dmge ehvior is the sme for eh steel grde studied hereD it hs een hosen to keep Ddam onstntF he olumn Dierence is lultion of the vrition etween the rehed exE perimentl nd numeril displements efore dmgeF es the experimentl displement given in the olumn Experimental displacement is visully pproximted vlueD it is tken into ount for the lultion with n error of S7F he numeril nd experimentl Dierence lulted is the smllest one y tking into ount the reding error on the dmge momentF st is lso the solute vlue of the di'erene so it does not tell whether the numeril or the experimentl simultion reks (rstF vst olumn is lled Relative dierence @in 7A nd is the reltive vlue of the previous olumn Dierence in funtion of the men experimentl displement reordedF sn order to vlidte the set of prmetersD the reltive error di'erene etween experimentl nd numeril dmge moment vlues should e inferior to 20%F he (rst riteri is tht ll the ses re under PH7F sf this riteri ould not e hievedD the verge reltive di'erene over ll the ses should e under PH7F nlessD other r should e performed in order to vlidte the (rst one nd then modify the dmge lw prmeters orD in order to dd more representtive tests for the djustmentF

4.3.4.2

NI variability as a function of temperature

wking (rst ttempt of djustment on C steel grdeD the dmge prmeters nlysis tle @le RFIHA hs een otinedF his tle represents the est orreltion of the numeril nd experimentl dmge ourrene otined with the set of prmeters presented in le RFIIF yserving the di'erent dmge displementsD it is possile to see thtD ording to the tempertureD the devition is ourring the sme wyF hen temperture is lowD the numeril dmge ours fter the experimentl dmge s indited y plus nd minus signsF yn the ontrryD when testing temperture inresesD the numeril dmge

IQP

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

el 1 s HFHHPS HFHIR HFHHS HFHHRS HFHIS HFHHRT HFHIS HFHI HFHHT ixperimentl dispF mm VFRT IHFIP RFSQ RFWW VFHH TFVI IHFWU SFWU RFPP xumeril dispF mm IHFUH IPFQI RFVW WFIV SFSV TFUQ VFWW QFVH QFHH hi'erene mm IFVP IFTV HFIQ QFWR PFHP HFHV IFRR IFVU IFHH eltive di'erene 7 PIFSI ITFTI PFVU UVFWW PSFPW IFIT IQFHV QIFPW PQFUW

gse QPHUHs SPHUHs QRHUHs QPHVHs SPHVHs QPHWHs SPHWHs QRHWHs SRHWHs

C C C C E E E E E

le RFIHX hmge nlysis for grde C with onstnt NI vlue

Fn mm2 NI mm2 Nmax /NI Ddam

IFS 105 IPHH RH HFS

le RFIIX lues of the djustle prmeters of the dmge lw for grde C with onstnt NI vlue hppens efore the experimentl oneF sn the middle seD the numeril dmge n our fter or eforeF his remrk llows the ssumption tht one of the four djustle prmeters is temperture dependentF hnks to the sensitivity nlysis developed eforeD it hs een demonstrted tht mong ll the djustle prmetersD NI @initil density of vities efore nuletion strtA is mjor prmeter of the dmge lwF woreoverD the density of vities efore nuletion vries with temperture s the nuletion energy in the steel mtrix t vrious tempertures is not the smeF sndeedD t low temperturesD the mehnil energy neessry to uilt new vities is higher thn t high tempertures where the therml energy helps the nuletion of new vitiesF husD for low temperturesD NI will show higher vlues thn t high onesF he methodology followed to determine the lst four prmeters of the dmge lw is improvedF sndeedD the four prmeters will e djusted on one se s explined erlierF hen the detiled djustment is done on ll the ses ville nd to endD the prmeter NI is djusted lone s funtion of tempertureF sn the following setionsD the djustment of the three di'erent steel grdes studied is disussed seprtelyF he (rst two djustment steps re not shown ut the (nl prmeters nd displement results re givenF

4.3.4.3

Damage law parameters tting on grade A

he (nl vlues of the dmge prmeters of grde A re shown in le RFIPF

4.3 Damage law parameters tting for peritectic steel grades

emperture g VSH WHH WSH

IQQ

Fn mm2 Nmax /NI Ddam

Q 105 QH HFS

NI mm2 ] IIHH THH PHH

le RFIPX lues of the djustle prmeters of the dmge lw for grde A es expetedD NI dereses with inresing tempertureF Nmax /NI is more or less t the sme level s expeted y the initil prmetersF he vlues of Fn nd NI re more or less multiplied nd divided respetively y ftor IH ompred to the initil vlues used @le RFVAF he threshold Sthr is totlly di'erentF he prmeters for low g steels re not suitle t ll for the periteti steel fmily desription of the dmgeF sn the following djustmentsD the initil guess for the vlues of the prmeters will e the set of prmeters of A in order to reh fster the estE(tting prmetersF he le RFIQ shows the onvergene of the numeril results ompred to the experimentl results for ll the studied A r ses vlidtedF gse PPHVSf SPHVSf QPHVSf PPHWHf SPHWHf QPHWHf PPHWSf SPHWSf el s1 HFHQ HFHIS HFHHQ HFHQ HFHIS HFHHQ HFHQ HFHIS ixperimentl dispF mm IIFUS WFHT WFWU IIFIQ IIFPR WFIH IPFHP IIFWT xumeril dispF mm IIFHH IHFRW VFUW IIFQR IHFVU WFPT IPFTR IPFHI hi'erene mm HFIU HFWV HFTV HFPI HFQU HFIT HFTP HFHRS eltive di'erene 7 IFRP IHFUV TFVU IFVV QFQI IFVH SFIS HFQV

le RFIQX hmge nlysis for grde A with the determined dmge prmeters sn this tleD the strin rtes hieved during the test present the sme proportion s the expeted onesF sndeedD the rel is lwys three times higher thn the one sked forF husD the di'erent results ould e ompred ording to the strin rteF xeverthelessD no rel tendeny of the experimentl displement vlues until dmge ould e oservedF he vlues otined re very loseF sn regrd to the numeril displementD the dmge hppens lter for high strin rtesF sndeedD in the se of periteti steelsD t high the mteril eomes sti'er s the dislotions re present nd loked in the mtrix euse of the veloity of the testF fy low D the dislotions formed y the deformtion of the steel hve time to move to ritil res where they n use dmgeF xo tendeny in funtion of ould e oserved in the solute nd reltive di'ereneF sn funtion of tempertureD no rel tendeny ould neither e dedued from the experimentl displementsF roweverD y tking the men vlue for eh tempertureD it is possile tht with inresing tempertureD the displement rehes higher vluesF his is vlidted y the numeril displementsF his ehvior shows tht with higher temperturesD the mteril does not ontin mny dislotions s the mteril is more

IQR

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

dutile nd ould e deformed moreF prom this point of viewD the Dierence nd the Relative dierence do not give ny informtion out temperture dependene of the dmge lw prmetersF sn onlusionD the prmeters re djusted the est wyF he results for VSH g show the lrgest di'ereneF his di'erene n not e djusted etter euse the numeril displement t dmge is whether fter or efore the experimentl oneF he results otined re the est djustment possile t eh tempertureF st is possile to oserve tht the reltive di'erenes re in ll ses under the PH7 trgetD thus vlidtedF sn order to hve etter view on the dmge moment di'erene etween experE imentl nd numeril resultsD the dmge moments re mterilized on the lodE displement grphs @eppendix pD le pFIAF wost of the urves re in totl dequy when looking t the experimentl nd numeril loding urves nd the numeril dmge moments re lose to the experiE mentl onesF ome urves re prtiulrD suh s se SPHWSfF he loding urves diverges t the end of the simultion ut the displement t dmge is nevertheless the smeF yn this exmpleD the numeril lod level t dmge is not the one expeted through the experimentl reordingF his point is tken into ount even with this di'erene s the referene hs een hosen to e the displementF sn further studyD suh ses ould e voided y tking the two dmge moments s funtion of oth prmetersD displement nd lodingF

4.3.4.4

Damage law parameters tting on grade B

he vlues of the dmge prmeters of grde B re shown in le RFIRF

Fn mm2 Nmax /NI Ddam

I 105 UH HFS

emperture g USH VSH WSH

NI mm2 ] IHHH WHH PHH

le RFIRX lues of the djustle prmeters of the dmge lw for grde B he di'erenes etween the dmge prmeters of B nd A do not rest on NI prmeterF sndeedD they re lmost in the sme rngeF fut looking t Fn nd Nmax /NI D it n e seen tht Fn is drstilly redued nd Nmax /NI inresedF hese prmeters tend to lengthen the time efore dmge nd thusD the displementF le RFIS shows the onvergene of the numeril results ompred to the experiE mentl resultsF sn this seD the strin rte is not lwys equl to three times the expeted one ut stys though very loseF husD in this se ginD the tendenies ording to this prmeter ould e oservedF es for AD the experimentl displement do not show ny tendeny s oserved in the numeril resultsF sn the se QPHUSpD the displeE ment rehed is very high with respet to the other ones otinedF his vlue ould

4.3 Damage law parameters tting for peritectic steel grades

el 1 s HFHIR HFHHQ HFHQ HFHIR HFHHQ HFHQ HFHIU ixperimentl dispF mm WFPP IVFQT IHFQI IHFPP UFWU IPFUW VFWQ xumeril dispF mm IIFUS IHFHR IHFQI WFSH UFPR IHFHS WFQQ hi'erene mm PFHU UFRH HFHH HFPH HFQQ PFIH HFHS eltive di'erene 7 PPFRR RHFQH HFHI PFHH RFII ITFRH HFSI

IQS

gse SPHUSp QPHUSp PPHVSp SPHVSp QPHVSp PPHWSp SPHWSp

le RFISX hmge nlysis for grde B with the determined dmge prmeters e wrongF roweverD the experimentl nd numeril loding urves @le pFPA re equivlentD so the results hve een tken into ount nd the high Relative dierence is representtive of this exeptionl vlue nd hs to e (tted like ll the othersF por the temperture dependene of the prmetersD lso no reltion ould e drwnF sn the ses of BD the rule of the PH7 ould not hve een respeted for P sesD oth t USH gF sn this seD ginD the vlues ould not e justed etterF sndeedD in one se the simulted dmge time is fter the experimentl one nd in nother se it is the inverseF por ll the other sesD the results re eptleF ispeilly t VSH g where the reltive di'erene never exeeds S7F husD the verge reltive di'erene is equl to IP7 tht is under PH7F rere ginD the dmge moments n e ompred on the lod displement grphs @eppendix pD le pFPAF he urves otined for B re in very good dequy in eh seF xevertheless di'erenes etween the experimentl nd numeril dmges re lerly visileF es sid eforeD the loding level should lso e tken into ount for the djustment of the dmge prmetersF

4.3.4.5

Damage law parameters tting on grade C

emperture g UHH VHH WHH

he vlues of the dmge prmeters of grde C re shown in le RFITF

Fn mm Nmax /NI Ddam

2

IFS 10 RH HFS

NI mm2 ] IWHH IUHH THH

le RFITX lues of the djustle prmeters of the dmge lw for grde C glerlyD for CD the NI vlues re higher thn those of A or BF he nuletion step is therefore delyedF his ould e due to the lower mount of dditionl ompounds in this grde s explined in etion RFQFS where the di'erenes of prmeters re ompred ording to the steel grdesF Fn is more or less equivlent to the one of B nd Nmax /NI to the one of AF he onvergene of the numeril nd experimentl results for the displement until dmge is shown in le RFIU herefterF

IQT

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

el 1 s HFHHPS HFHIR HFHHS HFHHRS HFHIS HFHHRT HFHIS HFHI HFHHT ixperimentl dispF mm VFRT IHFIP RFSQ RFWW VFHH TFVI IHFWU SFWU RFPP xumeril dispF mm IIFIP IIFST RFRI VFRH SFPP VFRW IHFRH RFQS QFSU hi'erene mm IFPR HFWQ HFII QFIT PFQV IFQR HFHP IFQP HFRR eltive di'erene 7 IRFTR WFIV PFRP TQFQW PWFUU IWFTQ HFIT PPFIR IHFQR

gse QPHUHs SPHUHs QRHUHs QPHVHs SPHVHs QPHWHs SPHWHs QRHWHs SRHWHs

le RFIUX hmge nlysis for grde C with the determined dmge prmeters wore omprle ses re ville for CF ispeillyD tests on R smple shpes hve een vlidted for the djustmentF he rel strin rte here n not e tken into ount nd ll the sme onE (gurtions should e oserved seprtelyF husD even with the sme temperture on(gurtionD the numeril results ould not e ompred s the strin imposed to the numeril lultion omes from the experimentl reordingsF he results re not oherent in funtion of wht ould e expeted s explined in the study of A resultsF xo generl trend ould e oserved utD t VHH gD the reltive di'erene etween numeril nd experimentl dmge is very highF houghD ll the results re lulted together nd give glol vlue of IW7 tht is under the PH7 threshold imposedF sn order to hve etter view on the dmge moment di'erene etween experE imentl nd numeril resultsD the dmge moments re mterilized on the foreE displement grphs @eppendix pD le pFQAF vike for BD the omprison of the experimentl nd numeril urves of C is etterF he divergene of the dmge moments is lerly visile on the grphs t VHH gX one numeril rk our efore the experimentl rk @SPHVHsA nd the other fter @QPHVHsAF hereforeD no further djustment ould e done in order to derese the vlues of the reltive di'erene tht is very high for these oth dmgesF

4.3.5 Comparison of the damage law parameters

ell the prmeters of the dmge lw determined efore hve physil mening in regrd of the mirostruture of the di'erent steel grdesF he dmge lw is driven y prmeters tht represent the mirostruture s a nd bD respetively the vity size nd interdistneD nd y prmeters trnslting the evolution of the mirostruture tht re the lst prmeters (tted @Fn , NI nd Nmax /NI AF he lst step of the vlidtion of these prmeters is thus to ompre their vlue for the di'erent steel grdes nd to mke the orreltion with the mirosopi stte of the steel grdes studiedF le RFIV ontins ll the (tted prmeters for ll periteti steel grdes studiedF

NI prmeter tht is temperture dependent is given in seprte tle @le

4.3 Damage law parameters tting for peritectic steel grades

A B
3

IQU

C
3

Fn mm NI mm2 Nmax /NI Ddam

2

QHH 10 f@A QH HFS

IHH 10 f@A UH HFS

ISH 103 f@A RH HFS

le RFIVX gomprison of the (tted dmge prmeters for ll steel grdes studied RFIWAF emperture g UHH USH VHH VSH WHH WSH IHHH IHSH IIHH

1000 600 200

1150 1100 1050

1000 900 200

SSH WSH

1050

1900 1700
IISH IVSH

600

150 125 100

150 125 100

575 550 525 500

le RFIWX gomprison of prtiulr temperture dependent NI prmeter @adjustedY extrapolated Y interpoltedA elso the omposition is relled in onise form @le RFPHAF

Steel grade
qrde A qrde B qrde C

g IURV SUT IUWH

i ISI ITQ QU

x SR RS SV

TH PH I

x IQW TTV ITI

el QIQ QWT RHQ

le RFPHX gonise omposition of the studied periteti steel grdes @in ppmA for the dmge lw prmeters study sn order to understnd the e'et of eh prmeterD the dmge urves re drwn for sme on(gurtion @QPHVS for eh steel grdeA nd the di'erent slopes ould e nlyzed @pigure RFIVAF sn pigure RFIV@AD tht is the zoom on the eginning of the dmge urveD the long nuletion of B lerly ppersF iven if the slope is not s steep s for A or C due to the lower vlue of the Fn prmeterD the nuletion lsts muh longer for B thn for the two othersD due to the high vlue of Nmax /NI F st is lso possile to see tht B egins with higher vlue of dmge due to the di'erent vlues of a0 nd b0 determined y iw mirosopyF sndeedD B ontins lrger preipittes nd muh greter mount of those in its mtrixD so the dmge is more elevted t the eginning of the simultionF

IQV

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.00 0 5 10 15 20 25 Time [s] 30 35 40

0.6 0.5 Damage value [a/b] 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0 50 100 Time [s] 150 200

(a) Enlargement of the beginning of the damage

Damage value [a/b]

(b) Whole damage path

pigure RFIVX hmge pth for test in the sme se @QPHVS with for AD for B nd C for CA using the severl dmge prmeter djusted gompring the eginning of the C nd A urvesD A dmge grows fster ut the end of the nuletion ppers erlierF sndeedD C hs lower vlue of Fn tht slows down the nuletion nd higher Nmax /NI tht lengthen itD s for BF husD in less pronouned wyD it ehves like this oneF he nuletion of C is little it slower ut it lsts longer thn AF por ll the steel grdesD step I of the dmge urve ould not e seenF his is due to the low vlue of Sthr D the rtio of NI over Fn F his seems to e totlly norml euse t suh temperturesD enough energy is ville in the mtrix to uild new preipittesD in other words to nulete erlyF vooking t the pigure RFIV@AD the end of the urve is showedF he evolution of the dmge is more or less the sme for eh steel grdeF he growth of the vities is not the dominting dmge driving fore s the nuletionF sndeedD the level of dmge rehed fter nuletion is representtive of the dmge momentF hen the preipiE ttes hve nuleted longD the dmge is more elevted t the end of the nuletion nd the dmge pperne will e erlyF yn the ontrryD when the nuletion ws shortD the dmge level rehed fter this step is low nd the mteril tkes more time to reh the filureF oD B is the (rst one to present filureF st is followed y CF end the lst one to reh dmge is steel grde AF sn order to understnd this dmge evolution omprisonD the following prgrphs expose the e'et of the three lst (tted prmeters on the dmge urve of the vrious steel grdes studied ording to the ompositionF

4.3.5.1

Eect of NI and the beginning of the nucleation

vooking t the pigure RFIW@A tht represents the evolution of NI ginst temperE ture for eh steel grdeD it is ovious tht C presents signi(ntly higher vlues in omprison with B nd A on the whole temperture rnge studiedF

NI strongly in)uenes the eginning of the nuletion through the prmeter Sthr @pigure RFIW@AAF henever NI presents high vluesD Sthr lso does nd the nuletion

4.3 Damage law parameters tting for peritectic steel grades

IQW

strts lterF rowever the e'et of NI is ounterlned y Fn for the eginning of the nuletion s it is possile to see ompring the urves A nd B tht hve lmost the sme NI vlues ut with very di'erent Sthr vluesF NI hs more n e'et on the whole preipittion s it enters lso in the lultion of bmin t the end of the nuletion ontrry to Fn tht hs dedited e'etF husD NI should e relted to preipittion stte or shpe tht will e present during the whole gg proess nd not only to the preipittion moment of ompoundF he evolution of this prmeter with temperture hs to e relted to the huge di'erenes in i dditionl elementF sndeedD C ontins less i thn the other two steel grdesF mll i@gDxA pper thus t the end of the solidi(tionF he formtion of smll preipittes is positive for the distriution nd the homogeneity of those in the steel mtrixF et ontrryD A nd B ontins ig mount of iF his i level initites the erly formtion of then growing ig preipittes round whih the other preipittes will pper nd onentrteF
2000 1800 CADE parameter [mm^-2] 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 650
0 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Sthr 0.01 0.008 0.006 0.004 0.002 0.014 0.012

750

850

950

1050 1150 1250 1350 1450 1550 Temperature [C]

Temperature [C]

(a) NI curves

(b) Whole damage path

pigure RFIWX hmge urves s funtion of the temperture for the di'erent steel grde studied with for AD for B nd C for C

4.3.5.2

Eect of Fn

Fn is prmeter tht hs lmost no in)uene on the dmge moment s shown in etion RFPF xeverthelessD it is possile to relte the prmeter Fn to the rte of free g nd x ville in eh steel grde in order to nulete new preipittesF sndeedD more present free gxD the fster the nuletion isD s they onsist in the preipittes sis with whih other elements retF
ith this point of viewD grde B tht hs low mount of g will hve low vlue of Fn D ontrry to A nd C tht will present n erly nd fst nuletion due to their elevted mount of gF vooking t xD ll the steel grdes ontin more or less the sme mount of this omponentD thus no di'erene n e oservedF yn the other hndD etween A nd CD Fn level should e di'erent despite the vlues otinedF his is to relte to the ft tht the i nd el rtes re di'erentF

IRH

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

st is expeted tht the Fn is lower for the grde ontining the highest i rteD euse the whole g nd x re onsumed efore x is le to ret with thoseF xeverE thelessD this is not veri(ed euse Fn of A is higher thn the one of CF he el rte is higher in C nd hs the sme e'et s iD this n explin the Fn levelF fy omining oth element e'etsD it hppens tht x nuletes lter for C thn for A s shown in etion QFIFPFP in pigures QFIH nd QFIPF his ould explin why Fn is lower for C thn for AF husD when the ville mount of g is highD the nuletion of new preipittes is fstF yn the ontrryD the lower is the g ontentD the lower is the numer of detrimentl preipittes retedF his phenomenon is in)uened y other lloying elements tht ppers efore xD s i or elF hey ret t higher tempertures with g or x nd they pture the ville omponents tht ould form detrimentl preipittesF

4.3.5.3

Eect of Nmax /NI and the end of the nucleation

he Nmax /NI level in)uenes bmin vlue suh s when Nmax /NI is highD bmin is smll nd thus the nuletion is lengthened euse the interdistne etween two vities n derese moreF o the end of the nuletion is led y the mount of preipitle omponents ville tht ould form detrimentl preipittes s x@gDxA nd @gDxAF he e'et of Nmax /NI is lerly relted to the x ontentF B ontins little more thn four times the mount of x in C nd AF o re the Nmax /NI vluesF B presents the highest vlue @UHAD widely over the two other steel grdes studied tht present more or less the sme vlue of Nmax /NI @RH nd QHAF ontent of the di'erent steels studied is lerly di'erentD nevertheless it hs no ler e'et on the Nmax /NI vlueF his n e due to the inerti of the nuletion of this omponentF st hs een determined tht needs more or less IT hours to reh equiliriumF he tensile test lsts t the mximum I hourF husD the gx ould not formF his is lerly the se in gg onditions euse the sting lsts QH minutes in generlF his is not enough to preipitte @gDxAF he e'et of in the dmge of the sl during the gg is to eliminte in the high temperture re of the unendingF pinllyD the most importnt prt of the dmge evolutionD the end of the nuletionD is driven y the mount of x present in the steel ompositionF his on(rms the literture review out the di'erent preipittes present in the mtrix during gg nd their severity for the helth of the slF x hs een deteted s the most relevnt dditionl element of the steel tht ould led to dmge in the gg sl during the unending proessF woreoverD the mirogrphi nlysis @etion RFQFQA showed orse x preipittes in the steel mtrixF e smll mount of hs een deteted ut no ler preipitte ws found on the pituresF rtiulrly grde B showed ler preipittes fter tensile test t temperture of WHH g nd strin rte of 103 s1 F C nd A grdesD in lmost the sme test onditionsD showed two times smller preipittesF

4.4 Validation of the Macro-Meso transfer

IRI

4.4 Validation of the Macro-Meso transfer

pinllyD in order to vlidte the otined dmge prmetersD the trnsfer of the mroE sopi reording of the hot tensile test simultion to the mesosopi representtive ell hs to e heked in order to e sure tht the stresses nd the strins otined in the ell re representtive of the mrosopi loding history undergone during hot tensile testsF he ide of this setion is to ompre the stresses omputed in the root element of the tensile test simultion nd the results otined in the trnsition re of the representtive ellF sn other wordsD the gol here is to hek the onsisteny of the dt trnsfered from the mrosopi to the mesosopi simultionF sn this studyD not only the equivlent stressD ut ll the omponents of the stress tensor will e nlyzedF sndeedD s explined erlierD the equivlent stress is not repE resenttive of the rel stress stte in the smpleF his is due to the ft tht di'erent stress sttes ould led to the sme equivlent stressF he oserved stresses reD in the tensile test referene frmeD the rdil stress rr D the xil stress zz D the irumferentil stress nd the sher stress r F he stresses re ompred to the one oming from the ell with n dpted referene system s explined in etion RFIFIF ell the steel grdes nd r ses re heked in order to e sure tht ll the ses re vlidF he trnsfer is studied for eh steel grde seprtely in the following hptersF

4.4.1 Macro-Meso transfer for steel grade A

he stresses oming from the mrosopi r simultionD re ompred to the men stresses otined in the trnsition re of the representtive ellF he (rst se studied is PPHVSf @pigure RFPHAF he lst grph tht represents the equivlent stress isD s expetedD the sme for mrosopi nd mesosopi resultsF he xil stress presents the sme level s the equivlent stressF his is due of the ft tht the test is tensile test nd the min fores re pplied in the xil diretion of the tensile test smpleF o the prinipl diretion of the stress is the xil oneF por the xil stressD the urves re lso overlppingF iven if the xil stress is the min oneD rdilD irumferentil nd sher stresses re present in the tensile test smpleF he rdil stress is very low @ SwAF yn this grph nd y suh smll sle it is possile to see tht the mrosopi nd the mesosopi results re not perfetly following the sme pthF houghD this di'erene is very smllD s it is more or less HFPw where the urves diverge the mximumF husD R7 of errorD nd pproximtely HFHI7 of he equivlent stress @ PHHwAF enlyzing this errorD it n e due to the hypothesis mde t the eginningD tht the sher stresses re ignored euse to smll in omprison to the xil nd rdil stressesF sndeedD looking t the sher stresses omprison grphD the mrosopi

IRP

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

5.0 4.5 4.0

Radial stress [MPa]

250 200
Axial stress [MPa]

3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Equivalent strain

150 100 50 0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Equivalent strain

Macro Meso Damage

Macro Meso Damage

5.0 4.5 4.0

Shear stress [MPa] Circumferential stress [MPa]

50 Macro Meso Damage 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Equivalent strain Equivalent strain

3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0

Macro Meso Damage

250 200
Equivalent stress [MPa]

150 100 50 0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Equivalent strain

Macro Meso Damage

pigure RFPHX gomprison of the stresses otined for the sme se PPHVSf for mroE sopi nd mesosopi simultions

4.4 Validation of the Macro-Meso transfer

IRQ

simultion presents sher stress t the noth root tht is pproximtely t the level of IFSwD when the mesosopi simultion hs Hw of sherF his is due to the ft tht these stresses re not pplied to the representtive ellF his stress level is lerly very low ompred to ll the othersF xeverthelessD t the dmge moment the sher stress rehes lmost PFSw nd it inreses ontinuously with strinF his evolution of the sher stress ould e the reson of the divergene of the rdil stressD ut lso the irumferentil oneF eround the strin of I @IHH7 of deformE tionAD the slope of the sher stress strts to evolve more rpidlyF et this moment the mesosopi irumferentil stress diverges from the mrosopi oneF et the moment of dmge the di'erene is out PwF his di'erene is inresing with equivlent strin nd rehes pproximtely Sw t IFU of strinF he divergene is out IH7 t the dmge moment nd PS7 t IFUF et the dmge moment the divergene is still eptle ut egins to e importnt for igger strinsF sn onlusionD the sher stress of the mrosopi simultion should e tken into ount when trnsferring the stresses nd strins to the representtive ellF sn this prtiulr se the mrosopi to mesosopi trnsfer hs een vlidted euse the dmge hppens efore the divergene etween the irumferentil stress of the two di'erent simultions is too hugeF husD this study ould e restrited to the oservtion of the irumferentil stress in eh se nd the di'erene etween oth urves t the mesosopi dmge momentF he urves re grouped together ording to the strin rte of the se in order to see the di'erenes etween vrying tempertures nd to e more redleF ell the (gures otined @pigures RFPI@A to RFPI@AA show good orreltion etween mrosopi nd mesosopi irumferentil stresses with divergene t the endD round the dmge momentF he explntions of the se PPHVSf @pigure RFPI@AA hve een given eforeF he divergene etween oth nlyzed urves is eptle s it is only R7 t the dmge momentF et WHH gD the divergene is lmost null when dmge ppers the (rst time nd the urves only diverge lterF he lst se is the most ritilF sndeedD t WSH g the dmge ppers lter thn t lower temperturesF his is due to the high temperture ut this uses more importnt divergene t filureF his vlue hs therefore to e onsidered with reF sn the results of the dmge moment di'erene etween experimentl nd numeril displements @le RFIQAD it is lso possile to see tht the reltive di'erene is mong the highestF xeverthelessD this vlue is eptle when supposing tht the dmge should hve ourred erlier nd thus when the urves hve not diverged s muhF et theoretil strin rte of 5 103 s1 @pigure RFPI@AAD the three ses ville t VSHD WHH nd WSH g present low divergene t the moment of the dmgeF et these strin rtes ginD the most ritil se is the one of the highest tempertureF his timeD le RFIQ shows good greement etween experimentl nd numeril dmge momentsF he divergene stys in n eptle rnge of IH7F he two lst ville ses t 103 s1 nd VSH nd WHH g show relly good onE vergene of the urves @pigure RFPI@AAF iven fter the dmge moment no divergene

IRR

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0.0 0.2 0.4

Circumferential stress [MPa]

22085B 22090B 22095B 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

Equivalent strain

(a) = 102 s1
45
Circumferential stress [MPa]

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Equivalent strain

52085B 52090B 52095B

(b) = 5 103 s1
35
Circumferential stress [MPa]

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Equivalent strain

32085B 32090B

(c) = 103 s1

pigure RFPIX gomprison of the irumferentil stress otined for se PD A for Q di'erent strin rtes t vrious tempertures @E wrosopiD C wesosopiD hmgeA

4.4 Validation of the Macro-Meso transfer

is oserved etween the mrosopi nd mesosopi irumferentil stressesF

IRS

por steel grde AD over V ville sesD only one is questionle in the point of view of the mrosopi to mesosopi simultion dt trnsferF he set of prmeters otined in the previous hpter is thus numerilly vlidted for grde AF

4.4.2 Macro-Meso transfer for steel grade B

he sme vlidtion work hs een onduted on grde BF he irumferentil stress hs een oserved nd the ses onsequently vlidted or notF he irumferentil stress urves otined for B re ompiled in le RFPP@A to RFPP@A nd nlyzed herefterF he two ses ville t strin rte 102 s1 present diverging irumferentil stress urves round the dmge moment @(gure RFPP@AAF xeverthelessD t the dmge momentD this di'erene in stress vlue is not signi(nt enough to eliminte these tests from the dmge lw prmeters djustment of B grdeF et 5 103 s1 D the se t WSH g presents n importnt gp etween mrosopi tensile test simultion nd the orresponding representtive ell lultion @pigure RFPP@AAF he stress level is out QHw nd the di'erene IHwF his error over QH7 is too high for this lultionD s experimentl nd numeril displements for the (rst dmge re more or less equl @le RFISAF he mrosopi to mesosopi trnsfer hs to e hek in this seF foth other ses show dequte orreltion etween the urves until dmgeF pigure RFPP@A shows perfetly mthing irumferentil stress urvesF et 103 s1 the rheologil lw of the tensile test nd representtive ell simultions of grde B re in greement until the (rst rk pperneF et these strin rtesD the rks pper erlier euse of the low strin rte nd the ility of the defets to migrte nd to form fster filures in the mterilF qrde B presents very good orreltion of the dt trnsfer for ll the ses villeD exepted one @SPHWSpAF sndeedD most of the time the divergene shows lower vlue for the mesosopi lultion nd in this seD the mesosopi nd mrosopi urves re invertedF he mrosopi irumferentil stress is lower thn the one extrted from the trnsition re of the representtive ellF

4.4.3 Macro-Meso transfer for steel grade C

por CD the ville ses ontins R smplesF hese smples whih presented for A nd B wrong experimentl to numeril orreltion should e studied with prtiulr ttention in order to e sure tht no mistke enters the dmge prmeters djustment with thoseF woreoverD the results of the displement rehed t the (rst dmge pperne re very disprte @le RFIUA nd this ould e due to rheologil inoherenesF eprt from the urve t UHH gD the ses for the strin rte 5 103 s1 re relevnt @pigure RFPQ@AAF et VHH nd WHH gD the dt trnsfer ws suessful even though t

IRT

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

Circumferential stress [MPa]

50 40 30 20 10 0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

Equivalent strain

22085F 22095F

(a) = 102 s1
60
Circumferential stress [MPa]

50 40 30 20 10 0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

Equivalent strain

52075F 52085F 52095F

(b) = 5 103 s1
45
Circumferential stress [MPa]

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Equivalent strain

32075F 32085F

(c) = 103 s1

pigure RFPPX gomprison of the irumferentil stress otined for se PD B for Q di'erent strin rtes t vrious tempertures @E wrosopiD C wesosopiD hmgeA

4.4 Validation of the Macro-Meso transfer

IRU

25 60
Circumferential stress [MPa] Circumferential stress [MPa]

50 40 30 20 10 0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
Equivalent strain

20 15 10 5 0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6

Equivalent strain

52070I 52080I 52090I

54090I

0.8

1.0

1.2

(a) R2, = 5 103 s1

45 50
Circumferential stress [MPa] Circumferential stress [MPa]

(b) R4, = 5 103 s1

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Equivalent strain Equivalent strain

40 30 20 10 0 32070I 32080I 32090I

34070I 34090I

(c) R2, = 103 s1

(d) R4, = 103 s1

pigure RFPQX gomprison of the irumferentil stress otined for se C for P di'erent strin rtes nd smple shpes t vrious tempertures @E wrosopiD C wesosopiD hmgeA

IRV

Chapter 4 Damage model identication, damage parameter analysis

VHH gD the urves re slowly diverging efore the dmge pperneF et UHH g the dmge ours very lte nd thusD fr fter the strt of the divergeneF he tle of omprison of the experimentl nd numeril se @le RFIUA shows e'etively tht the numeril dmge moment hppens fter the experimentl one nd the di'erene oserved etween oth urves is out QH7 whih would require the nlysis of the dt trnsferF pigure RFPQ@A shows one unique se otined for smple shpe R nd strin rte 5 103 s1 F he irumferentil stress ehvior of this smple shpe is slightly di'erent of the one for P shpesF fy ompring the sme strin rteD the stress level is lower nd the strin efore hnge of slope lsoF his is due to the smller useful surfe nd is wnted for this study in order to otin di'erent stress strin histories to dpt the dmge lw prmetersF es well s for P smple shpesD this se presents slight divergene of the stresses reorded in the tensile test smple root element nd in the representtive ellF his divergene is low enough to vlidte the dt trnsfer from mrosopi to mesosopi simultion nd the djustment on this seF et 103 s1 D the P smples show good orreltion of the studied urves @pigure RFPQ@AAF iven sudden vritions re followed y the representtive ell through the fores nd the strins tht hve een imposed on the edges of itF et the dmge momentD the urves re mthing or diverging little itF he two lst ses for C re R smples t 103 s1 @pigure RFPQ@dAAF he divergene strts s soon s the urves strt to inreseF et the dmge moment the di'erene for oth ses is out Sw over the QH or RHw rehed y the mrosopi irumE ferentil stressF his mens tht the highest error is out IT7 whih is eptle in this studyF emong the W ses ville for the dmge lw prmeters djustment for grde CD one se is disputle nd hs to e nlyzed furtherF htever P or R smple shpesD the dt trnsfer form mrosopi to mesosopi simultions is hieved nd ould e extended to other smple shpesF

4.4.4 Conclusions about the Macro-Meso transfer

ome ses should e heked euse of the unmthing irumferentil stress vlues etween the mrosopi nd mesosopi simultionsF houghD the trnsfer of the fores nd the displement is glolly well ontrolledD even if the urves diverges round the dmge momentF his trnsfer ould e more urte y tking the sher stress into ountD s it seems to generte divergenes in the other omponents of stressesF ell the smple shpes re supported y the dt trnsferD thus it ould e pplied on the (nl nlysis of the gg dmge ehviorF sndeedD the stress nd strin (elds from the gg mrosopi simultions ould e pplied on the representtive ell tht rets s expeted to the imposed loding s demonstrted in the nlysis oveF

4.5 Conclusion of the mesoscopic study of the crack appearance in CC

IRW

4.5 Conclusion of the mesoscopic study of the crack appearance in CC

ghpter R is the pplition of Step D exposed in etion PFPFRF he prmeters of the dmge lw re determined here y inverse nlysis in order to lod numeril ellD representtive of the steel in the gg onditions with its grins nd grin oundriesF qiving the possiility to the grin oundry to show dmge nd thus to follow the rk pperne in gg onditionsF etion RFIFI sets the reltion etween the hot tensile tests tht re tken s sis for the inverse nlysisD nd the representtive ellF he so lled wroEweso trnsfer is set here yX

the positioning of the representtive ell in the hot tensile test smple y nlogy with F gstgne9s study with ompression test smplesY the hoie of the reord lotionY the implementtion of the utomti lultion of the lod to pply to the representtive ellF
sn order to understnd the wy the prmeters of the dmge lw impts the evolution of the rkD the sensitivity of the lw to U prmeters @a0 D b0 D Fn D NI D e /B D Nmax /NI nd A hve een studiedF he predominnt role of the vity tip ngle D the oth prmeters plying role on nuletion strt NI nd end Nmax /NI nd the visosity prmeter etween grin nd oundry @e /B A hve een estlishedF sn setion RFQD the dmge lw (tting for ll the three periteti steel grdes studE ied is exposedF hi'erent mens hve een exploited to determine the dmge lw prmeters tht represent physil ehviorF

viterture survey sed on previous reserhes on the defet pperne topi @etion RFQFIAF glultions sed on the rheologil lw prmeters @etion RFQFPAF wirogrphi nlysis with iwD iw nd iw mirosopes @etion RFQFQAF he remining prmeters @Fn D NI D Nmax /NI nd Ddam A re djusted on the sis on r on nothed smples @RFQFRAF
he vlidtion of the dmge lw prmeter determintion hs een vlidted in etion RFRF ome inohereny hve een determined in this setionF hen rehing high strinsD the mesosopi stress results show smll divergene with the mrosopi onesF he wroEweso trnsfer method is not ment to e the use of this disrepnyF he hypothesis of the negligile sher stress should e revised in order to improve this prtF

Chapter 5

Industrial application

yne of the ritil prolems enountered during gg is the formtion of trnsversl rksD espeilly in periteti steelsF he defets re enhned y the preipittion of some prtiulr ompounds during gg of steelF hese prtiulr ompounds re known in literture to e x nd whih preipitte etween VHH nd IIHH g during the unending proess of ggF sn order to follow this dmge proessD mesosopi dmge model hs een developed nd vlidted on periteti steel grdes with hot tensile testsF he next step of this study is to model the gg in order to extrt the stress nd the strin (elds from the numeril simultionF por the vlidtion of the dmge lw prmetersD the stress nd strin histories extrted from n element of the steel sl trveling in the ontinuous ster will e used to determine the dmge level rehed y the mteril within mesosopi representtive ellF he numeril model of the ggD lled ThercastD developed y rnsvlor hs een usedF his softwre n e used to model in severl wys the ontinuous sterF he whole sl n e modeled through the so lled trnsient simultion detiled hereE fter or only the interesting prtD the ingot simultionF he entire ontinuous ster hrteristis re implemented nd tken into ountF his progrm is presented in the (rst etion SFIF hi'erent ses hve een studied in order to understnd the wy the gg proess prmeters nd the hemil ompounds of the steel in)uenes the dmgeF hese ses re presented in etion SFP nd the results re nlyzed from mrosopi point of viewF he trnsfer of the prmeters from Thercast to LagamineD where the mesoE sopi dmge model is implemented is explinedF st is the key point of the results of the dmge lultion in etion SFQF he lst prt is onlusion on the pplition of the mesosopi dmge lw on n industril seF

ISI

ISP

Chapter 5

Industrial application

5.1

Thercast program

softwre is forging odeF st numerilly simultes the threeEdimensionl thermomehnil phenomen ssoited to solidi(tion nd ooling in ontinuous sting of ferrous mteril y (nite elementsF he oupled thermomehnil lulE tions permits the softwre to tke into ount the intertion etween the mold nd the steel slF he whole ontinuous sting proess is then modeledD from the mold to the old slF ih prt of the ontinuous ster nd the sl is represented y n independent (nite element meshF yn eh dominD the mehnil nd therml prolems re solvedF etrhedrl liner elements re used to disretize the sl nd the ontinuous sterF sn order to lern more out the therml nd mehnil resolutionD informtion n e found in gostes9s thesis gosHRF he stresses nd tempertures re lulted in the sl mesh ording to the deformtion of the steel @free surfe movementD ontrtionD oundry onditionsD etFA ourring during solidi(tionF
Thercast

he di'erent prmeters of the lultion in the sl reX

visoEplsti rheologil lw in the liquid nd semiEliquid res elstoEvisoEplsti rheologil lw in the semiEsolid nd solid res therml @imposed tempertureD imposed )owD onvetionGrdine with the mE ientA nd mehnil @imposed speed ndGor pressureA oundry onditions pE plied to the fes of the sl lultion of the strinsD residul stressesD (nl shpe utomti remeshing nd dpttive meshing good ontrol of the mss lne

5.2 Continuous caster results on grade C application

et the exit of the ontinuous sterD some importnt qulity points re hekedF his is neessry for the orret ehvior of the mteril on the downstrem mills nd the end qulity of the produtF he presene of trnsversl rks is veri(edF es explined in the introdutionD the trnsversl rks n e situted just under the shell nd thus not visileF ht is why the sls re systemtilly milled fter ggD whih is huge loss of mterilF es explined in ghpter ID di'erent defets use dmges during gg of steelF he prtiulr se of trnsversl rking hs een deteted on C gg slsF heir lotion nd size re importnt to knowD in order to understnd nd to disover the potentil use of the dmgeF Thercast progrm hs een used to model the ontinuous ster nd to detet some nomlies or wek points s explined herefterF

5.2 Continuous caster results on grade C application

ISQ

5.2.1 Defects detected on the continuous caster of

sn generlD the trnsversl rk defet is deteted on the intrdos of the slF he rks re loted ner the orner @QHESHmm from the ornerA or in the enter prt of the rod fe for the QHHmm pro(le thiknessF he length of these rks is out PHmmF wo uses re supposed to indue the trnsversl rk pperneY

he therml pth of the sl with high mehnil onstrinsY he roll werF

he (rst one is studied hereF

5.2.2

Thercast

calculations performed on C caster

st hs een shown y industril trils tht hnge of the ooling strtegy @slower ooling in the lst setionsA dereses the defet ourreneF his phenomenon hs to e understood in order to mster the proess nd to inrese for the long term the qulity of slsF oD with the help of ThercastD the in)uene of the modi(tion of the seondry ooling on the trnsverse rks pperne is studiedF xumeril simultions re performed with di'erent ooling rtes in the unending reF iight lultions re performed in order to ompre the ritil ses of referene olling pro(le ompred to modi(ed ooling pro(le tht is expeted to e less detrimentlF husD two seE ondry ooling pro(les hve een studied on four di'erent res of the sterF he studied res re ompiled in le SFIF ere studied genter lrge fe gorner lrge fe glssil temperture pro(le sntrdos ixtrdos sntrdos ixtrdos wodi(ed temperture pro(le sntrdos ixtrdos sntrdos ixtrdos

le SFIX xumeril ses studied on the C ontinuous ster he modi(tion of the pro(le onsists in the derese of the ooling in segment IH from 174Gm2 / g in the referene se to 10Gm2 / g C emissivity @HFVSA in the modi(ed seF le SFPD presents the whole ooling proess from the mold to the exit for the lssil nd the modi(ed pro(lesF he (rst oneD the lssil pro(leD is the usul wy of ooling for the periteti steel grdes on the ontinuous ster of CF he sl is onstntly ooled with wter spry )owsD induing di'erent het trnsfer oe0ientsF he seond ooling wy is lled wodi(ed temperture pro(leF he di'erene etween oth is loted in the lst prt of the ster from IQFWIS to IWFTUVm of metlE lurgil lengthD whih is segment IH of the ontinuous sterF por this ooling solution

ISR

Chapter 5

Industrial application

ere wold ere I ere Q ere R ere T ere V ere IH IQFWIS to IWFTUVm

ixhnge type ixtrted )ux

ret trnsfer oe0ient

glssil wodi(ed temperture pro(le temperture pro(le 891.54kGm2 516Gm2 / g 360Gm2 / g 217Gm2 / g 207Gm2 / g 200Gm2 / g glm ir ooling ter ooling 10Gm2 / g 174Gm2 / g C emissivity @HFVSA

le SFPX ret trnsfer for oth studied lssil nd modi(ed temperture pro(les determined for the study of the trnsversl rk in gg no sprys re usedF he sl ools down y lm ir oolingF sn this on(gurtionD the het trnsfer etween the sl nd the ir is tken into ountD s well s the emissivity whih leds to slower ooling of the sl thn with the wter oolingF gomplementry tehnil dt is used for the lultion of the ontinuous ster of C nd should e mentionedF

l thiknessX QHHmm l widthX PIHHmm gsting speedX HFSmFmin1 heologyX rmeters determined in etion QFIFQ nd ompiled in le QFS
wo di'erent types of lultion exist in
Thercast

@see pigure SFIAF

sn (rst pproh lled the transient simulationD the proess is modeled s it hppens in relityF he steel is (lling the ster until there is no liquid steel in the mold nymoreF henD the sl migrtes through the ster with its sting speedF he proess stops when the whole sl quits the proessF enother strtegy is the ingot simulationF his solution models only prt of the sl tht is running through the sterF en ingot of few meters @IFTHmA length is migrting through the sterF he length of this ingot is lulted in order to keep ontt with t lest Q or R rollsF he sl n lso e divided through the width depending on the studied prtF
he trnsient simultion is too greedy from the g time point of view nd omE puter pityF ht is why the ingot simultions re performedF woreoverD the piee of sl is ut in the length diretion in order to study only the wnted prt s explined herefterF herefore slies of the sl re modeledD either the enter prt or the orner @in gry in pigure SFPA within this thesisF

5.2 Continuous caster results on grade C application

ISS

pigure SFIX l pth through the ster nd referene frme for oth lultion possiilitiesD the trnsient nd the ingot simultion ensors reording the stresses nd the strins re emedded in Thercast simulE tionF por instne in the enter prt when slie of the entrl prt of the sl migrtes through the sterF e few hypotheses re mde t the lterl oundries of the slies in order to keep the mteril integrityF sn dditionD in the upstrem nd downstrem oundries of the ingotD some hypotheses re mde in order to tke into ount the urrent mteril pled over nd under the ingotF hen the sensor is loted t the ornerD only the edge is modeled nd lulted to get the wnted stress nd strin (eldsF

pigure SFPX ensor positions on the sl in the optionsD edge or enter prt study

Thercast

simultion for the two

yne trnsient simultion hs een performed simulting the whole sl euse

IST

Chapter 5

Industrial application

the results tht were expeted were situted in the (rst prt of the ontinuous ster nd thusD they do not need muh lultion timeF he dvntge of this simultion is tht no hypotheses re requested out the xil fores nd the edgeD upstrem nd downstrem oundry onditionsF ell the simultions re driven y the sting veloityF he results otined y the ingot simultions hve een vlidted y the trnsient one known to e more urte in the (rst prt of the sterF

5.2.3

Thercast

results on C caster

he model of C ster in Thercast (nite elements progrm is given in pigure SFQF he moldD eh roll nd eh ooling system @not on this pitureA re modeled in order to hve the most fithful representtion of the ster nd to e le to model ll the ftors leding to dmge in gg slsF

pigure SFQX

Thercast

grphil representtion of the ontinuous ster of C

5.2.3.1

Study of the thermal behavior

he (rst nlysis within the results is the impt of the new ooling strtegy on the sl temperture in the severl studied res of the slF smportnt di'erenes in the reorded tempertures re deteted in segment IH due to the hnge in ooling strtegy s seen in pigures SFR nd SFSF es shown in pigure SFTD the dutility trough is situted round tempertures eE tween VHH nd IHHH gF wore urtelyD one n hoose the rnge USH g to WHH g s the most dngerous oneD yielding to neking lower thn QH7F his temperture rnge orresponds in pigure SFR to the temperture of the sl rod fe enter in re IH tht is more preisely the unending re loted t metllurgil length of pproxiE mtely IV to PH metersF he modi(tion of the seondry ooling pro(le elevtes the sls temperture for eh sensor y out RH gF

5.2 Continuous caster results on grade C application

ISU

1600

Classical temperature profile

Modified temperature profile

1500 Unbending Center Corner 700 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Metallurgical length [m] 16 18 20 22 Unbending Area 4 1400 Area 6 Area 8 Area 10

1300 Temperature [C]

1200

1100

1000

900
Necking < 30%

800

pigure SFRX emperture pro(le of the sl extrdos of the C se with the mrked temperture re of low neking s shown in pigure SFT

1600

Classical temperature profile

Modified temperature profile

1500 Area 4 1400 Area 6 Area 8 Area 10

1300 Temperature [C]

1200

1100

1000 Center 900

Necking < 30%

800 Corner 700 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Metallurgical length [m] 16 18 20 22

pigure SFSX emperture pro(le of the sl intrdos of the C se with the mrked temperture re of low neking s shown in pigure SFT

ISV

Chapter 5

Industrial application

100 90 80 Necking [%] 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 700 750 800 850

1x10-3, R0 5x10-3, R2

900

950

1000 1050 1100 1150

10x10-3, R2 1x10-3, R2

Test temperature [C]

pigure SFTX hutility urves of grde C determined y r his temperture inrese does not extly ring the sl out of the dutility gp ut in the enter prtD the temperture t the unending moment rehes pproximE tively WSH g whih is the eginning of the dutility trough tht presents neking vlues not s severe s t WHH gF sndeedD t WHH g the neking is out QS7 whih is very low ompred to the UH7 t WSH gF gonsidering tht the neking is ritil elow SH7D the temperture rehed with the modi(ed pro(le is expeted to e less deleteriousF oD the sting on(gurtion ssoited to the modi(ed temperture pro(le strongly dereses the risk of trnsversl rk pperne in the enter prt of the slF sn the ornerD the temperture of the intrdos nd the extrdos of the sl lys round USH g whih is dngerous level for the dutilityF ith or without modi(tion of ooling pro(leD the temperture stys in dngerous zone during unending s the neking vlues re round PH7F sndeedD even if the temperture is inresed up to VSH gD the neking remins in low vluesF por this speil prtD the stress level rehed in the sl is still dngerous for the mteril integrityF

5.2.3.2 5.2.3.2.1 le

Study of the mechanical behavior Mechanical constraints in the slab with the classical cooling pro-

yserving the stress (eld di'erenes @see pigure SFP to rememer xD y nd z direE tionsAD t the sensors lotion of the slD etween oth ooling pro(lesD (rst onlusions n e drwn for the dmge lotion nd severityF vooking t the stress (elds omprison etween intrdos nd extrdos for the referE ene se t the enter of the sl @pigure SFU@AAD the stress levels of eh omponent

5.2 Continuous caster results on grade C application

ISW

of the stress tensor re more or less t the sme level until IUmF et this momentD the intrdos side egins to show high tensile stressesD espeilly in diretion whih is the sting diretionF his is due to the unending of the slF sndeedD the intrdos of the sl is elongted in order to strighten the piee of mterilF yn the extrdosD the mteril undergoes the opposite phenomenonF he sl is ompressedF his is oservle in pigure SFU@A where yy nd zz strongly derese to eome negtiveF his explins why the trnsversl rks re minly disovered on the intrdos of the slF et the unending moment when the tempertures re unfvorle for dutilityD the intrdos of the sl undergoes high tensile stresses in the sting diretion nd thusD the shell of the sl splits perpendiulr to the sting diretionF hen ompring intrdos nd extrdos for the sme ooling pro(leD the orner stress reords @pigure SFU@AA present lso more or less the sme ehvior until IUmF sn the ornerD the stress in the diretion stys ll the time in ompression when it rehes tension in the enter prt t the intrdosF he ooling of the mteril imposes ontrtion in the width nd thus ompression in this dimensionF he stress in the diretionD s for the enter prtD presents n importnt inrese in tension t the intrdos side of the sl nd ompression t the extrdos sideF he high tensile stress in diretion ould led to dmge y trnsversl rking in the orner s well s in enter prt of the slF

5.2.3.2.2

Study of the cooling prole modication eect

xow the e'et of the modi(tion of the ooling strtegy on the stress (eld should e studied @pigure SFVAF htever onsidering the enter or the ornerD the e'et of the ooling pro(le strts t IRm of metllurgil lengthD due to the modi(tion of the ooling strtegy in ere IH of the ontinuous sting millF sn the center prt of the sl @pigures SFV@A nd SFV@AAD the stresses re 'eted y the elevtion of temperture tht produes n e'et overing the mehnil oneF he sl rehes sfe prt of the dutility trough in terms of temperture nd stys in ompressionF fetween IR nd ITmD yy nd more espeilly zz go to ompressionF vooking t the temperture pro(les @pigures SFR nd SFSAD when the ooling is stoppedD the temperture inreses slightly nd permits the mteril to sty in ompression due to the elevtion of its volume y dilttion nd the old edges tht trps the dilttionF he temperture inrese of the sl shell due to the temperture homogeniztion with the ore lsts until ITm nd thenD the sl ools down ginF efter IUmD when the sensor enters the unending reD the intrdos stresses inrese s it ws the se for the lssil ooling pro(le ut they do not reh the stress levels of the lst one due to the remining temperture di'erene tht indues temperture homogeneity di'ereneD ene(il for the mteril t this level of the proessF yn the extrdosD the e'et fter IUm is the smeF he mteril presents lower ooling rte for the modi(ed pro(le nd thusD the ompression is not s mrked due to the tension reted y the temperture di'erene etween shell nd oreF he level rehed y the stresses is less importnt in ompressionD however it stys in good on(gurtion for

ITH

Chapter 5

Industrial application

4.E+07

3.E+07

2.E+07

1.E+07 Stress [Pa]

0.E+00

SIGxx SIGyy

-1.E+07

-2.E+07

SIGzz

-3.E+07
Extrados Intrados

-4.E+07 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Metallurgical length [m]

(a) Slab surface center

5.E+07 4.E+07 3.E+07 2.E+07 1.E+07 0.E+00 -1.E+07 -2.E+07 -3.E+07 -4.E+07 -5.E+07 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Metallurgical length [m]
Extrados Intrados

SIGzz SIGxx

Stress [Pa]

SIGyy

(b) Slab surface corner

pigure SFUX ivolution of the stress omponents during the gg proess pplied to C the lssil ooling pro(le

5.2 Continuous caster results on grade C application

ITI

2.E+07

1.E+07

SIGxx 1.E+07 0.E+00

0.E+00 SIGxx Stress [Pa] SIGyy -1.E+07 Stress [Pa]

-1.E+07 SIGzz SIGyy -2.E+07

-2.E+07 SIGzz -3.E+07 Classical temperature profile Modified temperature profile -4.E+07 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Metallurgical length [m]

-3.E+07

-4.E+07

Classical temperature profile Modified temperature profile

-5.E+07 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Metallurgical length [m]

(a) Slab center extrados

4.E+07 Classical temperature profile 3.E+07 Modified temperature profile
3.E+07 5.E+07

(b) Slab corner extrados

SIGzz
4.E+07

Classical temperature profile Modified temperature profile SIGzz

2.E+07
2.E+07

Stress [Pa]

1.E+07 SIGyy SIGxx 0.E+00

Stress [Pa]

1.E+07

0.E+00

SIGxx

-1.E+07

SIGyy

-1.E+07
-2.E+07

-2.E+07 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Metallurgical length [m]

-3.E+07 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Metallurgical length [m]

(c) Slab center intrados

(d) Slab corner intrados

pigure SFVX ivolution of the stress omponents during the gg proess pplied to C for the omprison etween ooling pro(les

ITP

Chapter 5

Industrial application

the mteril integrityF sn the corner @pigures SFV@A nd SFV@dAAD the modi(tion e'et of the ooling strtegy is not s lerF fetween IR nd IVmD the stress is less in ompressionF his elevtion of stress level is due to lol tensions in the mterilF sndeedD the orner is mde of two fes tht emit het nd thusD the orner is lwys ooler thn the shell enter prtF ehing the unending reD the stresses go k to their initil level of ompresE sionF houghD the peek of zz in the intrdos rehed fter IVm @pigure SFV@dAA is s high s efore nd in dngerous re of the dutility troughF his elevted stress is due to the low temperture nd high tensile onstrints in this prt of the ontinuous ster nd the slF his on(gurtion hs to e refully nlyzed in the following prt of this study where the dmge levels re studiedF

5.3 Continuous caster to representative cell

5.3.1 Data transfer from the macroscopic simulation to the mesoscopic representative cell
he dt trnsfer onsists in pplying the stress nd strin sttes omputed y the mrosopi numeril simultion of the gg proess with Thercast to the mesosopi numeril simultion of the representtive ell with LagamineF es presented in etion SFPFPD sensors provide dt from the mrosopi simultionF wo positions hve een hosen for the sensorsF yne on the rod fe enter nd the other in the ornerF sn the (nite element meshD these sensors re linked to one tetrhedron @pigure SFWA tht migrtes through the ster with the piee of mteril studiedF yne sensor provides the stress nd strin (elds of the R nodes of the tetrhedron to whih it is linkedF hree nodes of this element re loted on the surfe lyer of the sl while the other one is within the mteril oreF he di'erent results t one node of the sensor re given herefterX

gomplete stress tensorX xx D yy D zz D xz D yz D xy emperture ositionX Px D Py D Pz trinX eq D eq D m

pigure SFWX xodl position of the sensor

he stresses nd the strins re given in the lol referene frme linked to the element movingD nd rotting with itF he displements of the nodes re given in the glol referene frme s shown in pigure SFIF es the sl rottesD the vlues of the position of the nodes hve to e put in the moile referene systemF his moile referene system is t eh moment the sme s the one of the representtive ellF st migrtes through the ontinuous ster just s the sensor doesF he two referene

5.3 Continuous caster to representative cell

ITQ

frmes re shown side y side in order to understnd their orreltion @pigures SFIH@A nd SFIH@AAF

(a) Lagamine local frame

(b) Thercast global frame

pigure SFIHX eferene systems in the orresponding diretions

he oundry onditions required within the representtive ell in order to simulte the gg hve een presented in etion PFIFSF sn nd diretions @lol xesAD pigure SFIH@AD fores re pplied to the ellF sn diretion displement is required s presented in the following tle @le SFQAF he orreltion etween oth referene frmes @Lagamine nd moile ThercastA is de(ned nd the oundry onditions pplied to the representtive ell re presented in order to highlight the prmeters needed from the sensorsF his loding is required to pply the right stress nd strin (elds to the mesosopi simultionF hiretion vrge fe diretion gsting diretion mll fe diretion
Lagamine Thercast

voding pplied on the mesosopi ell

X Y Z

Y Z X

Fxavy EPSzz vz EPSxx SIGyy Fyavx EPSyy vz EPSxx SIGzz Dzavz EPSxx

le SFQX gorrespondene of the referene frmes for Thercast nd Lagamine odes nd lultion of the fores to pply to the representtive ellD with representtive ell size vxD vy nd vz s de(ned in etion QFQ

sn order to lulte the fores nd the displements imposed on the representtive ellD the omplete stress nd strin tensors re requiredF he stress omponents xx D yy nd zz re omputed s the verge stress vlues of the four nodesF he strin omponents xx D yy nd zz used in le SFQ re lulted from the nodl positions tht re hnging ording to the time nd to the position in the ontinuous sterF

ITR

Chapter 5

Industrial application

5.3.2 Calculation of the strain eld

he results of the strin tensor s funtion of the nodl displement for one se re ompiled in pigure SFIIF
0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0 -0.05 -0.1 -0.15 -0.2 -0.25 Metallurgical length [m] 5 10 15 20
EPSxx EPSyy EPSzz

pigure SFIIX trin (eld otined through lultions of the tetrhedron nodes disE plement ruge noise n e seen on the urvesF e men tendeny is di0ult to (ndF uh results ould not e exploited euse of the sensitivity of the dmge model to the strin rteD he mplitude of the vrition is not orrelted to the roll position or to vrition of the vlues of the het trnsfer oe0ientF uh yli orreltion will e shown in pigures SFIS nd SFIT on stress omponents vluesF rereD non physil perturtions re reportedF sn order to improve the dt trnsfer etween Thercast nd LagamineD the noise on the strin dt hs to e understoodF he lk of preision in the Thercast output prmeters is the key pointF he output vlues re given in sienti( form nd in meters with preision of (ve signi(nt digits s shown on the extrt of the dt tle put in reltion with the equivlent stress lultion @pigure SFIPAF hen the position of one node is etween I nd WFWWmD the preision in mm is 101 F hen the position is over IHmD the preision is ImmF he tetrhedron initil nodes position is ompiled in le SFR tht mens pproximtely n edge size of SmmF ith suh preision of out ImmD the results re not urte enough to ompute th orret strin tensorF o study the dmge in the mesosopi ell with totl on(deneD

Strain

5.3 Continuous caster to representative cell

ITS

0.35 11.845m 0.3

0.25

Eq-Strain

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0 0 5 10 Metallurgical length [m] 15 20

(a) Equivalent strain calculation

Time 1513.2 1513.6 1514.0 1514.4 1514.8 1515.2 1515.6 1516.0 1516.4 1516.8 1517.2 1517.6 1518.0 1518.4 1518.8 1519.2 1519.6 1520.0 1520.4 1520.8 POSITION_X 5.244100 5.246800 5.249500 5.252200 5.255000 5.257700 5.260400 5.263100 5.265800 5.268500 5.271200 5.273900 5.276600 5.279300 5.282000 5.284700 5.287500 5.290200 5.292900 5.295600 POSITION_Y 1.037000 1.037000 1.037000 1.037000 1.037000 1.037000 1.037000 1.037000 1.037000 1.037000 1.037000 1.037000 1.037000 1.037000 1.037000 1.037000 1.037000 1.037000 1.037000 1.037000 POSITION_Z -9.985500 -9.987400 -9.989300 -9.991200 -9.993000 -9.994900 -9.996800 -9.998700 -10.001000 -10.002000 -10.004000 -10.006000 -10.008000 -10.010000 -10.012000 -10.014000 -10.015000 -10.017000 -10.019000 -10.021000 Met Length 11.820000 11.823000 11.826000 11.830000 11.833000 11.836000 11.840000 11.843000 11.846000 11.850000 11.853000 11.856000 11.860000 11.863000 11.866000 11.870000 11.873000 11.876000 11.880000 11.883000

(b) Data extract from Thercast

pigure SFIPX iquivlent strin lultion results ompred to the dt provided y

Thercast

ITT

Chapter 5

Industrial application

one should hve ess to more urte resultsF EHFIS EHFIS EHFIS EHFIRUIRI IFHTHHV IFHSPVT IFHSTIT IFHSSVI HFUWHTQV HFUWHTWQ HFUVSQPS HFUWHWUT osition urfe node snner node

le SFRX snitil nodes position in m of the enter extrdos se sensor st hs een deided to simplify the strin resultsF he men vlue of the strin is lulted over the whole proessF he results hve een divided into two prtsF he (rst one is not in)uened y the ooling pro(le hnge @ee pigure SFIQA while the seond prt strts just efore the ooling pro(le hngeF his wyD the results otined in the (rst prt remin extly the sme etween the referene nd the modi(ed ooling pro(les nd the strins in the seond prt re representtive of the di'erent ooling strtegiesF
1600 Classical temperature profile Modified temperature profile

0.25 0.2

1500 Unbending Area 4 1400 Area 6 Area 8 Area 10

0.15 0.1 0.05 X-Strain 0 0 -0.05 -0.1

Center

1300 Temperature [C]

1200

10

15

20

1100

1000

-0.15 -0.2 -0.25

900
Necking < 30%

800 Corner 700 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Metallurgical length [m] 16 18 20 22

-0.3 Metallurgical length [m]

0.014

0.15

0.012 0.1 0.01 0.05 0.008 Y-Strain Z-Strain

0.006

0 0 -0.05 5 10 15 20

0.004

0.002 -0.1 0 0 -0.002 Metallurgical length [m] 5 10 15 20 -0.15 Metallurgical length [m]

pigure SFIQX esults of the lulted strin omponents of the sl enter intrdos with the lssil ooling pro(le @lk lineA tht will e used for the representtive ell loding o onlude to this setionD some improvements hve de(nitively to e mde in the (eld of the Thercast output resultsF he est wy to solve this prolem is to hve

5.4 Data transfer validation

ITU

diretly the strin (eld s n output dtF his is possile ut not within this thesis s the ville version of Thercast gives no ess to the result output formtD this option not yet eing implemented in the user interfeF

5.4 Data transfer validation

5.4.1 Classical transfer to the representative cell
he lssil wy to trnsfer the mrosopi results to the representtive ell hs een de(ned for the rheologil prmeters de(nitionF he fores re imposed on the edges of the ell in the nd diretions nd the displement is presried on the thikness of the ellD the diretion s presented herefterX

Fxavy EPSzz vz EPSxx SIGyy Fyavx EPSyy vz EPSxx SIGzz Dzavz EPSxx

Important remark : Hereafter, all the results are expressed in the representative cell reference frame (Figure 5.14).

a trnsverse diretion in gg a sting diretion in gg a thikness in gg nd in the ell @generlized plne strinA

pigure SFIRX

Lagamine

referene frme

sn order to vlidte the trnsferD the Thercast nd Lagamine stress urves re ompred in eh diretion of the representtive ell @pigure SFISAF vooking t the stresses omprison in the nd diretionsD the orreltion is very good when pssing from mrosopi to mesosopi simultionF st is possile to remrk tht when the stress hnges rutlly or when the stress slopes re steepD the Lagamine simultion lulted stress level is shiftedF his point n e voided y deresing Lagamine time stepsF xeverthelessD this ury is su0ient to vlidte the dt trnsfer from Thercast to Lagamine in the nd diretionsF es seen in pigure SFITD zoom of the Estress omprison @pigure SFISAD even the smllest vritions re reprodued y the lultionF

ITV

Chapter 5

Industrial application

20

35 30

15 25 10 X-Stress [MPa] Y-Stress [MPa] 20 15 10 5 0 0 -5 -10 -10 -15 Metallurgical length [m] -15 Metallurgical length [m] 5 10 15 20

0 0 -5 5 10 15 20

0.8

60

0.6

50

0.4 XY-Stress [MPa]

40

0.0 0 -0.2 5 10 15 20

Z-Stress [MPa]

0.2

30

20

10

-0.4

0 0 5 10 15 20

-0.6

-10

-0.8 Metallurgical length [m]

-20 Metallurgical length [m]

pigure SFISX tress (elds omprison etween Thercast nd Lagamine of the sl enter intrdos with the lssil ooling pro(le @ThercastD lk E LagamineD greyA
9 8.8 8.6 8.4 X-Stress [MPa] 8.2 8 7.8 7.6 7.4 7.2 7 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 8.0 Metallurgical length [m]

pigure SFITX oom on the stress (eld omprison

5.4 Data transfer validation

ITW

sndeedD eh time the sl psses from one roll to the other or from one ooling spry to the otherD the stress nd the strin tensors re 'etedF his ft is shown y the yli vrition of the stress levelF his vrition is quite well trnsmitted to the representtive ellF he stress yles nd the roll positions hve not een deeply nlyzed in this study ut they ould e the strting point of n improvement of the strin (eld lultionF wore urte strin men vlues ould e rehed y lulting the men strin for eh roll nd ooling hnges in order to tke physil vrition of the strin omponents into ountF xow wthing t the sher stress vlues @EstressAD the initil hypothesis negletE ing this stress is vlidtedF sndeedD the sher does not reh the level of Iw of stress nd thus it is not predominnt ompred to the stresses in nd diretionsF feside ll these good vluesD the Lagamine stress in diretion does not (t t ll to the expeted ones of ThercastF he Thercast mrosopi model expets more or less no stress in this diretionD when Lagamine gives stress lmost equivlent to the one in the nd diretionsF he Lagamine Estress rehes SHw t the end of the simultionF his di'erene ould e explined y the wy the oundry onditions re imposed in this diretionF sndeedD the diretion is driven y the displementF sn the displeE ment lultion only the strin in Thercast diretion @sl thikness diretionA is tken into ountF es n importnt pproximtion on this vlue is expetedD leding to high divergene with the wnted stress vlueF his error hs to e (xed efore to ompute new Lagamine lultionsF

5.4.2 Transfer tests done on one element

sn order to hek the dt trnsfer from Thercast to LagamineD the fores nd displements re imposed to unique solid element without dmge interfe elementF hese interfe elements ould intert with the (nl element stress level nd thusD possile errors of the Lagamine progrm re redued when one uses one single solid elementF por this dt trnsfer studyD four di'erent oundry onditions on diretion re studiedF ell the di'erent on(gurtions of le SFS re used to reh the wnted stress (eld in the representtive ellF sn the diretions nd D no hnge of stress level ould e oservedF he predited Estress urves re ompiled in pigure SFIUF
Solution a

he pigure SFIU@A shows the result when the lssil oundry ondition is imE posedF he displement is lulted through Thercast dt nd imposed to the node de(ning the generlized plne strin degree of freedom @thikness of the slieAF sn this se the Estress otined y the Lagamine lultion does not orrespond to the Thercast output s seen efore on the representtive ellF

IUH

Chapter 5

Industrial application

hiretion ide fe diretion gsting diretion xrrow fe diretion

Lagamine

Thercast

voding pplied on the mesosopi ell

X Y Z

Y Z X

Fxavy EPSzz vz EPSxx SIGyy Fyavx EPSyy vz EPSxx SIGzz

bF

Fzavx EPSyy vy EPSzz SIGxx cF DzaH dF Dzafree of ny displement

aF

Dzavz EPSxx

le SFSX gorrespondene of the referene frmes for Thercast nd Lagamine odes nd lultion of the fores to pply to the representtive ellD with ell size vxD vy nd vz

40 Lagamine 30 20 Z-Stress [MPa] 10 0 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 Metallurgical length [m] 5 10 15 20 Thercast Z-Stress [MPa]

0.5 0.0 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 -2.0 -2.5 -3.0 -3.5 -4.0 Metallurgical length [m] Thercast Lagamine 0 5 10 15 20

(a)
50 40

Dz=Lz EPSxx

(b)
0.5 0.0

Fz=Lx EPSyy Ly EPSzz SIGxx

5 10 15 20

Lagamine 30 Z-Stress [MPa] Z-Stress [MPa] 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 Metallurgical length [m] Thercast 0 5 10 15 20 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 -2.0 -2.5 -3.0 -3.5 -4.0

Lagamine Thercast

Metallurgical length [m]

(c)

Dz=0

(d)

Dz=free of any displacement

pigure SFIUX Estress on(gurtion omprison of the sl enter intrdos with the lssil ooling pro(le @ThercastD lk E LagamineD greyA

5.4 Data transfer validation

Solution b

IUI

he (rst tested lterntive is to pply the third foreF oD fores re imposed in eh diretion to the elementF es expetedD the results otined @pigure SFIU@AA is tht the two urves @Thercast nd LagamineA overlp perfetly @one urve to e seen in pigure SFIU@AAF his n e explined y the ft tht Fz lulted vlue is stress dependentF he stresses present higher ury thn the strinsF husD the fores preision is inresed y the use of this oundry onditionF nfortuntelyD the dt trnsfer from Thercast to Lagamine with the oundry ondition b is not possile when inresing the numer of elements of the ellF he impliit itertive lultion does not onverge due to the ft tht when the thikness node movesD the Estress hnges in eh elementF he outEofElne fore in diE retion is lulted nd never rehes zero s it should e t equiliriumF he fores rehed in eh element should e the one imposed wheres for the moment it is the men vlue of the whole ell tht is tken into ountF yne test hs een performed on ell ontining IHH elements nd no dmge elementF he results t the eginning of the simultion orresponds to the ones of the mrosopi simultionF xevertheless this simultion hd to e stopped euse the lultion did not onverge due to the importnt mount of elements to ompute in the diretionF
Solution c

feuse of the impossiility to use solution b to trnsfer the dtD other possiE ilities hve een hekedF pigure SFIU@A shows the results of the Estress when the displement in diretion is prevented @plne strin onditionAF sn this se D the mesosopi stresses diverge from the mrosopi stresses nd thusD this solution is not usleF
Solution d

he lst solutionD dD is to impose nothing in diretionF he slie thikness degree of freedom is freeF sn this seD one oserves tht the Estress omputed stys pproxiE mtely t vlue of Hw @pigure SFIU@dAAF his solution hs lso een tested on the representtive ell ut with the sme issues thn the solution with the fore imposedF xo onvergene ould e rehedF
Conclusion

sn order to improve the (nl resultsD the dt trnsfer from the mrosopi simuE ltion to the mesosopi one should e improved @orret zz D see ury prolems in Thercast results etion SFQFPAF xeverthelessD qulittive results re given herefter with the noEdisplements solution c @ssumption of plne strinA for ll the ooling ses studied t eh position in the sl for C ontinuous sterF

IUP

Chapter 5

Industrial application

5.5 Damage results for the CC application on C grade

he following lultions re mde with the following oundry onditions in order to otin qulittive results on the dmge ehvior for di'erent ooling ses in severl res of the sl produed on the C ontinuous sterF

Fxavy EPSzz vz EPSxx SIGyy Fyavx EPSyy vz EPSxx SIGzz DzaH

he results of the representtive ell simultion for ll the ses studied in this thesis re given in pigure SFIVF he dmge plotted long the metllurgil length is the mximum dmge vlue @a/bA hppening within ll the interfe elements representing the grin oundriesF gompring (rst the urves for eh seprted seD one n oserve tht the enter of the sl is more sensitive to the ooling pro(le modi(tion thn the ornerF o explin thisD it is interesting to go k to the stress urves @pigures SFV@A to SFV@dAA tht show stress level modi(tion in the enter of the slD while in the ornerD only slight di'erene is oservedF he ooling pro(le di'erene minly helps to derese the stresses in the enter from tensile stresses to ompression onesF his is the min reson why the dmge dereses t this pleF sndeedD tensile stresses led to n opening of the vities round the preipittes while ompression delys the dmge inreseF sn pigures SFIV@A nd SFIV@AD the dmge etween IR nd IUm dereses with the modi(ed temperture pro(leF he vities re not le to grow s this prt remins in ompression stte @pigures SFV@A nd SFV@AAF yn the ontrryD in pigures SFIV@A nd SFIV@dA tht represents the orner of the slD no di'erene on the dmge urves is seen for the two di'erent pro(lesF his oservtion n e orrelted to the stress (eld otined y ThercastD where the di'erene is not s mrked in the orner s in the enter of the slF vooking t the urves in generlD the onlusion tht the intrdos dmge is higher n e drwnF sndeedD high stresses re rehed when unending the sl nd this in temperture rnge tht is prtiulrly detrimentl to the mterilF pinllyD the dmge is lso higher in the orner of the slF hue to higher trixility di'erenes @pigures SFV@A nd SFV@dAAD the dmge inreses fster in the ornerF st should lso e mentioned tht the dmge level rehed t the end of the proess is more or less HFHP exept for the sl orner intrdos where it rehes lmost HFHSF hese vlues re fr from the HFS threshold vlue hosen for rk preditionF his oservtion on(rms tht the results otined here re only qulittive ones nd should e vlidted sine rks re deteted in these onditions in the tul proessF he ft tht tensile stress is pplied in the diretion insted of the one luE lted y Thercast @lmost zeroA should inrese the dmge developementF

5.5 Damage results for the CC application on C grade

IUQ

0.014

0.018 0.016 0.014

0.012

0.010 Damage value [a/b] Damage value [a/b] 0 5 10 Metallurgical length [m] 15 20 0.012 0.010 0.008 0.006 0.004 0.002 0.002 0.000 0 5 10 Metallurgical length [m] 15 20

0.008

0.006

0.004

0.000

(a) Slab center extrados

0.018 0.016 0.014 Damage value [a/b] Damage value [a/b] 0.012 0.010 0.008 0.006 0.004 0.002 0.000 0 5 10 Metallurgical length [m] 15 20 0.040 0.035 0.030 0.025 0.020 0.015 0.010 0.005 0.000 0

(b) Slab corner extrados

10 Metallurgical length [m]

15

20

(c) Slab center intrados

(d) Slab corner intrados

pigure SFIVX hmge omprison etween ooling strtegies @glssil temperture pro(leD lk E wodi(ed temperture pro(leD greyA

IUR

Chapter 5

Industrial application

o the too low dmge result seems quite unexpeted nd not logilF he omE ponents xx nd yy in pigure SFIS nd SFIT re well reproduedF here ould e the errorc

sn the mrosopi
aF bF

Thercast

model X

oundry onditions rheologil lw

Lagamine

sn the
cF dF

dmge model X

model theory of the dmge mehnisms modeling prmeters identi(tion

Error a or b

edditionl experimentl results suh s the fore mesurements during the gg proess ould vlidte othD the rheology b nd the oundry onditions aF roweverD we did not hve ess to these resultsF
Error a

he ft tht tensile nd ompression tests performed in two di'erent lortories give onsistent results in greement for the model simultion until PH7 of strin is in fvor of vlidted rheologil model aF es well s the ft tht uoslowsky phenomenologil model lredy used y the industril prtner predits stressEstrin urves lose to the model usedF en opposite onlusion ould e derived from the ft tht for CD only W over IV test simultions give foreEdisplement urves similr to the experimentl oneF st is representtive of d rheologil lw or too low mount of tests to e representtive of the tul mteril ehviorF vet us remind tht due to the ostD eh test hs een performed only oneF
Error c

ht out the dmge model itselfc st neglets phse trnsformtion nd pE perne of ferrite (lm round the grinF yne should perhps ouple the model to phse trnsformtion predition whih ould e expressed y strong vrition of some dmge model prmeters like e /B prmeter for instne ssumed onstnt hereF he frtion of strin rte present within the grin ore nd the grin oundry should e 'eted y the deep hnge of the oundry where thin ferrite (lms developF
Error d

he di0ult tsk of (nding onsistent set of prmeters s well s the lk of sttistis within our experimentl dt explin tht the dmge prmeter set is fr from eing totlly relile nd needs dditionl investigtionF

5.6 Conclusions on the practical case

IUS

5.6 Conclusions on the practical case

he ster of C hs een fithfully model in mrosopi sleF he moldD the rolls nd the severl spry systems hve een implemented into the Thercast progrmF wodeling sensorsD the stress omponents nd tempertures re reorded t eh moE ment of the gg proessF rious ses hve een studied in order to determine how to void the trnsversl rk eventF yne proess improvement should e rehed y the modi(tion of the ooling pro(le in the ontinuous sterF fy deresing the ooling during unendingD the mteril is less suseptile to e dmgedF yserving the stress urves t the output of ThercastD it ould e seen tht high tensions re oserved in the unending re @IUEPHmAF hese stresses re espeE illy detrimentl sine the mteril presents temperture etween VHHEIHHH gF his temperture rnge is spei( in the periteti steel fmily to provoke low dutilityF sn this re the ooling strtegy is then modi(ed nd the stress level is deresed in the dngerous re of the ontinuous sterF he entrl prt of the sl is more sensitive to this new ooling pro(le thn the orner prtF dt hve een trnsferred to the representtive mesosopi ell omE puted y the Lagamine progrmF et this sle the grins nd grin oundries re modeled nd dmge lw lultes the dmge ehvior in the representtive ellF he dt trnsfer presented some issues tht hve not een entirely solved yetF
Thercast

he results of the strin (eld within Thercast hs to e more urte in order to get the stress vritions due to the ontinuous ster rolls nd sprysF he preision of the output reords of
Thercast

hs to e improvedF

he presription of fores in the three spe diretions should e mde possile y more roust impliit pproh or n expliit pproh ould e developedF
hue to these lultion prolemsD the lst prt of the work whih is the omprison etween lssil nd modi(ed pro(le hs een mde with prtilly wrong stress vlues @only in diretionAF hese (rst results give qulittive vlues for the omprisonF iven if the dmge results re qulittive onesD the results otined seem to e quite logilF xeverthelessD it is neessry to vlidte these onlusions with good dt trnsfer etween oth Thercast nd Lagamine softwreF he (nl pplition on the C ontinuous ster hs een done for V ses detiled in le QFVF st hs een oserved tht with softer ooling t the endD the rte of defet dereses in the enter prt of the sl when in the orner the e'et is negligileF sn the orner it hs een oserved tht the dmge is higher thn in the enterF oD proess improvements should e mde in order to redue the dmge in the orner y giving nother wy to modify the ooling pro(le t this prtiulr ple of the slF sfD s ssumedD the di'erent ehviors in entrl nd orner prts re due to higher temperture grdient in the enterD one should think out how to lolly inrese the temperture grdientF

Conclusion and perspectives

ylvie gstgne developed during her thesis gsHU dmge model sed on the opening of the rks t the grin oundry y modeling interfe elements oupled with spei( dmge lwF his dmge model hs een developed nd vlidted on mirolloyed steelsF he ims of this study wereX

to extend the model for rk predition t the grin sleD referred to s the mesosopi sleD to periteti nd stinless steel grdesY to vlidte it in order to otin model le to predit the rk pperne s funtion of di'erent prmeters suh s the omposition nd the thermoE mehnil pthsY to nlyze the se of the C ontinuous ster with di'erent ooling strtegiesF

Achievements
he (rst step of this study ws to hoose in lever wy the di'erent steel grdes in order to study the imed e'ets on the rk pperne in gg sls s the preipittion stte or the ferrite level rk dependeneF prom the S (rst seleted steel grded @Q periteti nd P stinless steelsAD the work foused on the periteti steelsF his limittion hs een governed y time nd ost onsidertionsF prom the ost point of viewD only the Q periteti steel grdes ould hve een investigted deeplyF hespited ll the e'ortsD the investigtions were still not su0ientF

only one experiment ws performed on eh tensile test on(gurtion for the dmge prmeters identi(tion no sttistil mirogrphi investigtion on preipittes ould hve een hieved euse of lk of time nd udgetF
xeverthelessD three periteti steel grdes were prtiulrly hosen for their senE sitivity to rk pperne nd for their di'erent mirostrutures due to the steel omposition tht 'ets the preipittion quntityD sizeD positionD shpeD the moment of pperne of preipittes nd ferrite in the mtrixD s well s the dutility trough position nd deepnessF IUU

IUV

Conclusion and perspectives

en importnt survey of literture hs een hieved t the niversity of vigeD ut lso in the di'erent eserh enters of erelorwittl wetz nd ssergues nd t the eserh snstitute in ehenF ell these di'erent prts rought their own ontriution to etter knowledge of the prolemF he numeril simultion nd the mirosopi nlyses prts essentilly me from vigeD the prtil knowledge ws rought y the industril prtners wheres the siru in ehen o'ered more speilized skills in metllurgy nd experimenttion tehnisF he performed literture review helped to on(rm the ft tht the trnsversl rks ppering in the gg sl fter the proess re intergrnulr nd their formtion mehnism is knownF he rks propgte y vittion t the grin oundries nd y grin slidingF he vittion hs een explined y void nuletionD growth nd oleseneF he vities minly evolve y di'usion nd reep deformtion t elevted temperturesF woreoverD n e'et of the thin ferrite (lm formed long the grin oundries hs een deteted nd enhnes the rking proessF hese frture mehnisms re tken into ount through the model developed y F gstgne tht enles the evolution of rk etween grins of the steel mtrixF he ferrite (lm formtion ould e etter modeled y orret set of prmeters nd the de(nition of their temperture dependene ould llow modeling this phenomenonF fefore strting the experimentl mehnil testsD study of the therml pth tht should e pplied to the smple hs een doneF he (rst ide ws to melt the smple efore testing in order to otin the desired mirostrutureF nfortuntely this therml pth hd to e rejeted sine it genertes n ritrry defet nmed shrinkge hole in the tensile test smpleF et the endD the study proved tht it is possile to otin the mirostruture of periteti grde in gg onditions thnks to simple therml pth performed in the hot tensile testing mhine prior to the lodingF he rheology of eh studied steel grde hs een determined @for the (ve steel grdesD periteti C stinlessAF rot tensile tests on smooth smples llowed hrE terizing the dutility trough position nd deepnessF he rheologil xortonEro' lw prmetersD tht represents physilly the mteril ehviorD hve een determined for the three periteti steel grdes studied with the help of hot tensile tests nd onE (rmed y ompression testsF he study of the prmeters showed the onsisteny of the de(ned prmetersF he numeril study of the sensitivity to the dmge lw prmeters hs shown tht some prmeters like the vity tip ngle D the initil vity density for pperne of nuletion NI nd the threshold of the end of the nuletion Nmax ply n importnt role in the evolution of the dmgeF hese prmeters re thus esy to identify with few mehnil tensile tests ut they lso hve to e set with high ury euse of their strong in)uene on the dmge levelF xeverthelessD these results should hve een determined y mirosopi nlysis in order to leve less unertinties in the dmge prmeters determintionF e etter mirosopi investigtion ould hve een designed in order to improve this pointF he dmge prmeters for eh periteti steel hve een determined through litertureD mirosopi nlysis nd hot tensile test experimenttionF he prmeters of the dmge lw re physil prmetersF ome of them n e determined through

IUW

experimentl testingF e test mpign t three di'erent testing temperturesD with three di'erent testing smple shpesD nd three di'erent strin rtes hs een performedF e totl mount of out QH tests for eh steel grde hve een driven in order to determine s urtely s possile the dmge prmeters for eh steel grdeF he reltion etween the dmge prmeters nd the hemil omposition of the severl steels hve een investigted nd the physil spet of the dmge lw hs een vlidtedF his prt is mde di0ult y the ft tht the steel grdes re oming from the industryF xot only the studied omponents @x nd A do show n e'et on rk pperneD ut lso others s i or el do hide or enhne the e'et on dmgeF prom this point of viewD the use of lortory melts would hve een esier to exploitF xeverthelessD the omposition omprison hs een tully performed on industril steel grdes nd thusD even if the dmge prmeters determintion hs een 'etedD the set of dmge prmeters ould hve een vlidted on prtil seF he two other steel grdes @A nd BA hve to e ontinued in order to ompre the omponents importneF he ultimte gol of the study ws to pply the determined rheologil nd dmge prmeters to one prtil se of trnsversl rk in ontinuous sting nd to vlidte the prmetersF hue to dt trnsfer issues from the mrosopi model to the mesosopi oneD the onlusions driven from this study re qulittive s we still hve some troules with the dmge level preditionF xeverthelessD the dmge evolution otined through the prtil se re onsistent with the one expeted nd it gives n overview of the dmge in the steel sl produed y ggF et the endD the Lagamine mesosopi representtive ell hs een delivered to the industril prtner with ll the importnt tools neessry to the trnsfer etween Thercast nd LagamineF sn order to summrizeD the following pitl points hve een hievedX

he rheologil prmeters hve een determined for (ve steel grdesY e new methodology for the determintion of the dmge lw prmeters y hot tensile tests hve een exposed nd ppliedY he orreltion etween hemil omposition nd mehnil properties @duE tility trough studyA hs een estlishedY he mesosopi tool hs een provided to the industril prtnerY e qulittive study of the rk pperne hs een performed on one steel grde @CA ording to the gg onditionsF

IVH

Conclusion and perspectives

Future work
he determintion of the rheologil nd the dmge prmeters y hot tensile tests is the originlity of this studyF xeverthelessD operting this wyD some troules were enounteredF sndeedD the determintion of ll the steps of the dmge pth ws not possileF his ould e voided y the use of ousti reording of the rk on the hot tensile test pprtus in order to detet the rk pperne nd not only the dmge momentF he results presented in this study show tht multiEsle model of rk formtion is redy to e used for the predition of the frture during ontinuous stingF xevE erthelessD some numeril issues still hve to e solved in order to otin quntittive results on dmgeF

et (rstD t mrosopi sleD the reliility of the output results hve to e improved y higher numer of experimentl tests in order to provide more urte dt to the mesosopi sle simultionF he seond key point is the development of more roust impliit sheme on the glol non liner pi ode to model the representtive ell with pplied fores in the three spe diretionsF his ould help to otin more urte stress nd strin results in eh diretion nd thus quntittive dmge resultsF en other solution ould e to model the representtive ell in three dimensions n thus to pply the fores in the three diretions of spe on every trnsition re edge nodeF
sn order to extend the pilities of the dmge lw used in this studyD the stinless steel fmily ould e studiedF et the eginning of this thesisD the hrteriztion of the dmge in stinless steels ws one of the ims s trnsversl rks lso 'et themF hue to the time onstrint nd experimentl issuesD the study hs een stopped fter the determintion of the rheologil prmeters whih were de(nedF sn further stepD the dmge lw identi(tion should idelly e performed y tkE ing into ount the two di'erent phses @ferrite nd usteniteA present in the mteril in gg onditionsF ome prmeters @visosity etween grin nd grin oundry e /B for instneA ould e modi(ed when ferrite ppersF he phse trnsformtion ould e in simpli(ed wy just dependent on temperE ture threshold @identi(ed through n experimentl ooling similr to the tul oneA or relying on phse trnsformtion modelF he model ould e pplied with prmeter suh s NI or the nuletion length Nmax /NI de(ned with grdient in order to simulte n heterogeneous density of rides tht di'ers in shpeD size nd espeilly frequeny from the surfe of the sl to the enterF yf ourseD dditionl informtion gthered on C se suh s the following would e welomedX

fore mesurements during ontinuous sting proess for vlidtion of the mroE sopi modelY

IVI

sttistil mirosopi nlysis to get more relile vlues of the vity size a0 D the vity interdistne b0 D NI D Nmax with verge nd stndrd devition vluesY phse trnsformtion investigtion on C grdeY dditionl tensile tests on identil smple geometry nd on shrper nothesD to improve the dmge prmeters identi(tion step nd to vlidte the set of prmeters
his deeper investigtion should help to provide model prediting dmge onE sistent with the industril investigtionF

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fleHR friUU

Werkstokunde Stahl - fr Studium und PraxisF siru E rD

tF uF frimome nd uF orimhiF grk formtion in the ontinuous sting of steelF Metallurgical Transactions, Process MetallurgyD VfXRVW! SHSD IWUUF F gstgneF Finite element mesoscopic analysis of damage in microalloyed continuous casting steels at high temperatureF hh thesisD niversit de vigeD PHHUF F gstgneD hF lmonD nd eFwF rrkenF e dmge onstitutive lw for steel t elevted tempertureX sdenti(tion of the prmetersF International Journal of Forming ProcessesD IH@IAXPQ!RQD PHHUF FrF golemn nd tFF iloxF rnsverse rking in ontinuously st rve sls E sn)uene of ompositionF Materials science and technologyD IXVH!VQD IWVSF vF gondminF griquilit super(ielle en oule ontinueX wnismes et tionneursF ehnil reportD eeD PHHIF

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golVS

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Modlisation thermomcanique tridimensionnelle par lments nis de la coule continue d'aciersF hh thesisD ole des wines de risD
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gruSW

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hvHR

prHI qieWR qrSW rWV

Physical

iF vn der qiessen nd F vergrdF hevelopment of (nl reep filure in polyrystlline ggregtesF Acta MetallurgicaD RPXWSW!WUQD IWWRF xF tF qrntF FractureD hpter snterrystlline filure t high tempertureD pges STP!SUVF tohn ileyD xew orkD IWSWF eFwF rrken nd F gesottoF gontt etween deformle solidsX he fully oupled pprohF Mathematical and Computer ModellingD PV@RE VAXISQ!ITWD IWWVF

reiHQ

Modlisation thermomcamique de la coule continue d'acier en deux dimensionsF hh thesisD ole xtionle uprieure des wines de
eF reinrihF risD ytoer PHHQF FuF veeD tFwF rongD gFF ghoiD nd tFuF veeF gontinuous ooling trnsE formtion tempertures nd mirostrutures of xioium ering mirolE loyed steelsF Materials Science ForumD RUSERUWXTS!TVD PHHSF F viuD F ugeymD nd F wurkmiF greep frture modeling y use of ontinuum dmge vrile sed on vorono simultion of grin oundE ry vityF International Journal of mechanical sciencesD RH@PEQAXIRU!ISVD IWWVF uFqF vudlowD Fnd finD F izD uF wullerD tF nsD qF elvrez de oledoD F jD nd hF enkF reipittion of nitrides nd rides during solidi(tion nd oolingF ehnil reportD eeD PHHUF F wehrD rF omonoD nd uF sumotoF i'et of noth geometry on hot dutility of usteniteF Transaction ISIJD PUXIHQ!IHWD IWVUF FeF wnohrD F ghndrD nd gFF uillmoreF gontinuous ooling trnsE formtion ehviour of mirolloyed steels ontining iD xD wn nd woF ISIJ InternationalD QT@IPAXIRVT!IRWQD IWWTF iFF eissteinF oronoi digrmF prom wthorldF e olfrm e esoureF httpXGGmthworldFwolfrmFomGoronoihigrmFhtmlF

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wei httpXGGwwwFmtterForgFukF winUW

IVS

fF wintz nd tFwF errowsmithF sn)uene of mirolloying dditions on hot dutility of steelsF sn International Conference on hot working and forming processD he0eldD IWUWF fF wintzD F ueD nd tF tF tonsF rot dutility of steels nd its relE tionship to the prolem of trnsverse rking during ontinuous stingF International Materials ReviewsD QT@SAXIVU!PIUD IWWIF fF wintz nd F eushoshF sn)uene of ndium on hot dutility of steelF Ironmaking and SteelmakingD PH@TAXRRS!RSPD IWWQF fF wintzF smportne of erQ temperture in ontrolling dutility nd width of hot dutility trough in steelsD nd its reltionship to trnsverse rkingF Materials science and technologyD IPXIQP!IQVD IWWTF fF wintzF he in)uene of omposition on the hot dutility of steels nd to the prolem of trnsverse rkingF ISIJ InternationalD QW@WAXVQQ!VSSD IWWWF fF wintzD eF gowleyD F eushoshD nd hFxF growtherF rot dutility urve of n usteniti stinless steel nd importne of dynmi rerystlliE stion in determining dutility reovery t high temperturesF Materials Science and TechnologyD ISXIIUW!IIVSD ytoer IWWWF F wohmedF rot dutility ehvior of ndium ontining steelsF terials Science and EngineeringD QPTeXPSS!PTHD PHHPF

winWI

winWQ winWT

winWW

winWW

wohHP worHI

Ma-

rF worndD wF undelD tFF vmntD fF eisgererD wF rehtD nd uF rrsteF smprovement of surfe qulity on periteti nd mirolloyed slsF sn ICS 2001D PHHIF eF xeedlemn nd tFF ieF lsti reep )ow e'ets in the di'usive vittion of grin oundriesF Acta MetallurgicaD PVXIQIS!IQQPD IWVHF httpXGGwwwFmetllurgyFnistFgovF F ynk nd iF vn der qiessenF qrowth of initilly shrp rk y grin oundry vittionF Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of SolidsD RU@IAXWW!IQWD IWWWF gF yuhi nd uF wtsumotoF rot dutility in xEering highEstrength lowElloy steelsF Transaction ISIJD PPXIVI!IVWD IWVPF eF nditD eF wurugiynD eF h oderD eF rldrD hF fhtthrE jeeD F ghndrD nd FuF yF trin indued preipittion of omplex ronitrides in xE nd iE mirolloyed steelsF Scripta MaterialiaD SQXIQHW!IQIRD PHHSF wF ntF her iin)uss von uupfer und xikel uf die trngvergiessrkeit von rmreitssthl IFPQRQF sn 20. Aachener StahlkolloquiumD PHHSF

xeeVH xs ynWW

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F ve pillonD F tegerD wF uonigD fF eisergerD nd wF tuholF heE termintion of high temperture surfe rk formtion riteri in onE tinuous sting nd thin sl stingF ehnil reportD iuropen gomE missionD PHHQF pF sonF 2D1/2 thermal-mechanical model of continuous casting of steel using nite element methodF hh thesisD niversity of vigeD PHHQF pF sonD F gesottoD nd eFwF rrkenF e PFSh (nite element model for ending nd strightening in ontinuous sting of steel slsF International Journal for Numerical Methods in EngineeringD TVXIPS!IRWD PHHTF pF son nd eFwF rrkenF pinite element study of the e'et of some lol defets on the risk of trnsverse rking in ontinuous sting of steel slsF Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and EngineeringD IWT@PIEPRAXPPVS!PPWWD epril PHHUF eF rodhnD F F F eddyD nd F xF rsdF tudies on solidi(tionD ging nd forgeility of modi(ed stinless steelsF Journal of Materials Processing TechnologyD IHQXQPR!QQID PHHHF F evuxD F heprezD tF F frioutD nd tF yudinF sn situ solidi(ed hot tensile test nd hot dutility of some plin ron steels nd mirolloyed steelsF ISIJ InternationalD QR@TAXSPV!SQSD IWWRF uF hwerdtfegerF inflligkeit von thlen eim trnggieen und rE mumformenF ehnil reportD iuropen gommissionD IWWPF F hwrtzD F gstgneD nd eFwF rrkenF xumeril study to identify the mteril prmeters of dmge lwF Computer Methods in Materials ScienceD U@PAXPQU!PRPD PHHUF F trtemeierD hF enkD fF fttgerD iF usiD nd uF qhlerF imuE ltion nd modeling of hot dutility for di'erent steel grdesF sn Second STEELSIM conference, GrazD PHHUF rFqF uzukiD F xishimurD nd F mguhiF ghrteristis of hot dutility in steels sujeted to the melting nd solidi(tionF Transaction ISIJD PPXRV!STD IWVPF rFqF uzukiD F xishimurD nd F smmurD tFnd xkmurF imritE tlement of steels ourring in the temperture rnge from IHHH to THH gF Transactions ISIJD PRXITW!IUUD IWVRF fFq homsD tFuF frimomeD nd sFF mrsekerF he formtion of pnel rks in steel ingotsX e stteEofEtheErt reviewF ISS transactionsD UXU!PHD IWVTF fFqF homsF wodeling of the ontinuous sting of steel E pstD present nd futureF Metallurgical Transactions, Process MetallurgyD TT@TAXUWS!VIPD PHHPF

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F vergrdF yn the reep onstrined di'usive vittion of grin oundE ry fetsF Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of SolidsD QP@SAXQUQ!QWQD IWVRF wFwF olfF snitil solidi(tion nd strnd surfe qulity of periteti steelsF Continuous castingD WXI!RTD IWWUF FF unD FF viuD FrF tioD vFF wD nd qFhF ngF he onset tempertures of gmm to lphEphse trnsformtion in hot deformed nd nonEdeformed x miroElloyed steelsF ISIJ InternationalD RT@RAXSUW! SVSD PHHTF F ueD tFtF tonsD nd fF wintzF eltionship etween hot dutility nd rking during the ontinuous sting of steelF 13th PTD conference proceedingsD IQXRS!SPD IWWSF FF hu nd F gesottoF ni(ed nd mixed formultion of the REnode qudrilterl elements y ssumed strin methodX epplition to therE momehnil prolemsF International Journal for Numerical Methods in EngineeringD QVXTVS!UITD IWWSF

olWU uHT

ueWS

huWS

Appendix A

Micrographs from B grade used for Thermal path determination

Description of the chemical etching

he smples hve een quenhed fter pplying the therml pthD thus the urrent miE rostruture is the one of the steel t high temperture nd the usteniti mirostruE ture is immeditely visileF he smples hve een ethed with di'erent solutionsF rowever the usteniti grin oundries re di0ult to oserve sine the mirostruture is initi nd the grin oundries re esier to reognize in mrtensiti strutureF

Micrographs
he mirogrphs re mde in the enter prt of the smple where the mirostruture should orrespond to the trget oneF sndeedD it is in the enter prt of the smple tht the frture will our nd where the experimentl vlues re tkenF

eFI

eFP

Appendix A Micrographs from B grade used for Thermal path determination

pigure eFIX S1 E IminD IPSH g E mgni(tionX 200x

pigure eFPX S1 E IminD IPSH g E mgni(tionX 500x

eFQ

pigure eFQX S2 E PminD IPSH g E mgni(tionX 200x

pigure eFRX S2 E PminD IPSH g E mgni(tionX 500x

eFR

Appendix A Micrographs from B grade used for Thermal path determination

pigure eFSX S3 E SminD IPSH g E mgni(tionX 200x

pigure eFTX S3 E SminD IPSH g E mgni(tionX 500x

eFS

pigure eFUX S4 E IHminD IPSH g E mgni(tionX 200x

pigure eFVX S4 E IHminD IPSH g E mgni(tionX 500x

eFT

Appendix A Micrographs from B grade used for Thermal path determination

pigure eFWX S5 E IminD IQSH g E mgni(tionX 200x

pigure eFIHX S6 E PminD IQSH g E mgni(tionX 200x

eFU

pigure eFIIX S7 E SminD IQSH g E mgni(tionX 200x

pigure eFIPX S8 E IHminD IQSH g E mgni(tionX 100x

eFV

Appendix A Micrographs from B grade used for Thermal path determination

pigure eFIQX S9 E I yle E mgni(tionX 200x

pigure eFIRX S10 E P yles E mgni(tionX 200x

eFW

pigure eFISX S11 E Q yles E mgni(tionX 300x

pigure eFITX S12 E R yles E mgni(tionX 200x

Appendix B

Sensitivity analysis figures

pigure fFIX vyout of the sensitivity nlysis grphs with in the lower right orner the referene glol grph nd the enlrgements in the other prts of the piture with in the lower left ornerD the enlrgement of the nuletion strtD in the upper left ornerD the enlrgement of the nuletion end nd in the upper right ornerD the enlrgement of the dmge moment

fFI

fFP

Appendix B Sensitivity analysis gures

0.063 0.50 0.062 0.48 0.061 0.46 0.060

0.059

0.44

0.058

0.42

0.057 14.5 0.0030

15.0

15.5

16.0

16.5

0.40 150

155

160

165

170

175

180

185

190

0.5 0.0025 0.4 0.0020 Damage value [a/b]

0.3

0.0015

0.2

0.0010

0.1 0.0005 0.0 0.0000 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0 50 100 Time [s] 150 200

pigure fFPX sn)uene of the vrition of the prmeters a0 on the dmge evolution @C efereneD eferene E PH7 D eferene C PH7A
0.063 0.50 0.062 0.48 0.061 0.46 0.060

0.059

0.44

0.058

0.42

0.057 14.5 0.0030

15.0

15.5

16.0

16.5

0.40 150

155

160

165

170

175

180

185

190

0.5 0.0025 0.4 0.0020 Damage value [a/b]

0.3

0.0015

0.2

0.0010

0.1 0.0005 0.0 0.0000 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0 50 100 Time [s] 150 200

pigure fFQX sn)uene of the vrition of the prmeters b0 on the dmge evolution @C efereneD eferene E PH7 D eferene C PH7A

fFQ

0.063 0.50 0.062 0.48 0.061 0.46 0.060

0.059

0.44

0.058

0.42

0.057 14.5 0.0030

15.0

15.5

16.0

16.5

0.40 150

155

160

165

170

175

180

185

190

0.5 0.0025 0.4 0.0020 Damage value [a/b]

0.3

0.0015

0.2

0.0010

0.1 0.0005 0.0 0.0000 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0 50 100 Time [s] 150 200

pigure fFRX sn)uene of the vrition of the prmeters e /B on the dmge evolution c @C efereneD eferene E PH7 D eferene C PH7A
0.08 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.46 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.42 0.05 0.04 10.0 0.0030 0.5 0.0025 0.4 0.0020 Damage value [a/b] 0.40 150 0.50

0.48

0.44

12.5

15.0

17.5

20.0

155

160

165

170

175

180

185

190

0.3

0.0015

0.2

0.0010

0.1 0.0005 0.0 0.0000 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0 50 100 Time [s] 150 200

pigure fFSX sn)uene of the vrition of the prmeters Nmax /NI on the dmge evolution @C efereneD eferene E PH7 D eferene C PH7A

fFR

Appendix B Sensitivity analysis gures

0.08 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.46 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.42 0.05 0.04 10.0 0.0030 0.5 0.0025 0.4 0.0020 Damage value [a/b] 0.40 130 0.50

0.48

0.44

12.5

15.0

17.5

20.0

150

170

190

210

0.3

0.0015

0.2

0.0010

0.1 0.0005 0.0 0.0000 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0 50 100 Time [s] 150 200

pigure fFTX sn)uene of the vrition of the prmeters on the dmge evolution @C efereneD eferene E PH7 D eferene C PH7A

Appendix C

SEM-EDS study

Surface preparation
he nlysis hve een performed in sEpolished onditions with Im roughness in the (nl polishingF here is silver ypss mde on the fkelite to llow ondution of the smple while performing iwEih nlysisF

SEM device and specications

SEM device: Accelerating Spot size:

Working Distance:

IHmm Detectors: i @seondry eletronAD fi @fksttered iletronAD ih @inergy hispersive ysA

iiw piq vEQH hilips voltage: IHk

Operating method
mple surfe is snned following Imm width nd t mgni(tion of IHH x eginning from the lower edge up to the upper one @following pigureA nd leding to n overll snned re of IHmm2 F

gFI

gFP

Appendix C SEM-EDS study

pigure gFIX himensions of the mounted nd polished smple E votion of the snned re of IHmm2 @tn rrowsA nd silver ypss on the fkelite

gFQ

pigure gFPX yverview of zone I E i imge

pigure gFQX elted fi imge of zone I

pigure gFRX qenerl ih spetrum on zone I

pigure gFSX snlusion from the right side of zone I

pigure gFTX elted ih spetrum foE used on inlusion of pigure gFS @g sE soited with smll @elD wgAyA

gFR

Appendix C SEM-EDS study

pigure gFUX snlusion on zone P @i smE geA

pigure gFVX fi imge relted to pigure gFU

pigure gFWX elted ih spetrum foE used on inlusion of pigure gFU nd gFV @gomplex @elDwgAyGg typeA

pigure gFIHX snlusion on zone Q @fi smgeA

pigure gFIIX me s pigure gFIHD with higher mpli(tion@fi smgeA

pigure gFIPX poused ih speE trum on inlusion of zone Q @gomplex @elDwgAyGg typeA

gFS

pigure gFIQX snlusions on zone R @fi smgeA

pigure gFIRX snlusion on the lower re of zone R @fi smgeA

pigure gFISX poused ih spetrum on inlusion of pigure gFIR @g typeA

pigure gFITX snlusion on the upper right re of zone R @fi smgeA

pigure gFIUX poused ih spetrum on inlusion of pigure gFIT @g typeA

gFT

Appendix C SEM-EDS study

pigure gFIVX snlusion on the upper left re of zone R @fi smgeA

pigure gFIWX poused ih spetrum on inlusion of pigure gFIV @g typeA

pigure gFPHX mll inlusion t the left side of igger inlusion of pigure gFIV @fi smgeA

pigure gFPIX poused ih spetrum on inlusion of pigure gFPH @g typeA

gFU

pigure gFPPX yverview of zone S E fi imge

pigure gFPQX gluster of inlusions on the right side of pigure gFPP

pigure gFPRX poused ih spetrum on inlusion on the left side of pigure gFPQ @gomplex gG@elDwgAy typeA

pigure gFPSX poused ih spetrum on inlusion on the right side of pigure gFPQ @gomplex @elDwgAyGg typeD with smll nd unde(ned mount of iA

gFV

Appendix C SEM-EDS study

pigure gFPTX gomplex inlusion on zone S @enterA E fi smge

pigure gFPUX i imge relted to pigure gFPT

pigure gFPVX poused ih spetrum on the entre of inlusion of pigure gFPTEgFPU @g typeA

pigure gFPWX poused ih spetrum on the upper zone of the inlusion of pigure gFPTEgFPU @g typeA

gFW

pigure gFQHX yverview of zone TD mtrix E fi imge

pigure gFQIX qenerl ih spetrum in pigure gFQH

pigure gFQPX hrk re on the upper left side of pigure gFQH @fi smgeA

pigure gFQQX elted i imge of pigure gFQPD with orresponding ih mrks

pigure gFQRX poused ih spetrum on the left side of pigure gFQQ @drk gry re in pigure gFQPA

pigure gFQSX poused ih spetrum on the left side of pigure gFQQ @light gry re in pigure gFQPA

gFIH

Appendix C SEM-EDS study

pigure gFQTX vight re on the right side of pigure gFQH @fi smgeA

pigure gFQUX snlusion on the right side of pigure gFQT @fi smgeA

pigure gFQVX poused ih spetrum on the inlusion of pigure gFQU @g typeA

gFII

pigure gFQWX qloulr snlusion on zone U @fi smgeA

pigure gFRHX i imge relted to pigure gFQW

pigure gFRIX poused ih spetrum on the mtrix in the viinity of inlusion of pigure gFQWEgFRH

gFIP

Appendix C SEM-EDS study

pigure gFRPX qloulr snlusion on zone U @fi smgeA

pigure gFRQX i imge relted to pigure gFRP

pigure gFRRX poused ih spetrum on the light zone of inlusion @@elY wgAy sE soited with gA

pigure gFRSX poused ih spetrum on the enter of inlusion of pigure gFRS@@elY wgAy ssoited with gA

Appendix D

ISO643

pigure hFIX syTRQ tle for the visul determintion of the grin size y mirogrphi nlysis hFI

hFP

Appendix D ISO643

pigure hFPX syTRQ omprison mirogrphs for the determintion of the grin size y mirogrphi nlysis

Appendix E

Rheological law correlation with experimental HTT

iFI

iFP

Appendix E Rheological law correlation with experimental HTT

P
25000. 20000.

1 102 s1
25000. 20000.

5 103 s1
20000. 16000.

1 103 s1

VSH g

Load [N]

Load [N]

10000. Exp Simu 5000.

10000. Exp Simu 5000.

Load [N]

15000.

15000.

12000.

8000. Exp Simu 4000.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. 10. Displacement [mm] 12. 14.

24000.

20000.

18000.

20000.

16000.

15000.

WHH g

16000. Load [N] Load [N] Load [N] Exp Simu 4000. 12000.

12000.

12000.

9000.

8000. 8000. Exp Simu 6000. Exp Simu 3000.

4000.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. 10. Displacement [mm] 12. 14.

20000.

18000.

15000.

16000.

15000.

12000.

WSH g

12000. Load [N] Load [N] Load [N] Exp Simu 12000. 9000.

9000.

8000. Exp Simu 4000. 6000.

6000.

3000.

3000.

Exp Simu

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12.

le iFIX wroEweso )ow urves of A steel grde for P smple shpe R

16000. 12000.

1 102 s1
16000. 12000.

5 103 s1
12000.

1 103 s1

VSH g

8000. Load [N] Load [N] Load [N] 4000. 4000. Exp Simu 4000. Exp Simu Exp Simu 0. 0. 2. 4. Displacement [mm] 6. 8. 0. 2. 4. Displacement [mm] 6. 8. 15000. 21000. 12000. 18000. 12000. Exp Simu Load [N] Exp Simu 0. 2. 4. Displacement [mm] 6. 8. 9000. 6000. 3000. 0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. 10. Displacement [mm] 12. 14. 9000. 6000. Load [N] Load [N] Load [N] 3000. 3000. Exp Simu 3000. Exp Simu Exp Simu 0. 0. 2. 4. Displacement [mm] 6. 8. 0. 2. 4. Displacement [mm] 6. 8.

8000.

8000.

0. 0. 2. 4. Displacement [mm] 6. 8.

0.

24000.

15000.

WHH g

15000. Load [N] 12000. 9000. 6000. Load [N] 10. 12. 6.

9000.

Exp Simu

6000.

3000. 3000. 0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 0.

12000.

12000.

9000.

9000.

WSH g

6000.

6000.

0. 0. 2. 4. Displacement [mm]

0.

le iFPX wroEweso )ow urves of A steel grde for R smple shpe

iFQ

1 102 s1
30000. 25000.

5 103 s1
20000. 16000.

1 103 s1

USH g

20000. Load [N] Load [N] 12000.

15000.

8000. 10000. Exp Simu 4000. Exp Simu

5000.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12. 14.

40000 35000 30000

28000

20000

24000 16000 20000 12000

VSH g

25000 Load [N] 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 0 2 4 6 8 Displacement [mm] 10 12 Exp Simu 8000 Exp Simu Load [N] Load [N] 16000

12000

8000 Exp Simu 4000

4000

0 0 2 4 6 8 Displacement [mm] 10 12

0 0 2 4 6 8 Displacement [mm] 10 12

30000.

24000.

20000.

24000.

20000.

16000.

Exp Simu

WSH g

16000. Load [N] Load [N] Load [N] Exp Simu 4000. 18000. 12000.

12000.

12000. Exp Simu 6000. 8000.

8000.

4000.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. 10. 12. 14. Displacement [mm] 16. 18. 20. 22.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. Displacement [mm] 8. 10.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12.

le iFQX wroEweso )ow urves of B steel grde for P smple shpe R

24000. 20000. 16000. Load [N] Load [N] 12000.

1 102 s1
20000. 16000.

5 103 s1

1 103 s1

USH g

12000.

8000. 8000. Exp Simu 4000. Exp Simu

4000.

0. 0. 2. 4. Displacement [mm] 6.

0. 0. 2. Displacement [mm] 4. 6.

40000 35000 30000

16000

14000.

12000. 12000 Exp Simu Load [N] Exp Simu

10000.

VSH g

25000 Load [N] 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 0 2 4 6 Displacement [mm] 8 10 0 0 2 4 6 Displacement [mm] 8 Load [N] 8000. 8000

6000.

Exp Simu 4000

4000.

2000.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. Displacement [mm] 8.

20000.

16000.

12000. Exp Simu

16000. 12000.

10000.

WSH g

8000. Load [N] Load [N] Load [N] Exp Simu 12000.

8000.

6000.

8000. Exp Simu 4000. 4000.

4000.

2000.

0. 0. 1. 2. Displacement [mm] 3. 4.

0. 0. 1. 2. 3. Displacement [mm] 4. 5.

0. 0. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Displacement [mm] 6. 7. 8.

le iFRX wroEweso )ow urves of B steel grde for R smple shpe

iFR

Appendix E Rheological law correlation with experimental HTT

P
45000. 40000. 35000. 30000. Load [N]

1 102 s1
35000. 30000. 25000.

5 103 s1
25000. 20000.

1 103 s1
Exp Simu

UHH g

Load [N]

25000. 20000. 15000.

Exp Simu

Exp Simu 15000.

Load [N]

20000.

15000.

10000.

10000. 10000. 5000. 0. 0. 2. 4. 6. Displacement [mm] 8. 10. 5000. 5000.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. Displacement [mm] 8. 10.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12. 14.

40000. 35000. 30000.

28000.

20000.

24000. 16000. 20000. 12000.

VHH g

25000. Load [N] 20000. 15000. 10000. 5000. 0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12. Exp Simu 8000. Exp Simu Load [N] Load [N] 16000.

12000.

8000. Exp Simu 4000.

4000.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. Displacement [mm] 8.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12.

35000.

24000. 16000. 20000.

30000.

25000.

WHH g

16000. Load [N] Load [N] Load [N] Exp Simu 4000. 20000.

12000.

12000.

15000. Exp Simu

8000.

8000. 4000. Exp Simu

10000.

5000.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. Displacement [mm] 8. 10.

0. 0. 1. 2. 3. 4. Displacement [mm] 5. 6.

0. 0. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Displacement [mm] 6. 7. 8.

le iFSX wroEweso )ow urves of C steel grde for P smple shpe R

25000. 20000.

1 102 s1
20000. 18000. 16000. 14000.

5 103 s1
14000. 12000. 10000.

1 103 s1
Exp Simu

UHH g

Load [N]

Load [N]

10000. 8000. 6000.

Load [N] Exp Simu

15000.

12000.

8000.

10000.

6000.

4000.

5000.

Exp Simu

4000. 2000.

2000.

0. 0. 2. Displacement [mm] 4. 6.

0. 0. 2. 4. Displacement [mm] 6.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. Displacement [mm] 8.

24000.

20000.

12000.

20000.

16000.

10000.

VHH g

16000. Load [N] Load [N] Load [N] Exp Simu 4000. 12000.

8000.

12000.

6000.

8000. 8000. Exp Simu 4000. Exp Simu

4000.

2000.

0. 0. 2. Displacement [mm] 4. 6.

0. 0. 1. 2. 3. Displacement [mm] 4. 5.

0. 0. 1. 2. 3. Displacement [mm] 4. 5.

20000.

16000.

14000.

12000. 16000. 12000. 10000.

WHH g

Load [N]

Load [N]

8000.

Load [N]

12000.

8000.

8000. Exp Simu Exp Simu

6000.

4000.

4000.

4000.

Exp Simu

2000.

0. 0. 1. 2. 3. 4. Displacement [mm] 5. 6.

0. 0. 1. 2. 3. Displacement [mm] 4. 5.

0. 0. 1. 2. 3. 4. Displacement [mm] 5. 6. 7.

le iFTX wroEweso )ow urves of C steel grde for R smple shpe

Appendix F

Damage moments comparison of HTT flow curves

pFI

pFP

Appendix F Damage moments comparison of HTT ow curves

PPHVSf
25000.
24000.

SPHVSf
20000.

20000.

16000.

Load [N]

Load [N]

15000.

12000.

10000. Exp Simu Damage

8000. Exp Simu Damage

5000.

4000.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. Displacement [mm] 8. 10. 12.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. Displacement [mm] 8. 10. 12.

QPHVSf
20000. 16000.

Load [N]

12000.

8000. Exp Simu Damage

4000.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. Displacement [mm] 8. 10. 12.

PPHWHf
25000.
20000.

SPHWHf
16000.

20000.

Load [N]

10000. Exp Simu Damage 5000.

Load [N]

15000.

12000.

8000. Exp Simu Damage

4000.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12.

QPHWHf
18000. 15000.

12000. Load [N]

9000.

6000. Exp Simu Damage

3000.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. Displacement [mm] 8. 10. 12.

PPHWSf
20000. 18000. 16000. 15000.

SPHWSf

12000. Load [N] Load [N] Exp Simu Damage 4000. 12000.

9000.

8000. 6000. Exp Simu Damage

3000.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12. 14.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12. 14.

le pFIX wroEweso )ow urves of A steel grde

pFQ

SPHUSp
40000 35000
24000. 30000.

QPHUSp

30000 25000 Load [N] 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 0 2 4 6 Displacement [mm] 8 10 12
0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. 10. 12. 14. Displacement [mm] 16. 18. 20. 22. Load [N]

18000.

12000.

Exp Simu Damage

Exp Simu Damage

6000.

PPHVSp
30000.

SPHVSp
28000 24000

25000.

20000
20000.

15000.

Load [N]

Load [N]

16000

12000 Exp Simu Damage

10000.

Exp Simu Damage

8000

5000.

4000

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. Displacement [mm] 8. 10. 12.

0 0 2 4 6 Displacement [mm] 8 10 12

QPHVSp
24000. 20000.

16000. Load [N]

12000.

8000.

Exp Simu Damage

4000.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. Displacement [mm] 8. 10.

PPHWSp
20000.

SPHWSp
20000 16000

16000.

Load [N]
Exp Simu Damage

Load [N]

12000.

12000

8000.

8000 Exp Simu Damage

4000.

4000

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12. 14.

0 0 2 4 6 Displacement [mm] 8 10 12

le pFPX wroEweso )ow urves of B steel grde

pFR

Appendix F Damage moments comparison of HTT ow curves

SPHUHs
40000. 35000. 30000. 25000. Load [N] 20000. 15000. 10000. 5000. 0. 0. 2. 4. 6. 8. Displacement [mm] 10. 12. Load [N] 20000. 35000. 30000.

QPHUHs

25000.

15000. Exp Simu Damage

Exp Simu Damage

10000.

5000.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. Displacement [mm] 8. 10.

QRHUHs
20000. 16000.

Load [N]

12000.

8000. Exp Simu Damage

4000.

0. 0. 1. 2. 3. Displacement [mm] 4. 5. 6.

SPHVHs
28000.
24000.

QPHVHs
20000.

24000.

20000.
16000.

Load [N]

Load [N]

16000.

12000.

12000. Exp Simu Damage

8000.

8000.

4000.

4000.

Exp Simu Damage

0. 0. 2. 4. Displacement [mm] 6. 8.

0. 0. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Displacement [mm] 6. 7. 8. 9.

SPHWHs
20000. 12000. 16000. 10000.

SRHWHs

8000. Load [N] Load [N] Exp Simu Damage 4000. 12000.

6000.

8000. 4000. Exp Simu Damage

2000.

0. 0. 2. 4. 6. Displacement [mm] 8. 10. 12.

0. 0. 1. 2. 3. Displacement [mm] 4. 5.

QPHWHs
20000. 14000. 12000. 16000. 10000. 12000.

QRHWHs

Load [N]

Load [N] Exp Simu Damage

8000.

8000.

6000. Exp Simu Damage

4000.

4000.

2000.

0. 0. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Displacement [mm] 6. 7. 8. 9.

0. 0. 1. 2. 3. 4. Displacement [mm] 5. 6. 7.

le pFQX wroEweso )ow urves of C steel grde