RESISTOR A resistor is an electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electrical current in an electronic circuit.

Resistors can also be used to provide a specific voltage for an active device such as a transistor. CAPACITOR.

A capacitor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field. In its simplest form, a capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulating material called thedielectric.
INDUCTOR An inductor is a passive electronic component that storesenergy in the form of a magnetic field. In its simplest form, an inductor consistsof a wire loop or coil. The inductance is directly proportional to the number ofturns in the coil. CONDUCTOR A conductor is a material which permits a flow of energy. A material which allows the flow of charged particles is an electrical conductor. A material which allows the transfer of thermal energy is a thermal conductor or heat conductor DIODE N ITS FN In electronics, a diode is a type of two-terminal electronic component with a nonlinear currentvoltage characteristic. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals.[1] A vacuum tube diode(now rarely used except in some high-power technologies) is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and a cathode. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers.
VARACTOR DIDODE A varactor diode is a P-N junction diode that changes its capacitance and the series resistance as the bias applied to the diode is varied.

ZENER DIODE

A Zener Diode is a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the forward direction as normal, but will also allow it to flow in the reverse directionwhen the voltage is above a certain value - the breakdown voltage known as the Zener voltage.

Uses of Zener Diodes Since the voltage dropped across a Zener Diode is a known and fixed value, Zener diodes are typically used to regulate the voltage in electric circuits. Using a resistor to ensure that the current passing through the Zener diode is at least 5mA (0.005 Amps), the circuit designer knows that the voltage drop across the diode is exactly equal to the Zener voltage of the diode. Zener Diode Voltage Regulator Circuit

FREQUENCY

For an oscillating or varying current, frequency is the number of complete cycles Per second in alternating current direction. Frequency modulation
Frequency modulation can be regarded as phase modulation where the carrier phase modulation is the time integral of the FM modulating signal.

frequency deviation: 1. The amount by which a frequency differs from a prescribed value, such as the amount an oscillator frequency drifts from its nominal frequency. 2. In frequency modulation, the absolute difference between (a) the maximum permissible instantaneous frequency of the modulated wave or the minimum permissible instantaneous frequency of the modulated wave and (b) the carrier frequency. 3. In frequency modulation, the maximum absolute difference, during a specified period, between the instantaneous frequency of the modulated wave and the carrier frequency.

FREQ DIV MULTIPLEXING

FDMA (frequency division multiple access) is the division of the frequency band allocated for wireless cellular telephone communication into 30 channels, each of which can carry a voice conversation or, with digital service, carry digital data. FDMA is a basic technology in the analog Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS), the most widely-installed cellular phone system installed in North America. With FDMA, each channel can be assigned to only one user at a time. FDMA is also used in the Total Access Communication System (TACS). Modulation is the addition of information (or the signal) to an electronic or optical signalcarrier. Modulation can be applied to direct current (mainly by turning it on and off), to alternating current, and to optical signals. One can think of blanket waving as a form of modulation used in smoke signal transmission (the carrier being a steady stream of smoke).Morse code, invented for telegraphy and still used in amateur radio, uses a binary (two-state) digital code similar to the code used by modern computers. For most of radio and telecommunication today, the carrier is alternating current (AC) in a given range of frequencies. Common modulation methods include: Amplitude modulation (AM), in which the voltage applied to the carrier is varied over time Frequency modulation (FM), in which the frequency of the carrier waveform is varied in small but meaningful amounts Phase modulation (PM), in which the natural flow of the alternating current waveform
DEMODULATION Demodulation is the act of extracting the original information-bearing signal from a modulated carrier wave. A demodulator is an electronic circuit(or computer program in a software defined radio) that is used to recover the information content from the modulated carrier wave.
[1]

DIFFF BET C N C++ In case of C, the data is not secured while the data is secured(hidden) in C++..C follows the procedural programming paradigm while C++ is a multi-paradigmlanguage(procedural as well as object oriented) . C is a low-level language while C++ is a middle-level language (Relatively, Please see the discussion at the end of the post).

ENGG
Engineering is the discipline, art, skill and profession of acquiring and applying scientific, mathematical, economic, social, and practical knowledge, in order to design and build structures, machines, devices, systems, materials andprocesses that safely realize improvements to the lives of people. ELECTRONICS
Electronics is the branch of science that deals with the study of flow and control of electrons (electricity) and the study of their behavior and effects in vacuums, gases, and semiconductors, and with devices using such electrons. This control of electrons is accomplished by devices that resist, carry, select, steer, switch, store, manipulate, and exploit the electron.

Electronics Engineering This is a field of engineering which deals with the behavior of electrons and their effect for development of devices, systems and equipments that are integrated chips, transistors and circuit boards. Basically any device that uses electricity as a driving force becomes a part of study in electronics engineering. A large portion of electronics engineering comes from course of electrical engineering as there are many similarities and also because the basis of the two courses remains electricity. Electrical Engineering With the advent of electricity, electrical engineering became the top most priority of students in the early part of 20th century. It deals with electricity, power generation and distribution and control of electricity. However, with passage of time, electrical engineering became broader and soon encompassed power, control systems, electronics and also telecommunications. Difference between Electrical Engineering and Electronics Engineering Students studying electronics engineering find themselves amidst low voltage applications and electrical components such as TV, computers and telecommunication equipment. Electrical engineers on the other hand specialize in production and distribution of high voltage electric power. Electrical engineers are trained and skilled in designing and development of electrical transmission systems, high power electronic converters, solar energy systems, wind turbines etc. Electronics engineering focuses on computer hardware involving motherboards and ICs, digital TVs, mobile phones, MP3 players, DVDs and countless other devices and gadgets. The biggest difference between electrical and electronics engineering lies in the strength of current they study. While electrical engineering makes use of heavy currents, electronics engineering studies low strength electric current and its use in electric components, designing of integrated circuits, and control of hardware. In simple terms, while electrical engineering lays emphasis on power generation and distribution, electronics engineering focuses on communications and computer devices used in daily life

AMPLIFIER

An amplifier is an electronic device that increases the voltage, current, or power of a signal. Amplifiers are used in wireless communications and broadcasting, and in audio equipment of all kinds. They can be categorized as either weak-signal amplifiers or power amplifiers.

AMPLITUDE

Amplitude is the magnitude of change in the oscillating variable with each oscillation within an oscillating system. For example, sound waves in air are oscillations in atmospheric pressure and their amplitudes are proportional to the change in pressure during one oscillation. If a variable undergoes regular oscillations, and a graph of the system is drawn with the oscillating variable as the vertical axis and time as the horizontal axis, the amplitude is visually represented by the vertical distance between the extrema of the curve and the equilibrium value.

Digital communications
Digital communications refers to the transmission of digital data. This is in contrast to analog communications. While analog communications use a continuously varying signal, a digital transmission can be broken down into discrete messages. Transmitting data in discrete messages allows for greatersignal processing capability. The ability to process a communications signal means that errors caused by random processes can be detected and corrected. Digital signals can also be sampled instead of continuously monitored. The multiplexing of multiple digital signals is much simpler to the multiplexing of analog signals. Because of all these advantages, and because recent advances in wideband communication channels and solid-state electronics have allowed scientists to fully realize these advantages, digital communications has grown quickly. Digital communications is quickly edging out analog communication because of the vast demand to transmit computer data and the ability of digital communiations to do so. WIRELESS In telecommunications, wireless communication may be used to transfer information over short distances (a few meters as in television remote control) or long distances (thousands or millions of kilometers for radio communications). The term is often shortened to "wireless". It encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable two-way radios, cellular telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wireless networking. Other examples of wireless technology include GPS units, garage door openers and or garage doors, wireless computer mice, keyboards and headsets, satellite television and cordlesstelephones. BANDWIDTH Bandwidth (signal processing) or analog bandwidth, frequency bandwidth or radio bandwidth: a measure of the width of a range of frequencies, measured in hertz Bandwidth (computing) or digital bandwidth: a rate of data transfer, bit rate or throughput, measured in bits per second (bps) Spectral linewidth: the width of an atomic or molecular spectral line, measured in hertz

Vlsi VLSI (very large-scale integration) is the current level of computer microchip miniaturization and refers to microchips containing in the hundreds of thousands of transistor s. LSI (large-scale integration) meant microchips containing thousands of transistors. Earlier, MSI (medium-scale integration) meant a microchip containing hundreds of transistors and SSI (small-scale integration) meant transistors in the tens. SIGNAL

In electronics, a signal is an electric current or electromagnetic field used to convey data from one place to another. The simplest form of signal is a direct current (DC) that is switched on and off; this is the principle by which the early telegraph worked. More complex signals consist of an alternating-current (AC) or electromagnetic carrier that contains one or more data streams.
SNR Signal-to-noise ratio is defined as the power ratio between a signal (meaningful information) and the background noise (unwanted signal):

COUNTER In digital logic and computing, a counter is a device which stores (and sometimes displays) the number of times a particular event or process has occurred, often in relationship to aclock signal. In electronics, counters can be implemented quite easily using register-type circuits such as the flip-flop, and a wide variety of classifications exist: Asynchronous (ripple) counter changing state bits are used as clocks to subsequent state flip-flops Synchronous counter all state bits change under control of a single clock Decade counter counts through ten states per stage Up/down counter counts both up and down, under command of a control input Ring counter formed by a shift register with feedback connection in a ring Johnson counter a twisted ring counter Cascaded counter

OP-AMP An operational amplifier ("op-amp") is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output.
[1]

An op-amp produces an output voltage that is

[2]

typically hundreds of thousands times larger than the voltage difference between its input terminals.

Ideal op-amps

An equivalent circuit of an operational amplifier that models some resistive non-ideal parameters.

An ideal op-amp is usually considered to have the following properties, and they are considered to hold for all input voltages: Infinite open-loop gain (when doing theoretical analysis, a limit may be taken as open loop gain AOL goes to infinity). Infinite voltage range available at the output (vout) (in practice the voltages available from the output are limited by the supply voltages and ). The power supply sources are called rails.

Infinite bandwidth (i.e., the frequency magnitude response is considered to be flat everywhere with zero phase shift).

Infinite input impedance (so, in the diagram,

, and zero current flows from

to

).

Zero input current (i.e., there is assumed to be no leakage or bias current into the device). Zero input offset voltage (i.e., when the input terminals are shorted so that a virtual ground or vout = 0). , the output is

Infinite slew rate (i.e., the rate of change of the output voltage is unbounded) and power bandwidth (full output voltage and current available at all frequencies).

Zero output impedance (i.e., Rout = 0, so that output voltage does not vary with output current). Zero noise. Infinite Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR).

Infinite Power supply rejection ratio for both power supply rails.

These ideals can be summarized by the two "golden rules": I. The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to make the voltage difference between the inputs zero. II. The inputs draw no current. FEEDBACK Feedback describes the situation when output from (or information about the result of) an event or phenomenon in the past will influence an occurrence or occurrences of the same (i.e. same defined) event / phenomenon (or the continuation / development of the original phenomenon) in the present or future. When an event is part of a chain of cause-and-effect that forms a circuit or loop, then the event is said to "feed back" into itself. Positive feedback tends to increase the event that caused it, such as in a nuclear chain-reaction. It is also known as a self-reinforcing loop.
[2] [3]:

An event influenced by positive feedback can increase or

decrease its output/activation until it hits a limiting constraint. Such a constraint may be destructive, as in thermal runaway or a nuclear chain reaction. Self-reinforcing loops can be a smaller part of a larger balancing loop, especially in biological systems such as regulatory circuits. Negative feedback, which tends to reduce the input signal that caused it, is also known as a selfcorrecting or balancing loop.
[2]

Such loops tend to be goal-seeking, as in athermostat, which compares

actual temperature with desired temperature and seeks to reduce the difference. Balancing loops are sometimes prone to hunting: an oscillation caused by an excessive or delayed negative feedback signal, resulting in over-correction, wherein the signal becomes a positive feedback. RIPPLE COUNTER
A ripple counter is a counter in which state transitions of one or more flip flops are triggered by the outputs of other flip flops in the circuit. If all flip flops in the counter are triggered by a common clock pulse, then the counter is called a "synchronous counter".

IC

An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as IC, chip, or microchip) is an electronic circuit manufactured by the patterned diffusion of trace elements into the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material. Additional materials are deposited and patterned to form interconnections between semiconductor devices. Integrated circuits are used in virtually all electronic equipment today and have revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, cell phones, and other digital appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the low cost of production of integrated circuits. DUTY CYCLE In a periodic event, duty cycle is the ratio of the duration of the event to the total period.
[2]

duty cycle where

is the duration that the function is active is the period of the function
MICROPROCESSOR A microprocessor incorporates the functions of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (IC, or microchip).
[1]

It is a multipurpose, programmable device that acceptsdigital

data as input, processes it according to instructions stored in its memory, and provides results as output. It is an example of sequential digital logic, as it has internal memory. Microprocessors operate on numbers and symbols represented in the binary numeral system. The advent of low-cost computers on integrated circuits has transformed modern society. General-purpose microprocessors in personal computers are used for computation, text editing, multimedia display, and communication over the Internet. Many more microprocessors are part of embedded systems, providing digital control of a myriad of objects from appliances to automobiles to cellular phones and industrial process control. MICROCONTROLLER A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated C, uC or MCU) is a small computer on a singleintegrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications.

TIMER A timer is a specialized type of clock. A timer can be used to control the sequence of an event or process. Whereas a stopwatch counts upwards from zero for measuring elapsed time, a timer counts down from a specified time interval, like an hourglass. Timers can be mechanical, electromechanical,electronic (quartz), or even software as all modern computers include digital timers of one kind or another. When the set period expires some timers simply indicate so (e.g., by an audible signal), while others operate electrical switches, such as a time switch, which cuts electrical power. 555 TIMER The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse generation andoscillator applications

Modes
The 555 has three operating modes: Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator. Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches, touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) and so on. Astable free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position modulation and so on. Selecting a thermistor as timing resistor allows the use of the 555 in a temperature sensor: the period of the output pulse is determined by the temperature. The use of a microprocessor based circuit can then convert the pulse period to temperature, linearize it and even provide calibration means. Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce free latched switches. CACHE MEMORY A CPU cache is a cache used by the central processing unit of a computer to reduce the average time to access memory. The cache is a smaller, faster memory which stores copies of the data from the most frequently used main memory locations. As long as most memory accesses are cached memory locations, the average latency of memory accesses will be closer to the cache latency than to the latency of main memory.

ANTENNA An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric currents into radio waves, and radio waves into electric currents. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. In transmission, a radio transmitter applies an oscillating radio frequency electric current to the antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of an electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals, that is applied to a receiver to be amplified. An antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving. There are many variations of antennas. Below are a few basic models. More can be found inCategory:Radio frequency antenna types. The isotropic radiator is a purely theoretical antenna that radiates equally in all directions. It is considered to be a point in space with no dimensions and no mass. This antenna cannot physically exist, but is useful as a theoretical model for comparison with all other antennas. Most antennas' gains are measured with reference to an isotropic radiator, and are rated in dBi (decibels with respect to an isotropic radiator). The dipole antenna is simply two wires pointed in opposite directions arranged either horizontally or vertically, with one end of each wire connected to the radio and the other end hanging free in space. Since this is the simplest practical antenna, it is also used as a reference model for other antennas; gain with respect to a dipole is labeled as dBd. Generally, the dipole is considered to be omnidirectional in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the antenna, but it has deep nulls in the directions of the axis. Variations of the dipole include the folded dipole, the half wave antenna, the ground plane antenna, the whip, and the J-pole. The Yagi-Uda antenna is a directional variation of the dipole with parasitic elements added which are functionality similar to adding a reflector and lenses (directors) to focus a filament light bulb. The random wire antenna is simply a very long (at least one quarter wavelength
[citation needed]

) wire with

one end connected to the radio and the other in free space, arranged in any way most convenient for the space available. Folding will reduce effectiveness and make theoretical analysis extremely difficult. (The added length helps more than the folding typically hurts.) Typically, a random wire antenna will also require an antenna tuner, as it might have a random impedance that varies nonlinearly with frequency. The horn antenna is used where high gain is needed, the wavelength is short (microwave) and space is not an issue. Horns can be narrow band or wide band, depending on their shape. A horn can be built for any frequency, but horns for lower frequencies are typically impractical. Horns are also frequently used as reference antennas.

The parabolic antenna consists of an active element at the focus of a parabolic reflector to reflect the waves into a plane wave. Like the horn it is used for high gain, microwave applications, such as satellite dishes.

The patch antenna consists mainly of a square conductor mounted over a groundplane. Another example of a planar antenna is the tapered slot antenna (TSA), as the Vivaldi-antenna.

ATTENUATOR n attenuator is an electronic device that reduces the amplitude or power of a signal without appreciably distorting its waveform. An attenuator is effectively the opposite of an amplifier, though the two work by different methods. While an amplifier provides gain, an attenuator provides loss, or gain less than 1. Attenuators are usually passive devices made from simple voltage divider networks. Switchingbetween different resistances forms adjustable stepped attenuators and continuously adjustable ones using potentiometers. For higher frequencies precisely matched low VSWR resistance networks are used.

Power amplifier
The term power amplifier is a relative term with respect to the amount of power delivered to the load and/or sourced by the supply circuit. In general a power amplifier is designated as the last amplifier in a transmission chain (the output stage) and is the amplifier stage that typically requires most attention to power efficiency. Efficiency considerations lead to various classes of power amplifier based on the biasing of the output transistors or tubes: see power amplifier classes. [edit]Power amplifiers by application Audio amplifier#PowerAudio power amplifiers RF power amplifier, such as for transmitter final stages (see also: Linear amplifiers). Servo motor controllers, where linearity is not important. Class A 100% of the input signal is used (conduction angle = 360 or 2); i.e., the active element remains conducting
[6]

(works in its "linear" range) all of the time. Where efficiency is not a

consideration, most small signal linear amplifiers are designed as class A. Class-A amplifiers are typically more linear and less complex than other types, but are very inefficient. This type of amplifier is most commonly used in small-signal stages or for low-power applications (such as driving headphones). Subclass A2 is sometimes used to refer to vacuum-tube class-A stages where the grid is allowed to be driven slightly positive on signal peaks, resulting in slightly more power than normal class A (A1; where the grid is always negative ), but incurring more distortion.
[7]

Class B 50% of the input signal is used ( = 180 or ; i.e., the active element works in its linear range half of the time and is more or less turned off for the other half). In most class B, there are two output devices (or sets of output devices), each of which conducts alternately (pushpull) for exactly 180 (or half cycle) of the input signal; selective RF amplifiers can also be implemented using a single active element.

These amplifiers are subject to crossover distortion if the transition from one active element to the other is not perfect, as when two complementary transistors (i.e., one PNP, one NPN) are connected as two emitter followers with their base and emitter terminals in common, requiring the base voltage to slew across the region where both devices are turned off.
[8]

Class AB Here the two active elements conduct more than half of the time as a means to reduce the crossover distortions of class-B amplifiers. In the example of the complementary emitter followers a bias network allows for more or less quiescent current thus providing an operating point somewhere between class A and class B. Sometimes a figure is added (e.g., AB 1 or AB2) for vacuum-tube stages where the grid voltage is always negative with respect to the cathode (class AB1) or may be slightly positive (hence drawing grid current, adding more distortion, but giving slightly higher output power) on signal peaks (class AB2). Solid-state class-AB amplifier

circuits are one of the most popular amplifier topologies used today. Class C Less than 50% of the input signal is used (conduction angle < 180). The advantage is potentially high efficiency, but a disadvantage is high distortion. Class D Main article: Switching amplifier These use switching to achieve a very high power efficiency (more than 90% in modern designs). By allowing each output device to be either fully on or off, losses are minimized. The analog output is created by pulse-width modulation; i.e., the active element is switched on for shorter or longer intervals instead of modifying its resistance. There are more complicated switching schemes like sigma-delta modulation, to improve some performance aspects like lower distortions or better efficiency

TRANSISTOR A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals. It is composed of a semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of

terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.

Transistor as a switch
BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-emitter configuration.

Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, both for high-power applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications such as logic gates.