Chapter 7 JOB DESIGN AND WORK SCHEDULES

There are two primary ways of subdividing the overall tasks of an enterprise. One is job design; the other is departmentalization (Chapter 8). I. FOUR MAJOR DIMENSIONS OF JOB DESIGN PLUS JOB SPECIALIZATION AND JOB DESCRIPTION Job design is the basic way of subdividing tasks. Each position in the organization is supposed to contribute to the organizations goals. One way to understand job design is to examine the major dimensions and sub-dimensions of jobs. Job specialization and job descriptions are also important. A. Task Characteristics Task characteristics focus on how the work itself is accomplished and the range and nature of the tasks associated with a particular job. Autonomy refers to how much freedom and independence the incumbent has to carry out the work assignment. Task variety is the degree to which the job requires the worker to use a wide variety of tasks. Task significance is the extent to which a job influences the lives or work of others inside and outside the organization. Task identity refers to the extent to which a job involves a whole piece of work that can be readily identified. Feedback from others is the extent to which the job provides direct and clear information about the tasks performance. B. Knowledge Characteristics An obvious job dimension is the amount of knowledge, skill and ability demands placed on the job holder. Job complexity refers to the degree to which the job tasks are complex and difficult to perform. Information processing is the degree to which a job requires attending to and processing data and information. Problem solving refers to the degree to which a job requires unique ideas or solutions, and also involves diagnosing and solving nonroutine problems, and preventing or fixing errors. Skill variety is the extent to which a job requires the incumbent to use a variety of skills to perform the work. Specialization is the extent to which a job involves performing specialized tasks or possessing specialized knowledge and skills. C. Social Characteristics Social characteristics relate to the interpersonal aspects of a job or the extent to which a job requires interaction with others. Social support refers to the degree to which a job involves the opportunity for advice and assistance from others. Interdependence reflects the degree to which the job depends on othersand others depend on the jobto accomplish a task. Interaction outside the organization refers to how much the job requires interaction and communication with people outside the organization. Feedback from others refers to the extent to which other workers provide information about performance. D. Contextual Characteristics Contextual characteristics refer to the setting or environment of the job. Ergonomics indicates the degree to which a job allows correct posture or movement. Physical demands refer to the level of physical activity or effort required by a job. Work conditions relate directly to the environment in which the work is performed, including the presence of health hazards, noise, temperature, and cleanliness of the workplace. Equipment use is a sub-dimension of work conditions that reflects the variety and complexity of the technology and equipment incorporated into the job.

E. Job Dimension Differences between Professional and Nonprofessional Jobs Nonprofessional jobs require more physical demands. Professional scored significantly higher on most of the other dimensions and sub-dimensions including job complexity, problem solving, and skill variety. Human-life focused jobs score higher on the dimension of significance, or impact on others. F. Job Specialization and Job Design Job specialization is the degree to which the jobholder performs only a limited number of tasks. High-level specialists include an investment consultant for mutual funds, and a surgeon who concentrates on liver transplants. Specialists at the first job level are often referred to as entry-level workers, production specialists, support workers or operatives. 1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Job Specialization Job specialization allows for the development of expertise within the work force. Specialized jobs at lower occupational levels require less training than would the creation of generalists. However, specialization can lead to difficulties in coordination, and many employees dislike the monotony associated with specialization. 2. Automation and Job Specialization Automation is used to perform highly specialized tasks formerly performed by humans. A major purpose of automation is to increase productivity by reducing the labor content required to deliver a product or service. The computerization of the workplace represents automation in hundreds of ways, such as personal computers decreasing the need for clerical support in organizations. Automation enhances job satisfaction when annoying or dangerous tasks are removed, and automation does not result in job elimination. G. Job Description and Job Design Before designing a job, it is necessary to have a job description, a written statement of the key features of a job, along with the activities required to perform it effectively. II. JOB ENRICHMENT AND THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL Job enrichment is an approach to making jobs involve more challenge and responsibility, so they will be more appealing to most employees. 1. Characteristics of an Enriched Job The nine job dimensions that contribute to an enriched job are (1) direct feedback, (2) client relationships, (3) new learning, (4) control over method, (5) control over scheduling, (6) unique experience, (7) control over resources, (8) direct communication authority, and (9) personal accountability. The jobs of managers and information technology specialists are often over-enriched resulting in stress. 2. The Job Characteristics Model of Job Enrichment The job characteristics model is an extension of job enrichment and focuses on the task and interpersonal dimensions of a job. Five measurable characteristics of jobs lead to improvements in employee motivation, satisfaction, and performance: (1) skill variety, (2) task identity, (3) task significance, (4) autonomy, and (5) feedback. These five core job characteristics relate to three critical psychological states: skill variety, task identity, and task significance. A redesigned job must lead to these three psychological states for workers to achieve positive job outcomes. 3. Guidelines for Implementing Job Enrichment Employee interest in job enrichment should be given weight. Brainstorming is useful for pinpointing changes to make in the job for those seeking enrichment. III. JOB INVOLVEMENT, ENLARGEMENT, AND ROTATION

The motivational aspects of jobs can also be improved through job involvement, job enlargement, and job rotation. Job involvement is the degree to which individuals are identified psychologically with their work. It also refers to the importance of work to a persons total self-image. Job enlargement refers to increasing the number and variety of tasks within a job. It is also referred to as horizontal job loading. Job enlargement can lead to challenges in handling multiple priorities. Job rotation is the temporary switching of job assignments, and can sometimes be achieved by two companies sharing workers. IV. JOB CRAFTING AND JOB DESIGN The contemporary view is that a job description is only a guideline: the competent worker is not confined the constraints of a job description. He or she takes on my constructive activities not mentioned in the job description. Workers today must occupy flexible work roles. Employees craft their jobs by changing the tasks they perform and their contacts with others to make their jobs more meaningful. Job crafting refers to the physical and mental changes workers make in the task or relationship aspects of their job. Three common types of job crafting are changing (1) the number and types of job tasks, (2) the interactions with others on the job, and (3) ones view of the job. V. ERGONOMICS AND JOB DESIGN A job should be laid out to decrease the chances that it will physically harm the incumbent. According to OSHA, ergonomics is the science of fitting the worker to the job. A key principle is that workers should be able to adopt several different postures that are safe and comfortable. A. Musculoskeletal Disorders Including Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Musculoskeletal disorders represent more than 100 injuries that take place when there is a mismatch between the physical requirements of the job and the physical capacity of the human body. Overuse is a common problem. Musculoskeletal disorders also include cumulative trauma disorders, injuries caused by repetitive motions over prolonged periods of time. These disorders account for almost one-half of occupational injuries and illnesses in the United States. The most frequent cumulative trauma disorder is carpal tunnel syndrome, which occurs when frequent wrist bending results in swelling, leading to a pinched nerve. To help prevent and decrease the incidence of cumulative trauma disorder, many companies are selecting equipment designed for this purpose. Rest breaks also help. Voice recognition systems hold promise of preventing and relieving cumulative trauma disorder. B. Noise Problems Repetitive motion disorders and other musculoskeletal disorders are well-publicized ergonomic problems. Another recurring problem is uncomfortable noise levels. Constant ringing of cell phones is another problem. Buzz in the office can create discomfort and physical problems, as demonstrated by one experiment with 40 female clerical workers. VI. MODIFIED WORK SCHEDULES AND JOB DESIGN Many workers today have a choice in deviating from the traditional five-day, 40-hour work week. A modified work schedule is any formal departure from the traditional hours of work, excluding shift work and staggered work hours. In addition to being part of job design, modified work schedules can increase job satisfaction and enhance recruiting. A. Flexible Working Hours Employees with flexible working hours are required to work certain core hours, but

have some flexibility in starting and stopping times. Non-exempt employees are more likely to participate in flextime. Many employers believe that flexible working hours enhance productivity for reasons such as decreasing employee absenteeism and stress. Many employees hesitate to use flexible working hours (as well as other work/life programs) for fear of being perceived as not strongly committed. Flexible working hours may not be suitable when workers are dependent upon one another during a specific time period. Employees who can work independently are the best suited for flexible working hours. Managers need to arrange tasks so the employee will have enough to do when other workers are not present. B. Compressed Work Week A compressed workweek is a full-time schedule that allows employees to work 40 hours in less than five days. Two lesser used versions of the compressed work week are the three-day work week, and the 5/4-9 compressed plan. Under 5/4-9, an employee works eight 9-hour days and one 8-hour day for a total of 80 hours every two weeks. Compressed work weeks are well liked by employees whose lifestyle fits such a schedule. Many employees do not have the energy to work the prolonged days required the compressed work week. C. Telecommuting and the Distributed Workforce An estimated 12 percent of the U. S. workforce conducts most of its work away from the company office, with this figure forecast to 40 percent by 2012. Telecommuting is an arrangement in which employees use computers to perform their regular work duties at home or in a satellite office. Telework also takes place at coffee shops, Wi-Fi cafs, boats, and RVs. Teleworkers also attend meetings on company premises and stay in contact by telephone and teleconferences. Many small businesses operate with informal telecommuting programs. 1. Advantages of Telecommuting Telecommuting makes life easier for employees and also helps employers. Productivity usually increases about 25 percent. Overhead, such as rent for office space, decreases. A wider range of employee talent can be reached. 2. Disadvantages of Telecommuting. Career retardation can occur, and negative tendencies such as workaholism and procrastination are reinforced. Loyalty and teamwork are difficult to develop. Teleworkers positioned in coffee shops may lose focus on company work. Also, the creativity-enhancing exchange of ideas is missing. Following are a few key suggestions that can lead to a successful telecommuting program. (See Exhibit 7-9.) For example, choose the right people for telecommuting, and make sure the teleworker has a suitable home environment for telecommuting. Also, clearly define productivity goals and deadlines. Telecommuting should be a reward for good work in the traditional office. D. Sharing Office Space and Hoteling Employees who travel can often share office space. In hoteling, the worker keeps personal work items in a locker and reserves office space for trips to the office. Sharing space and hoteling saves money but depersonalizes the workplace.

E. Job Sharing Job sharing is a work arrangement in which two people who work part-time share one job. The two job sharers divide the job according to their needs, such as dividing up the days of the workweek. Job sharing appeals mostly to people whose lifestyle does not allow a full-time job.

F. Part-Time and Temporary Work Part-time work is a modified work schedule offered by about two-thirds of employers. Managers and professionals who choose to reduce their working hours so as to have more time for personal life represent another category of part-time workers. Temporary employment is at an all-time high, with some employers even hiring part-time managers, engineers, lawyers, and other high-level workers. A survey of 488 human resource specialists indicated that 33 percent have a formal policy permitting part-time work for professionals. Collectively, part-time and temporary employees constitute one-fourth to one-third of the workforce. Give that they are hired contingent upon an employers need, they are referred to as contingent workers. G. Shift Work The purpose of shift work is to provide coverage during nonstandard hours. The three schedules are days, evening, and nights. Shift work is also a lifestyle that affects productivity. Shift work disrupts the natural rhythm of the body and creates job problems such as a high incidence of drug and alcohol problems. With proper training, employees can adjust better to shift work. VII. JOB DESIGN AND HIGH PERFORMANCE WORK SYSTEMS High-performance work systems have been proposed in terms of both manufacturing settings, and the total work environment. A. High-Performance Work Systems in a Manufacturing Environment High-performing work systems are much like job enrichment. A high-performing work system is a way of organizing work so that front-line workers participate in decisions that have an impact on their jobs and the wider organization. For the system to work, workers must have reasonable autonomy in their jobs; access to helpers is needed; teams must be self-managing; and problem-solving and quality-improvement teams must be removed from their regular work. All four practices must be supported by the companys overall approach to human resource management. B. High-Performance Jobs through Adjusting Worker Resources According to Robert Simons, for a company to attain its potential, each employees supply of organizational resources should equal his or her need for these resources. The same supply-demand balance must apply to every function, every business unit, and the entire organization. Four basic spans are part of this approach: control, accountability, influence, and support. Each span can be adjusted so it is narrow or wide, much alike a high-to-low volume control. If the manager adjusts to the right settings, the job can be designed so a talented individual can execute the companys strategy with success. 99

7/Job Design and Work Schedules Comments on End-of-Chapter Questions _____________________________________________________________________ 1. In about 35 words, write the job description for (a) a restaurant manager, or (b) the top executive at Target, or (c) the instructor for this course. The job description presented in the section on job design can provide a useful framework for the student. Here are some suggestions for the job description of a restaurant manager: Responsible for the overall management and profitability of the restaurant. Works with the chef in planning meals; works with advertising agency in marketing the restaurant and developing a theme. Responsible for recruiting and selecting wait staff and kitchen staff, and working with suppliers to obtain high-quality food supplies at acceptable costs. Directs the activities of others in maintaining impeccable restaurant appearance. 2. Why is job rotation more exciting to workers than job enlargement? Job rotation is more exciting to most workers many workers than is job enlargement because it involves a more substantial change, such as switching from customer service to selling. Change is inherently exciting, despite its potentially stressful nature. Job enlargement is less exciting because it involves taking on more responsibility, almost identical in nature to the existing job. 3. What are the benefits of frequent job rotation for a person who would like to become a high-level manager? Frequent job rotation would benefit the potential manager in several ways. Job rotation is quite useful in helping a person develop the broad perspective that managers need. Frequent job rotation is also good skill training for learning to adapt to change. Also, job rotation helps a potential manager develop empathy for people doing varied types of work. 4. How might a customer-service representative who works on the help desk for technical equipment, craft his or her job? The customer service representative might craft the job through such means as giving callers broader advice, and building relationships with them. Also, the representative might craft the job by learning technology outside of the job description. 5. How well-suited would a work schedule of three 13 1/3- hour days per week be for an employee whose job demanded considerable creativity? Many creative people would not prosper under the three 13 1/3 hour day schedule because it is difficult for most people to be highly creative for such long stretches. For most people, the best time for creativity is when the mind is well rested. Many people would be mentally dragging for about 6 hours of the 13 1/3-hour day.

100

7/Job Design and Work Schedules 6. Would you be satisfied as a telecommuter? Why or why not? Answering this question accurately require careful self-analysis of both work habits and career goals. Most students who are early in their career prefer the interaction of a company office, including the opportunity to make contacts that will help them advance. Those students who prefer to focus their energies on performing a technical skill well, will often welcome telecommuting. A major factor is whether the student perceives his or her self-discipline to be strong enough to work alone without supervision and structure. Without self-discipline telework can be frustrating because of the frequent conflict about whether to do something other than work during working hours. 7. How would a manager know if the jobs he or she supervised fit well into a highperformance work system? When jobs fit into a high-performing work system the incumbents are empowered to contribute to important decisions affecting their work. If the manager encouraged such input, the jobs would therefore fit into a high-performance work system. The more complex approach to understanding whether the jobs fit a high-performing work system would be whether each employees supply of organizational resources equaled his or her demand, or need for these resources. For example, the manager might reflect on whether he or she is being supported when the employee asks for assistance.

Comments on Self-Assessment and Skill-Building Exercises _______________________________________________________________________ How Involved Are You?In Chapter The job involvement scale helps students think through the seriousness of their commitment to work. Students might be asked if they thought that very high involvement could foster workaholism. The Ideal Home-Based OfficeEnd of Chapter Students can be counted on to do an outstanding job on this assignment. Often they add a touch of humor, such as having the office overlook San Francisco Bay. The Job-Improvement Interview-End of Chapter Students should enjoy this type of interview because it is inherently fun to interview people about their work. Also, eliciting information from people, listening, then reaching a conclusion is a basic managerial skill. Worst Jobs Trophy-Internet The worst-jobs Website is hilarious, providing you are not one of the job incumbents telling the story. For humanistic people, many of the jobs will be perceived as sad. At the same time, the 101

7/Job Design and Work Schedules site gives the student plenty to work with in terms of improving job design. The students might also think about how automation might help fix some of these atrocious jobs.

Answers to Case Questions _____________________________________________________________________________ The Sub Shop Blues This modest case about a sub shop illustrates one of major human resource challenges in businesskeeping entry-level workers excited about the basic jobs that are the building block of our economy. 1. How does this case relate to job design? This case relates directly because workers complain that their job is boring, and this is why they often quit. Interest in a job is part of job design, such task variety and task significance. 2. What recommendations might you offer Serge Staglione for making the position of subshop preparer more satisfying? If indeed, the major complaint about preparing submarine sandwiches is that the task is boring, Staglione needs to improve the task with input from the sub-shop preparers. Perhaps the preparers can be asked to identify trends in customer preferences, and events in the outside world that enhance business, such as a major sporting even on television. Job rotation should be practiced where possible such as giving the preparers a chance to do food preparation in the backroom, and be responsible for catered orders. 3. What else can Staglione do to find out what is lacking in the job of sub-shop preparer? Serge, we have good news for you. See the experiential exercise just presented in this instructors manual? Use it as a diagnostic instrument to look for ways to improve the job of sub shop preparer. Sub-dimension by sub-dimension explore possibilities for improving the working life of the sub-shop preparer. As one of many examples, how about having a preparer from time to time telephone the customer who had sub-shops catered to his or her home or place of work and ask about the quality of the food and the experience. Homeless at New Wave Machinery This case illustrates some of the managerial challenges when implementing a cost-cutting method of job design like hoteling. 1. What might management at New Wave Machinery do to make hoteling a bigger success? Management might distribute some of the savings from hoteling back to employees.

102

7/Job Design and Work Schedules Perhaps the work areas assigned to hoteling employees could be made particularly attractive. Another initiative would be to solicit suggestions about how to improve the hoteling experience. 2. How should management respond to the service technicians suggestion that they take a pay cut to save the company money? Many top-level managers have to deal with the suggestion that they take a pay cut, and taking these pay cuts has become more frequent during drastic cost-cutting campaigns. Top-level management might point out that the board of directors establishes compensation for managers. The thought should also be expressed that the board strives to pay top-level managers competitively. 3. What should management do to find out if the decision to move to hoteling is successful? Management should gather data on several potential effects of hoteling such as sales data, voluntary turnover, and job satisfaction. Losing just one or two top-flight sales representatives or service technicians would eradicate the cost savings. The reason is that sales and technical support are the lifeblood of the business.

103