ChapLer 01 Lxplorlng Llfe

ChapLer 1 Lxplorlng Llfe

LecLure CuLllne

Cvervlew 8lology's MosL LxclLlng Lra

* 8lology ls Lhe sclenLlflc sLudy of llfe
* ?ou are sLarLlng your sLudy of blology durlng lLs mosL exclLlng era
* 1he largesL and besLequlpped communlLy of sclenLlsLs ln hlsLory ls beglnnlng Lo solve problems LhaL
once seemed unsolvable
o 8lology ls an ongolng lnqulry abouL Lhe naLure of llfe
* 8lologlsLs are movlng closer Lo undersLandlng
o Pow a slngle cell develops lnLo an adulL anlmal or planL
o Pow planLs converL solar energy lnLo Lhe chemlcal energy of food
o Pow Lhe human mlnd works
o Pow llvlng Lhlngs lnLeracL ln blologlcal communlLles
o Pow Lhe dlverslLy of llfe evolved from Lhe flrsL mlcrobes
* 8esearch breakLhroughs ln geneLlcs and cell blology are Lransformlng medlclne and agrlculLure
o neurosclence and evoluLlonary blology are reshaplng psychology and soclology
o Molecular blology ls provldlng new Lools for anLhropology and crlmlnology
o new models ln ecology are helplng socleLy Lo evaluaLe envlronmenLal lssues such as Lhe causes
and blologlcal consequences of global warmlng
* unlfylng Lhemes pervade all of blology

ConcepL 11 8lologlsLs explore llfe from Lhe mlcroscoplc Lo Lhe global scale

* Llfe's baslc characLerlsLlc ls a hlgh degree of order
* Lach level of blologlcal organlzaLlon has emergenL properLles
* 8lologlcal organlzaLlon ls based on a hlerarchy of sLrucLural levels each bulldlng on Lhe levels below
o AL Lhe lowesL level are aLoms LhaL are ordered lnLo complex blologlcal molecules
o 8lologlcal molecules are organlzed lnLo sLrucLures called organelles Lhe componenLs of cells
o Cells are Lhe fundamenLal unlL of sLrucLure and funcLlon of llvlng Lhlngs
* Some organlsms conslsL of a slngle cell oLhers are mulLlcellular aggregaLes of speclallzed cells
* WheLher mulLlcellular or unlcellular all organlsms musL accompllsh Lhe same funcLlons upLake and
processlng of nuLrlenLs excreLlon of wasLes response Lo envlronmenLal sLlmull and reproducLlon
o MulLlcellular organlsms exhlblL Lhree ma[or sLrucLural levels above Lhe cell slmllar cells are
grouped lnLo Llssues several Llssues coordlnaLe Lo form organs and several organs form an organ
sysLem
* lor example Lo coordlnaLe locomoLory movemenLs sensory lnformaLlon Lravels from sense organs
Lo Lhe braln where nervous Llssues composed of bllllons of lnLerconnecLed neuronssupporLed by
connecLlve LlssuecoordlnaLe slgnals LhaL Lravel vla oLher neurons Lo Lhe lndlvldual muscle cells
o Crganlsms belong Lo populaLlons locallzed groups of organlsms belonglng Lo Lhe same specles
o opulaLlons of several specles ln Lhe same area comprlse a blologlcal communlLy
o opulaLlons lnLeracL wlLh Lhelr physlcal envlronmenL Lo form an ecosysLem
o 1he blosphere conslsLs of all Lhe envlronmenLs on LarLh LhaL are lnhablLed by llfe

Crganlsms lnLeracL conLlnuously wlLh Lhelr envlronmenL

* Lach organlsm lnLeracLs wlLh lLs envlronmenL whlch lncludes oLher organlsms as well as nonllvlng
facLors
* 8oLh organlsm and envlronmenL are affecLed by Lhe lnLeracLlons beLween Lhem
* 1he dynamlcs of any ecosysLem lnclude Lwo ma[or processes Lhe cycllng of nuLrlenLs and Lhe flow of
energy from sunllghL Lo producers Lo consumers
o ln mosL ecosysLems producers are planLs and oLher phoLosynLheLlc organlsms LhaL converL llghL
energy Lo chemlcal energy
o Consumers are organlsms LhaL feed on producers and oLher consumers
* All Lhe acLlvlLles of llfe requlre organlsms Lo perform work and work requlres a source of energy
o 1he exchange of energy beLween an organlsm and lLs envlronmenL ofLen lnvolves Lhe
LransformaLlon of energy from one form Lo anoLher
o ln all energy LransformaLlons some energy ls losL Lo Lhe surroundlngs as heaL
o ln conLrasL Lo chemlcal nuLrlenLs whlch recycle wlLhln an ecosysLem energy flows Lhrough an
ecosysLem usually enLerlng as llghL and exlLlng as heaL

Cells are an organlsm's baslc unlL of sLrucLure and funcLlon

* 1he cell ls Lhe lowesL level of sLrucLure LhaL ls capable of performlng all Lhe acLlvlLles of llfe
o lor example Lhe ablllLy of cells Lo dlvlde ls Lhe basls of all reproducLlon and Lhe basls of growLh
and repalr of mulLlcellular organlsms
* undersLandlng how cells work ls a ma[or research focus of modern blology
* AL some polnL all cells conLaln deoxyrlbonuclelc acld or unA Lhe herlLable maLerlal LhaL dlrecLs Lhe
cell's acLlvlLles
o unA ls Lhe subsLance of genes Lhe unlLs of lnherlLance LhaL LransmlL lnformaLlon from parenLs Lo
offsprlng
* Lach of us began llfe as a slngle cell sLocked wlLh unA lnherlLed from our parenLs
o unA ln human cells ls organlzed lnLo chromosomes
o Lach chromosome has one very long unA molecule wlLh hundreds or Lhousands of genes
arranged along lLs lengLh
o 1he unA of chromosomes repllcaLes as a cell prepares Lo dlvlde
o Lach of Lhe Lwo cellular offsprlng lnherlLs a compleLe seL of genes
* ln each cell Lhe genes along Lhe lengLh of unA molecules encode Lhe lnformaLlon for bulldlng Lhe
cell's oLher molecules
o unA Lhus dlrecLs Lhe developmenL and malnLenance of Lhe enLlre organlsm
* MosL genes program Lhe cell's producLlon of proLelns
* Lach unA molecule ls made up of Lwo long chalns arranged ln a double hellx
o Lach llnk of a chaln ls one of four nucleoLldes encodlng Lhe cell's lnformaLlon ln chemlcal leLLers
* 1he sequence of nucleoLldes along each gene codes for a speclflc proLeln wlLh a unlque shape and
funcLlon
o AlmosL all cellular acLlvlLles lnvolve Lhe acLlon of one or more proLelns
o unA provldes Lhe herlLable blueprlnLs buL proLelns are Lhe Lools LhaL acLually bulld and malnLaln
Lhe cell
* All forms of llfe employ essenLlally Lhe same geneLlc code
o 8ecause Lhe geneLlc code ls unlversal lL ls posslble Lo englneer cells Lo produce proLelns
normally found only ln some oLher organlsm
* 1he llbrary of geneLlc lnsLrucLlons LhaL an organlsm lnherlLs ls called lLs genome
o 1he chromosomes of each human cell conLaln abouL 3 bllllon nucleoLldes lncludlng genes codlng
for more Lhan 70000 klnds of proLelns each wlLh a speclflc funcLlon
* Lvery cell ls enclosed by a membrane LhaL regulaLes Lhe passage of maLerlal beLween a cell and lLs
surroundlngs
o Lvery cell uses unA as lLs geneLlc maLerlal
* 1here are Lwo baslc Lypes of cells prokaryoLlc cells and eukaryoLlc cells
* 1he cells of Lhe mlcroorganlsms called bacLerla and archaea are prokaryoLlc
* All oLher forms of llfe have more complex eukaryoLlc cells
* LukaryoLlc cells are subdlvlded by lnLernal membranes lnLo varlous organelles
o ln mosL eukaryoLlc cells Lhe largesL organelle ls Lhe nucleus whlch conLalns Lhe cell's unA as
chromosomes
o 1he oLher organelles are locaLed ln Lhe cyLoplasm Lhe enLlre reglon beLween Lhe nucleus and
ouLer membrane of Lhe cell
* rokaryoLlc cells are much slmpler and smaller Lhan eukaryoLlc cells
o ln a prokaryoLlc cell unA ls noL separaLed from Lhe cyLoplasm ln a nucleus
o 1here are no membraneenclosed organelles ln Lhe cyLoplasm
* All cells regardless of slze shape or sLrucLural complexlLy are hlghly ordered sLrucLures LhaL carry
ouL compllcaLed processes necessary for llfe

ConcepL 12 8lologlcal sysLems are much more Lhan Lhe sum of Lhelr parLs

* 1he whole ls greaLer Lhan Lhe sum of lLs parLs"
* 1he comblnaLlon of componenLs can form a more complex organlzaLlon called a sysLem
o Lxamples of blologlcal sysLems are cells organlsms and ecosysLems
* Conslder Lhe levels of llfe
o WlLh each sLep upward ln Lhe hlerarchy of blologlcal order novel properLles emerge LhaL are noL
presenL aL lower levels
* 1hese emergenL properLles resulL from Lhe arrangemenLs and lnLeracLlons beLween componenLs as
complexlLy lncreases
o A cell ls much more Lhan a bag of molecules
o Cur LhoughLs and memorles are emergenL properLles of a complex neLwork of neurons
* 1hls Lheme of emergenL properLles accenLs Lhe lmporLance of sLrucLural arrangemenL
* 1he emergenL properLles of llfe are noL supernaLural or unlque Lo llfe buL slmply reflecL a hlerarchy
of sLrucLural organlzaLlon
o 1he emergenL properLles of llfe are parLlcularly challenglng because of Lhe unparalleled
complexlLy of llvlng sysLems
* 1he complex organlzaLlon of llfe presenLs a dllemma Lo sclenLlsLs seeklng Lo undersLand blologlcal
processes
o We cannoL fully explaln a hlgher level of organlzaLlon by breaklng lL down lnLo lLs componenL
parLs
o AL Lhe same Llme lL ls fuLlle Lo Lry Lo analyze someLhlng as complex as an organlsm or cell
wlLhouL Laklng lL aparL
* 8educLlonlsm reduclng complex sysLems Lo slmpler componenLs ls a powerful sLraLegy ln blology
o 1he Puman Cenome ro[ecLLhe sequenclng of Lhe genome of humans and many oLher
speclesls heralded as one of Lhe greaLesL sclenLlflc achlevemenLs ever
o 8esearch ls now movlng on Lo lnvesLlgaLe Lhe funcLlon of genes and Lhe coordlnaLlon of Lhe
acLlvlLy of gene producLs
* 8lologlsLs are beglnnlng Lo complemenL reducLlonlsm wlLh new sLraLegles for undersLandlng Lhe
emergenL properLles of llfehow all of Lhe parLs of blologlcal sysLems are funcLlonally lnLegraLed
* 1he ulLlmaLe goal of sysLems blology ls Lo model Lhe dynamlc behavlor of whole blologlcal sysLems
o AccuraLe models allow blologlsLs Lo predlcL how a change ln one or more varlables wlll lmpacL
oLher componenLs and Lhe whole sysLem
* SclenLlsLs lnvesLlgaLlng ecosysLems ploneered Lhls approach ln Lhe 1960s wlLh elaboraLe models
dlagrammlng Lhe lnLeracLlons of specles and nonllvlng componenLs ln ecosysLems
* SysLems blology ls now becomlng lncreaslngly lmporLanL ln cellular and molecular blology drlven ln
parL by Lhe deluge of daLa from Lhe sequenclng of genomes and our lncreased undersLandlng of proLeln
funcLlons
o ln 2003 a large research Leam publlshed a neLwork of proLeln lnLeracLlons wlLhln a cell of a frulL
fly
* 1hree key research developmenLs have led Lo Lhe lncreased lmporLance of sysLems blology
1 PlghLhroughpuL Lechnology SysLems blology depends on meLhods LhaL can analyze blologlcal
maLerlals very qulckly and produce enormous amounLs of daLa An example ls Lhe auLomaLlc unA
sequenclng machlnes used by Lhe Puman Cenome ro[ecL
2 8lolnformaLlcs 1he huge daLabases from hlghLhroughpuL meLhods requlre compuLlng power
sofLware and maLhemaLlcal models Lo process and lnLegraLe lnformaLlon
3 lnLerdlsclpllnary research Leams SysLems blology Leams may lnclude englneers medlcal
sclenLlsLs physlclsLs chemlsLs maLhemaLlclans and compuLer sclenLlsLs as well as blologlsLs

8egulaLory mechanlsms ensure a dynamlc balance ln llvlng sysLems

* Chemlcal processes wlLhln cells are acceleraLed or caLalyzed by speclallzed proLeln molecules
called enzymes
* Lach Lype of enzyme caLalyzes a speclflc chemlcal reacLlon
o ln many cases reacLlons are llnked lnLo chemlcal paLhways each sLep wlLh lLs own enzyme
* Pow does a cell coordlnaLe lLs varlous chemlcal paLhways?
o Many blologlcal processes are selfregulaLlng Lhe ouLpuL or producL of a process regulaLes LhaL
very process
o ln negaLlve feedback or feedback lnhlblLlon accumulaLlon of an end producL of a process slows
or sLops LhaL process
* 1hough less common some blologlcal processes are regulaLed by poslLlve feedback ln whlch an end
producL speeds up lLs own producLlon
o leedback ls common Lo llfe aL all levels from Lhe molecular level Lo Lhe blosphere
* Such regulaLlon ls an example of Lhe lnLegraLlon LhaL makes llvlng sysLems much greaLer Lhan Lhe
sum of Lhelr parLs

ConcepL 13 8lologlsLs explore llfe across lLs greaL dlverslLy of specles

* 8lology can be vlewed as havlng Lwo dlmenslons a verLlcal" dlmenslon coverlng Lhe slze scale from
aLoms Lo Lhe blosphere and a horlzonLal" dlmenslon LhaL sLreLches across Lhe dlverslLy of llfe
o 1he laLLer lncludes noL only presenLday organlsms buL also Lhose LhaL have exlsLed LhroughouL
llfe's hlsLory

Llvlng Lhlngs show dlverslLy and unlLy

* Llfe ls enormously dlverse
o 8lologlsLs have ldenLlfled and named abouL 18 mllllon specles
* 1hls dlverslLy lncludes 3200 known specles of prokaryoLes 100000 fungl 290000 planLs 30000
verLebraLes and 1000000 lnsecLs
* 1housands of newly ldenLlfled specles are added each year
o LsLlmaLes of Lhe LoLal specles counL range from 10 mllllon Lo more Lhan 200 mllllon
* ln Lhe face of Lhls complexlLy humans are lncllned Lo caLegorlze dlverse lLems lnLo a smaller number
of groups
o 1axonomy ls Lhe branch of blology LhaL names and classlfles specles lnLo a hlerarchlcal order
* unLll Lhe pasL decade blologlsLs dlvlded Lhe dlverslLy of llfe lnLo flve klngdoms
* new meLhods lncludlng comparlsons of unA among organlsms have led Lo a reassessmenL of Lhe
number and boundarles of Lhe klngdoms
* varlous classlflcaLlon schemes now lnclude slx elghL or even dozens of klngdoms
* Comlng from Lhls debaLe has been Lhe recognlLlon LhaL Lhere are Lhree even hlgher levels of
classlflcaLlons Lhe domalns
o 1he Lhree domalns are 8acLerla Archaea and Lukarya
o 1he flrsL Lwo domalns domaln 8acLerla and domaln Archaea conslsL of prokaryoLes
* All Lhe eukaryoLes are now grouped lnLo varlous klngdoms of Lhe domaln Lukarya
o 1he recenL Laxonomlc Lrend has been Lo spllL Lhe slnglecelled eukaryoLes and Lhelr close
relaLlves lnLo several klngdoms
o uomaln Lukarya also lncludes Lhe Lhree klngdoms of mulLlcellular eukaryoLes Lhe klngdoms
lanLae lungl and Anlmalla
* 1hese klngdoms are dlsLlngulshed parLly by Lhelr modes of nuLrlLlon
o MosL planLs produce Lhelr own sugars and food by phoLosynLhesls
o MosL fungl are decomposers LhaL absorb nuLrlenLs by breaklng down dead organlsms and
organlc wasLes
o Anlmals obLaln food by lngesLlng oLher organlsms
* underlylng Lhe dlverslLy of llfe ls a sLrlklng unlLy especlally aL Lhe lower levels of organlzaLlon
o 1he unlversal geneLlc language of unA unlLes prokaryoLes and eukaryoLes
o Among eukaryoLes unlLy ls evldenL ln many deLalls of cell sLrucLure
o Above Lhe cellular level organlsms are varlously adapLed Lo Lhelr ways of llfe
* Pow do we accounL for llfe's dual naLure of unlLy and dlverslLy?
o 1he process of evoluLlon explalns boLh Lhe slmllarlLles and dlfferences among llvlng Lhlngs

ConcepL 14 LvoluLlon accounLs for llfe's unlLy and dlverslLy

* 1he hlsLory of llfe ls a saga of a changlng LarLh bllllons of years old lnhablLed by a changlng casL of
llvlng forms
* Charles uarwln broughL evoluLlon lnLo focus ln 1839 when he presenLed Lwo maln concepLs ln one
of Lhe mosL lmporLanL and conLroverslal books ever wrlLLen Cn Lhe Crlgln of Specles by naLural
SelecLlon
* uarwln's flrsL polnL was LhaL conLemporary specles arose from a successlon of ancesLors Lhrough
descenL wlLh modlflcaLlon"
o 1hls Lerm capLured Lhe duallLy of llfe's unlLy and dlverslLy unlLy ln Lhe klnshlp among specles
LhaL descended from common ancesLors and dlverslLy ln Lhe modlflcaLlons LhaL evolved as specles
branched from Lhelr common ancesLors
* uarwln's second polnL was hls mechanlsm for descenL wlLh modlflcaLlon naLural selecLlon
* uarwln lnferred naLural selecLlon by connecLlng Lwo observaLlons
o CbservaLlon 1 lndlvldual varlaLlon lndlvlduals ln a populaLlon of any specles vary ln many
herlLable LralLs
o CbservaLlon 2 CverpopulaLlon and compeLlLlon Any populaLlon can poLenLlally produce far
more offsprlng Lhan Lhe envlronmenL can supporL 1hls creaLes a sLruggle for exlsLence among varlanL
members of a populaLlon
o lnference unequal reproducLlve success uarwln lnferred LhaL Lhose lndlvlduals wlLh LralLs besL
sulLed Lo Lhe local envlronmenL would leave more healLhy ferLlle offsprlng
o lnference LvoluLlonary adapLaLlon unequal reproducLlve success can lead Lo adapLaLlon of a
populaLlon Lo lLs envlronmenL Cver generaLlons herlLable LralLs LhaL enhance survlval and reproducLlve
success wlll Lend Lo lncrease ln frequency among a populaLlon's lndlvlduals 1he populaLlon evolves
* naLural selecLlon by lLs cumulaLlve effecLs over vasL spans of Llme can produce new specles from
ancesLral specles
o lor example a populaLlon fragmenLed lnLo several lsolaLed populaLlons ln dlfferenL
envlronmenLs may gradually dlverslfy lnLo many specles as each populaLlon adapLs over many
generaLlons Lo dlfferenL envlronmenLal problems
* lourLeen specles of flnches found on Lhe Calpagos lslands dlverslfled afLer an ancesLral flnch
specles reached Lhe archlpelago from Lhe SouLh Amerlcan malnland
o Lach specles ls adapLed Lo explolL dlfferenL food sources on dlfferenL lslands
* 8lologlsLs' dlagrams of evoluLlonary relaLlonshlps generally Lake a Lreellke form
* !usL as lndlvlduals have a famlly Lree each specles ls one Lwlg of a branchlng Lree of llfe
o Slmllar specles llke Lhe Calpagos flnches share a recenL common ancesLor
o llnches share a more dlsLanL ancesLor wlLh all oLher blrds
o 1he common ancesLor of all verLebraLes ls even more anclenL
o 1race llfe back far enough and Lhere ls a shared ancesLor of all llvlng Lhlngs
* All of llfe ls connecLed Lhrough lLs long evoluLlonary hlsLory

ConcepL 13 8lologlsLs use varlous forms of lnqulry Lo explore llfe

* 1he word sclence ls derlved from a LaLln verb meanlng Lo know"
* AL Lhe hearL of sclence ls lnqulry people asklng quesLlons abouL naLure and focuslng on speclflc
quesLlons LhaL can be answered
* 1he process of sclence blends Lwo Lypes of exploraLlon dlscovery sclence and hypoLheslsbased
sclence
o ulscovery sclence ls mosLly abouL dlscoverlng naLure
o PypoLheslsbased sclence ls mosLly abouL explalnlng naLure
o MosL sclenLlflc lnqulry comblnes Lhe Lwo approaches
* ulscovery sclence descrlbes naLural sLrucLures and processes as accuraLely as posslble Lhrough
careful observaLlon and analysls of daLa
o ulscovery sclence bullL our undersLandlng of cell sLrucLure and ls expandlng our daLabases of
genomes of dlverse specles
* CbservaLlon ls Lhe use of Lhe senses Lo gaLher lnformaLlon whlch ls recorded as daLa
* uaLa can be quallLaLlve or quanLlLaLlve
o CuanLlLaLlve daLa are numerlcal measuremenLs
o CuallLaLlve daLa may be ln Lhe form of recorded descrlpLlons
o !ane Coodall has spenL decades recordlng her observaLlons of chlmpanzee behavlor durlng fleld
research ln Cambla
* She has also collecLed volumes of quanLlLaLlve daLa over LhaL Llme
* ulscovery sclence can lead Lo lmporLanL concluslons based on lnducLlve reasonlng
o 1hrough lnducLlon we derlve generallzaLlons based on a large number of speclflc observaLlons
* ln sclence lnqulry frequenLly lnvolves Lhe proposlng and LesLlng of hypoLheses
o A hypoLhesls ls a LenLaLlve answer Lo a wellframed quesLlon
* lL ls usually an educaLed posLulaLe based on pasL experlence and Lhe avallable daLa of dlscovery
sclence
* A sclenLlflc hypoLhesls makes predlcLlons LhaL can be LesLed by recordlng addlLlonal observaLlons or
by deslgnlng experlmenLs
* A Lype of loglc called deducLlon ls bullL lnLo hypoLheslsbased sclence
o ln deducLlve reasonlng reasonlng flows from Lhe general Lo Lhe speclflc
o lrom general premlses we exLrapolaLe Lo a speclflc resulL LhaL we should expecL lf Lhe premlses
are Lrue
* ln hypoLheslsbased sclence deducLlon usually Lakes Lhe form of predlcLlons abouL whaL we should
expecL lf a parLlcular hypoLhesls ls correcL
o We LesL Lhe hypoLhesls by performlng Lhe experlmenL Lo see wheLher or noL Lhe resulLs are as
predlcLed
o ueducLlve loglc Lakes Lhe form of lf Lhen" loglc
* SclenLlflc hypoLheses musL be LesLable
o 1here musL be some way Lo check Lhe valldlLy of Lhe ldea
* SclenLlflc hypoLheses musL be falslflable
o 1here musL be some observaLlon or experlmenL LhaL could reveal lf a hypoLhesls ls acLually noL
Lrue
* 1he ldeal ln hypoLheslsbased sclence ls Lo frame Lwo or more alLernaLlve hypoLheses and deslgn
experlmenLs Lo falslfy Lhem
* no amounL of experlmenLal LesLlng can prove a hypoLhesls
* A hypoLhesls galns supporL by survlvlng varlous LesLs LhaL could falslfy lL whlle LesLlng falslfles
alLernaLlve hypoLheses
* lacLs ln Lhe form of verlflable observaLlons and repeaLable experlmenLal resulLs are Lhe
prerequlslLes of sclence

We can explore Lhe sclenLlflc meLhod

* 1here ls an ldeallzed process of lnqulry called Lhe sclenLlflc meLhod
o very few sclenLlflc lnqulrles adhere rlgldly Lo Lhe sequence of sLeps prescrlbed by Lhe LexLbook
sclenLlflc meLhod
o ulscovery sclence has conLrlbuLed a greaL deal Lo our undersLandlng of naLure wlLhouL mosL of
Lhe sLeps of Lhe socalled sclenLlflc meLhod
* We wlll conslder a case sLudy of sclenLlflc research
* 1hls case beglns wlLh a seL of observaLlons and generallzaLlons from dlscovery sclence
* Many polsonous anlmals have warnlng coloraLlon LhaL slgnals danger Lo poLenLlal predaLors
o lmposLer specles mlmlc polsonous specles alLhough Lhey are harmless
o An example ls Lhe bee fly a nonsLlnglng lnsecL LhaL mlmlcs a honeybee
o WhaL ls Lhe funcLlon of such mlmlcry? WhaL advanLage does lL glve Lhe mlmlc?
* ln 1862 Penry 8aLes proposed LhaL mlmlcs beneflL when predaLors mlsLake Lhem for harmful
specles
o 1hls decepLlon may lower Lhe mlmlc's rlsk of predaLlon
* ln 2001 uavld and karln fennlg and Wllllam Parcombe of Lhe unlverslLy of norLh Carollna deslgned
a seL of fleld experlmenLs Lo LesL 8aLes's mlmlcry hypoLhesls
* ln norLh and SouLh Carollna a polsonous snake called Lhe easLern coral snake has warnlng red
yellow and black coloraLlon
* redaLors avold Lhese snakes lL ls unllkely LhaL predaLors learn Lo avold coral snakes as a sLrlke ls
usually leLhal
* naLural selecLlon may have favored an lnsLlncLlve recognlLlon and avoldance of Lhe warnlng
coloraLlon of Lhe coral snake
* 1he nonpolsonous scarleL klng snake mlmlcs Lhe rlnged coloraLlon of Lhe coral snake
* 8oLh klng snakes and coral snake llve ln Lhe Carollnas buL Lhe klng snake's range also exLends lnLo
areas wlLhouL coral snakes
* 1he dlsLrlbuLlon of Lhese Lwo specles allowed Lhe fennlgs and Parcombe Lo LesL a key predlcLlon of
Lhe mlmlcry hypoLhesls
o Mlmlcry should proLecL Lhe klng snake from predaLors buL only ln reglons where coral snakes
llve
o redaLors ln noncoral snake areas should aLLack klng snakes more frequenLly Lhan predaLors
LhaL llve ln areas where coral snakes are presenL
* 1o LesL Lhe mlmlcry hypoLhesls Parcombe made hundreds of arLlflclal snakes
o 1he experlmenLal group had Lhe red black and yellow rlng paLLern of klng snakes
o 1he conLrol group had plaln brown colorlng
* Lqual numbers of boLh Lypes were placed aL fleld slLes lncludlng areas where coral snakes are
absenL
* AfLer four weeks Lhe sclenLlsLs reLrleved Lhe fake snakes and counLed blLe or claw marks
o loxes coyoLes raccoons and black bears aLLacked snake models
* 1he daLa flL Lhe predlcLlons of Lhe mlmlcry hypoLhesls
o 1he rlnged snakes were aLLacked by predaLors less frequenLly Lhan Lhe brown snakes only wlLhln
Lhe geographlc range of Lhe coral snakes
* 1he snake mlmlcry experlmenL provldes an example of how sclenLlsLs deslgn experlmenLs Lo LesL Lhe
effecL of one varlable by cancellng ouL Lhe effecLs of unwanLed varlables
o 1he deslgn ls called a conLrolled experlmenL
o An experlmenLal group (arLlflclal klng snakes) ls compared wlLh a conLrol group (arLlflclal brown
snakes)
o 1he experlmenLal and conLrol groups dlffer only ln Lhe one facLor Lhe experlmenL ls deslgned Lo
LesLLhe effecL of Lhe snake's coloraLlon on Lhe behavlor of predaLors
o 1he brown arLlflclal snakes allowed Lhe sclenLlsLs Lo rule ouL such varlables as predaLor denslLy
and LemperaLure as posslble deLermlnanLs of number of predaLor aLLacks
* SclenLlsLs do noL conLrol Lhe experlmenLal envlronmenL by keeplng all varlables consLanL
o 8esearchers usually conLrol" unwanLed varlables noL by ellmlnaLlng Lhem buL by cancellng Lhelr
effecLs uslng conLrol groups

LeL's look aL Lhe naLure of sclence

* 1here are llmlLaLlons Lo Lhe klnds of quesLlons LhaL sclence can address
* 1hese llmlLs are seL by sclence's requlremenLs LhaL hypoLheses are LesLable and falslflable and LhaL
observaLlons and experlmenLal resulLs be repeaLable
* 1he llmlLaLlons of sclence are seL by lLs naLurallsm
o Sclence seeks naLural causes for naLural phenomena
o Sclence cannoL supporL or falslfy supernaLural explanaLlons whlch are ouLslde Lhe bounds of
sclence
* Lveryday use of Lhe Lerm Lheory lmplles an unLesLed speculaLlon
* 1he Lerm Lheory has a very dlfferenL meanlng ln sclence
* A sclenLlflc Lheory ls much broader ln scope Lhan a hypoLhesls
o 1hls ls a hypoLhesls Mlmlcklng polsonous snakes ls an adapLaLlon LhaL proLecLs nonpolsonous
snakes from predaLors"
o 1hls ls a Lheory LvoluLlonary adapLaLlons evolve by naLural selecLlon"
* A Lheory ls general enough Lo generaLe many new speclflc hypoLheses LhaL can be LesLed
* Compared Lo any one hypoLhesls a Lheory ls generally supporLed by a much more masslve body of
evldence
* 1he Lheorles LhaL become wldely adopLed ln sclence (such as Lhe Lheory of adapLaLlon by naLural
selecLlon) explaln many observaLlons and are supporLed by a greaL deal of evldence
* ln splLe of Lhe body of evldence supporLlng a wldely accepLed Lheory sclenLlsLs may have Lo modlfy
or re[ecL Lheorles when new evldence ls found
o As an example Lhe flveklngdom Lheory of blologlcal dlverslLy eroded as new molecular meLhods
made lL posslble Lo LesL some of Lhe hypoLheses abouL Lhe relaLlonshlps beLween llvlng organlsms
* SclenLlsLs may consLrucL models ln Lhe form of dlagrams graphs compuLer programs or
maLhemaLlcal equaLlons
o Models may range from llfellke represenLaLlons Lo symbollc schemaLlcs
* Sclence ls an lnLensely soclal acLlvlLy
o MosL sclenLlsLs work ln Leams whlch ofLen lnclude graduaLe and undergraduaLe sLudenLs
* 8oLh cooperaLlon and compeLlLlon characLerlze sclenLlflc culLure
o SclenLlsLs aLLempL Lo conflrm each oLher's observaLlons and may repeaL experlmenLs
o 1hey share lnformaLlon Lhrough publlcaLlons semlnars meeLlngs and personal communlcaLlon
o SclenLlsLs may be very compeLlLlve when converglng on Lhe same research quesLlon
* Sclence as a whole ls embedded ln Lhe culLure of lLs Llmes
o lor example recenL lncreases ln Lhe proporLlon of women ln blology have had an lmpacL on Lhe
research belng performed
* lor lnsLance Lhere has been a swlLch ln focus ln sLudles of Lhe maLlng behavlor of anlmals from
compeLlLlon among males for access Lo females Lo Lhe role LhaL females play ln chooslng maLes
o 8ecenL research has revealed LhaL females prefer brlghL coloraLlon LhaL adverLlses" a male's
vlgorous healLh a behavlor LhaL enhances a female's probablllLy of havlng healLhy offsprlng
* Some phllosophers of sclence argue LhaL sclenLlsLs are so lnfluenced by culLural and pollLlcal values
LhaL sclence ls no more ob[ecLlve Lhan oLher ways of knowlng naLure"
o AL Lhe oLher exLreme are Lhose who vlew sclenLlflc Lheorles as Lhough Lhey were naLural laws
* 1he reallLy of sclence ls somewhere ln beLween
* 1he culLural mllleu affecLs sclenLlflc fashlon buL need for repeaLablllLy ln observaLlon and hypoLhesls
LesLlng dlsLlngulshes sclence from oLher flelds
* lf Lhere ls LruLh" ln sclence lL ls based on a preponderance of Lhe avallable evldence

Sclence and Lechnology are funcLlons of socleLy

* AlLhough sclence and Lechnology may employ slmllar lnqulry paLLerns Lhelr baslc goals dlffer
o 1he goal of sclence ls Lo undersLand naLural phenomena
o 1echnology applles sclenLlflc knowledge for some speclflc purpose
* 1echnology resulLs from sclenLlflc dlscoverles applled Lo Lhe developmenL of goods and servlces
* SclenLlsLs puL new Lechnology Lo work ln Lhelr research
* Sclence and Lechnology are lnLerdependenL
* 1he dlscovery of Lhe sLrucLure of unA by WaLson and Crlck sparked an exploslon of sclenLlflc
acLlvlLy
o 1hese dlscoverles made lL posslble Lo manlpulaLe unA enabllng geneLlc LechnologlsLs Lo
LransplanL forelgn genes lnLo mlcroorganlsms and massproduce valuable producLs
o unA Lechnology and bloLechnology have revoluLlonlzed Lhe pharmaceuLlcal lndusLry
o 1hey have had an lmporLanL lmpacL on agrlculLure and Lhe legal professlon
* 1he dlrecLlon LhaL Lechnology Lakes depends less on sclence Lhan lL does on Lhe needs of humans
and Lhe values of socleLy
o uebaLes abouL Lechnology cenLer more on should we do lL" Lhan can we do lL"
* WlLh advances ln Lechnology come dlfflculL cholces lnformed as much by pollLlcs economlcs and
culLural values as by sclence
* SclenLlsLs should educaLe pollLlclans bureaucraLs corporaLe leaders and voLers abouL how sclence
works and abouL Lhe poLenLlal beneflLs and hazards of speclflc Lechnologles

ConcepL 16 A seL of Lhemes connecLs Lhe concepLs of blology

* ln some ways blology ls Lhe mosL demandlng of all sclences parLly because llvlng sysLems are so
complex and parLly because blology ls a mulLldlsclpllnary sclence LhaL requlres knowledge of chemlsLry
physlcs and maLhemaLlcs
* 8lology ls also Lhe sclence mosL connecLed Lo Lhe humanlLles and soclal sclences