JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE (2006) 21(2) 109114 Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

. Published online 10 October 2005 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/jqs.959

A comparative study of peat proxies from two eastern central Swedish bogs and their relation to meteorological data
ANDERS BORGMARK1* and KRISTIAN SCHONING2 1 Department of Physical Geography and Quaternary Geology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden 2 Department of Natural Sciences and Technology, Gotland University, Visby, Sweden
Borgmark, A. and Schoning, K. 2005. A comparative study of peat proxies from two eastern central Swedish bogs and their relation to meteorological data. J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 21 pp. 109114. ISSN 0267-8179. Received 8 April 2005; Revised 13 June 2005; Accepted 21 June 2005

ABSTRACT: Analyses of peat humication, testate amoebae, carbon and nitrogen content have been carried out on a peat sequence from Altabergsmossen. At Gullbergbymossen testate amoebae and peat humication were analysed. Both bogs are located in eastern central Sweden. The longest sequence, Altabergsmossen, covers the last 150 yr and the data from Gullbergbymossen covers the last 60 yr, both with a time resolution of ca. 24 yr cm1. The different proxies were compared to each other and were also compared to instrumental meteorological data. Correlation between peat humication and C/N ratios is high whereas the correlation is low between these physical/chemical parameters and reconstructed water tables inferred from the testate amoebae assemblages. High peat humication values and C/N ratios greater than 50 indicate aerobic decay and are thought to reect the thickness of the acrotelm. High humication values and low C/N ratios are recorded in peat deposited between 1965 and 1980, whereas the dry period starts in the early 1970s according to instrumental meteorological data and inferred water-table depth. The difference in the timing of the onset of a dry-shift between the physical/chemical proxies and meteorological data and testate amoebae derived water table changes is interpreted as renewed decay of already deposited peat. The term secondary decomposition is used for this process. The secondary decomposition process has implications for interpreting physical/chemical and biological parameters in peat as they may be out of phase during the beginning of a dry-shift. Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
KEYWORDS: peat humication; C/N; testate amoebae; multiproxy; Sweden.

Introduction
Peat stratigraphies of ombrotrophic mires have been used for the study of past climate changes for more than a century (Blytt, 1876; Sernander, 1909, 1912; Granlund, 1932; Barber, 1981). Peat sequences have shown to be good archives for reconstructing Holocene environmental and climate change and possess many advantages when compared with many other archives, such as lake sediments, tree rings or ice cores (Blackford, 2000; Chambers and Charman, 2004). Peat-based reconstructions of Holocene climate have focused on changes between warmer/drier and cooler/wetter climate. These reconstructions are usually based on several biological and physiological proxies, including plant macrofossils, peat humication and testate amoebae. In earlier peat stratigraphical studies special interest was placed on the determination of zones with higher/lower decomposed peat. The German Grenzhorizont (Weber,
* Correspondence to: A. Borgmark, Department of Physical Geography and Quaternary Geology, Stockholm University, SE-10691, Stockholm, Sweden. E-mail: anders.borgmark@geo.su.se

1926) and the Swedish recurrence surfaces (Granlund, 1932) are examples of early peat bog research which used changes in peat humication as a climate-change proxy. Analyses of peat humication have evolved from hands-on eld determination methods (von Post and Granlund, 1926) to determination of chemically extracted humic substances (Bahnson, 1968; Aaby and Tauber, 1974; Blackford and Chambers, 1993; Caseldine et al., 2000). The application of elements and isotopes (mainly carbon, nitrogen and oxygen) in peat has increased during the last years (Kuhry and Vitt, 1996; Novak et al., 1999; Nott et al., 2000; Menot and Burns, 2001; Kalbitz and Geyer, 2002; Mauquoy et al., 2002; Belyea and Malmer, 2004). The focus of these studies has varied from climatic change to carbon accumulation and modelling of peatland development. Analyses of testate amoebae assemblages to reconstruct changes in mire surface wetness have advanced during the last decades, mainly through the development of transfer functions derived from modern training sets of surface samples. These transfer functions make it possible to obtain quantitative estimates of peat bog moisture and water table depths (Charman and Warner, 1997; Woodland et al., 1998; Mitchell et al., 2001; Booth, 2002). High-resolution multiproxy investigations of peat samples have been used to generate

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late-Holocene palaeoclimate reconstructions (Mauquoy and Barber, 2002; Mauquoy et al., 2002; Booth and Jackson, 2003; Blundell and Barber, 2005). However, these studies also show that there are often parts of the record where distinct discrepancies exist between the different proxies used, and usually peat humication is the proxy that is most questioned (Mauquoy et al., 2002; Blundell and Barber, 2005). The application of biological, chemical and physical parameters, and the discrepancies they display, poses the question whether different proxies react in the same way, at the same time and to the same degree, i.e. do they reect the same changes in environmental conditions? Here we add to this discussion by comparing one physical, two chemical and one biological proxy. These are compared and correlated to meteorological data available from Uppsala, eastern central Sweden. Specically we show how the different proxies responded to known changes in temperature and precipitation, and try to decipher whether and to what extent secondary processes may have inuenced the peat, and if this would lead to a re-evaluation of the interpretation of one or several proxies. A better knowledge of these processes is crucial to the ability to strengthen the interpretation of past climatic changes recorded in northwest European peat bogs.

Material and methods

The ombrotrophic mires Altabergsmossen (59  580 N, 18  410 E) and Gullbergbymossen (59  380 N, 18  260 E) situated in eastern central Sweden (Fig. 1) were chosen for this study because of the presumed undisturbed stratigraphies and the possibility of using the long meteorological dataset from Uppsala (Bergstrom and Moberg, 2002) for comparison. The mean annual temperature in this area is 5.2  C, and the mean annual precipitation is 599 mm yr1 (Alexandersson et al., 1991). Both bogs are surrounded by large forested areas and have no visible traces of peat-cutting, drainage, recent changes in forestry or other disturbances of the bogs. Altabergsmossen is 2 small (0.2 km ) and is situated at ca. 25 m a.s.l. The bog surface is dominated by open Sphagnum and Eriophorum vaginatum vegetation and some small pine trees. Gullbergbymossen is somewhat larger, with an area of about 0.5 km2 and is situated

at 4045 m a.s.l. The bog surface is sparsely forested with pine trees growing on Sphagnum peat and has a large pool dominated by Carex species. Sampling was performed in the central part of the bogs where the peat depth exceeds 4 m. A half-cylindrical PVC tube (10 cm diameter) was used to sample the uppermost 50 cm of the peat. The tube was pressed into the wall of a cleaned section and cut out. The PVC tube was wrapped in plastic and stored at 4  C in a cold room until sampling was undertaken. The sequences consisted of almost pure Sphagnum peat with irregular small occurrences of Eriophorum vaginatum. Contiguous 1-cm samples with a volume of ca. 2 cm3 were taken throughout the proles, dried at 105  C and pulverised to determine the degree of humication, and at Altabergsmossen also total carbon (C) and total nitrogen (N) analyses were carried out. A slightly modied version of the standard method for measurement of humication was used (Blackford and Chambers, 1993; Borgmark, 2005). 0.1 g of peat was diluted in 25 ml of NaOH (8%) and placed in a hot water-bath for 1.5 h. The samples were then centrifuged and ltered. 12.5 ml of the extract was further diluted to 100 ml. The absorbance was measured in a spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 540 nm, and is shown as standardised humication index (Borgmark, 2005) (Fig. 2). Samples for N and C were combusted at 900  C and analysed with a Carlo Erba NC2500 analyser connected via a split interface to reduce the gas volume to a Finnigan MAT Delta plus mass spectrometer at the department of Geology and Geochemistry, Stockholm University, and are shown as weight percentage and C/N ratio. The peat proles were contiguously subsampled for testate amoebae analysis. The sample interval was 1 cm in Altabergsmossen and 0.5 cm in Gullbergbymossen. Sample treatment and taxonomy followed Charman et al. (2000), and 150200 specimens were counted in each sample. A reconstruction of the water tables was performed (Schoning et al., 2005) using a transfer function based on modern testate amoebae assemblages from the British Isles (Woodland et al., 1998). Meteorological data used are from the Uppsala Observatory located 5060 km west of the investigated sites (Fig. 1) and reach back to AD 1722. The temperature record has been homogenised by Bergstrom and Moberg (2002) and the precipitation record is provided by the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute.

Figure 1 Scandinavia and the county of Uppland, eastern central Sweden, with the location of the investigated sites. The location of Uppsala, from where the meteorological data originate, is also shown
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Figure 2 Diagram, plotted on a common timescale, of (ac) nitrogen, carbon and C/N ratio for Altabergsmossen. (d, e) Humication and normalised reconstructed water tables for Altabergsmossen (triangle) and Gullbergbymossen (circle). (f) Mean summer temperature and (g) annual precipitation at Uppsala, both presented as a 10-yr moving average

The chronologies used are established by SCP analysis and tephrochronology and have previously been published by Schoning et al. (2005). Correlations between C, N and humication values were calculated and tested using the t-test at a 5% signicance level (Davis, 1986). The degrees of freedom have been determined by calculating the effective number of observations (Neff.) according to the autocorrelations that are evident in the data series, using the equation: Neff : N 1 r1 r2 =1 r1 r2
Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

where N is the number of observations and r1 and r2 are the lag1 autocorrelation for series 1 and 2 (Quenouille, 1952).

Results
Peat humication is relatively uniform in the lower part of the sequence from Altabergsmossen (Fig. 2(d)). From 1855 to ca. 1890 the humication values are more or less stable. Thereafter
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Table 1 Correlation coefcients (r) between the proxies from Altabegsmossen. Degrees of freedom (DoF) calculated according to Quenouille (1952). Results from the t-test and critical values of t at 5% signicance level, using the calculated degree of freedom (Davis, 1986) Proxies Hum-N Hum-C N-C r 0.617 0.69 0.842 DoF 14 23 25 t-test 2.716 4.371 7.483 Critical t value 1.761 1.714 1.708

a gradual transition to lower humication starts, reaching the lowest values in the sequence around 19101920. This period of poorly humied peat ends ca. 1930. From 1930 humication values start to rise somewhat and from ca. 1945 the rise in humication is more pronounced. This period lasts to ca. 1975 and is only interrupted by two samples indicating lower humication ca. 19551960. From ca. 1980 until the top sample the humication is nearly stable with only minor changes. Carbon and nitrogen (Fig. 2(a), (b)) show some distinct features; both elements correlate to a high degree (r 0.842), and also correlate to the humication (rHum,C 0.69 and rHum,N 0.617) (Table 1). From 1855 until around 1930 N shows a generally decreasing trend. After a small rise, N percentages increase rapidly and reach the highest values between ca. 1960 and 1980 followed by a marked decline ca. 1980 1995. The last 510 yr show very high N percentages. Trends in C and N values are very similar. However, the C content is somewhat more irregular and displays a weaker decreasing trend until the distinct increase at ca. 1955. These high C percentages last for about 25 yr until ca. 1970. During the last 20 yr high and low C percentages alternate. Testate amoebae analyses (Fig. 2(e)) indicate high water tables around 1880 and 19001910 and a lower water table in between. The water table declines during the early 1900s until 1935 and is followed by a rapid rise and high water tables throughout the 1950s and 1960s. From 1970 onwards the water table has remained relatively low. The sequence from Gullbergbymossen contains a period of very slow peat accumulation or even a hiatus (Schoning et al., 2005); because of this only the uppermost 21 cm of peat is used, corresponding to the last 60 yr. The testate amoebae assemblages (Fig. 2(e)) indicate a rise in water table from 1950 until approximately 1970 where a decline in water table starts and the water table has since then remained low. The peat humication record (Fig. 2(d)) displays a general increase until the mid-1970s and thereafter the humication decreases to the top of the sequence.

Discussion
Humication values, C/N ratio and testate amoebae assem blages in Altabergsmossen show signicant changes in surface wetness, which could reect natural climate changes. Owing to the relatively few data points obtained, it is not possible to measure to a statistically signicant level the responses or the lag of the chemical/physical versus the meteorological/biological parameters here. The inferred water table changes show the same trends in both records, suggesting that the changes in water table are driven by external forcing, i.e. climate. The humication data are similar at both sites, the same distinct changes in peat humication are present at both sites and occur approximately at the same time.
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In this study the C/N ratio is constantly above 50 (Fig. 2(c)), which is indicative of decomposition under mainly aerobic conditions (Kuhry and Vitt, 1996). The decay process of peat is characterised by negligible loss of N under anaerobic conditions (Kuhry and Vitt, 1996) and there are indications that anaerobic conditions lead to a preferential loss of C (Mauquoy et al., 2002). Anaerobic decay takes place at about 0.1% of the aerobic decay rate (Ingram, 1978; Belyea and Clymo, 2001) and, considering the short time-span of the investigated record and rapid peat accumulation in the analysed sequence, there is little time for any anaerobic decay to take place and to change the C/N ratio. The relatively high C/N ratios and low humication values in the lower part of the sequence are interpreted as a result of rapid peat accumulation and wet surface conditions. Low C/N ratios in combination with high nitrogen concentrations between ca. 1965 and 1980 suggest an intensied decay of the peat (Belyea and Warner, 1996). This is further supported by the high humication levels in this part of the sequence. The high C/N ratios combined with low N values recorded between ca. 1996 and 1980 (Fig. 2(a), (c)) are interpreted as being due to loss of N in the aerobic decay processes in the acrotelm. The correlation between N and humication in this study is consistent with the study by Mauquoy et al. (2002) of two northwest European bogs, but contrasts with the results by Jauhiainen et al. (2004) who showed that in a Finnish bog the highest N concentrations occurred in poorly humied peat. The instrumental record during the time interval between ca. 1955 and 1970 is characterised by high annual precipitation and low summer temperatures, resulting in high water table levels, but also high humication levels and a low C/N ratio (Fig. 2). This is normally not the case since high precipitation and low temperature, with a resulting high water stand, should lead to low humication values (Caseldine et al., 2000; Mauquoy and Barber, 2002). The period between 1970 and 1980 was characterised by drier conditions, as indicated in the meteorological data and inferred from testate amoebae. During this dry period the C/N ratio remains low and humication is relatively high. This shift to drier conditions resulted in a lowering of the water table and the acrotelm and subsequently the aerobic zone to reach further downward into already decomposed peat. The lowering of the aerobic zone leads to further decay of already deposited peat and increases the degree of humication in that part. The result would thus be an increase in humication, pre-dating the actual climate shift towards drier conditions (in this case by ca. 10 yr) and resulting in the highly humied peat deposited during the 1960s (Fig. 2(d)). This decomposition of peat that already has passed into the catotelm has been called secondary decomposition (Tipping, 1995). The same features are evident in the peat humication record from Gullbergbymossen, indicating that secondary decomposition has been simultaneously effective at both sites. In the multiproxy study by Mauquoy et al. (2002) similar periods were found when the macrofossil record indicated wet (pool) conditions and humication was high together with low C/N ratios. This was interpreted as pool microforms drying out during summers and/or increased decay of aquatic Sphagna. In a study of seven peatlands in the UK (Langdon and Barber, 2004), three proxies (plant macrofossils, humication and testate amoebae) are correlated and compared. Dryshifts occur in these records, and when closely examined, humication often increases before at least one and often both of the other proxies increase, indicating that secondary decomposition might have occurred. In this study the temporal resolution is relatively high, with samples covering 3 yr, and therefore it has been possible to
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detect leads/lags, as opposed to longer sequences with lower time resolution. The potential secondary decomposition process has implications for the interpretation of multi- and single-proxy data from ombrotrophic mires. Biological proxies, e.g. plant macrofossils and testate amoebae, reect the actual wetness conditions at the time when the plants and amoebae lived. Peat humication and C/N ratio on the other hand reect the conditions during the decay process of the organic material, i.e. processes that inuence already deposited material. Discrepancies between the biological and physical/chemical proxies in a dry-shift are to be expected and are therefore probably not an error in one or several proxies. Where only one single proxy (e.g. humication) is analysed, secondary decomposition processes could lead to misinterpretation of high-resolution peat stratigraphic data, and a dry-shift would be assumed to be of older age and/or of longer duration than it actually is. In longer sequences with lower time-resolutions this process could be less important, owing to low sample density and compression of the peat.

Conclusions
We conclude from the study of two raised bogs in eastern middle Sweden that low C/N ratios and high concentrations of nitrogen in peat are in accordance with intense decay, recorded as higher humication. However, a statistically significant correlation between the chemical/physical parameters (C, N and peat humication) and the meteorological data/ reconstructed water table is difcult to establish. The results indicate a lag between biological parameters (testate amoebae assemblages) and the physical/chemical parameters (peat humication and concentration of carbon and nitrogen), due to the decay of deeper layers in the peat during drier periods. The term secondary decomposition (Tipping, 1995) is used for the process of further decay of already deposited peat due to a lowering of the water table. It is necessary to perform high-resolution multiproxy studies of peat sequences with precise chronologies in order to interpret the relationships and leads/lags between biological and physical proxies.
Acknowledgements The precipitation data were provided by the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI). Kristian Schoning was funded by STINT (The Swedish foundation for International Cooperation in Research and Higher Education). Anders Moberg assisted with methodology of the statistical tests. We thank Stefan Wastegard, Barbara Wohlfarth and Ann-Marie Robertsson for their comments on the manuscript. We also thank Dan Charman and Dmitri Mauquoy for their comments and constructive criticism on an earlier version of the manuscript.

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