THEORY: DARLINGTON AMPLIFIER: In electronics, the Darlington transistor (often called a Darlington pair) is a compound structure consisting of two

bipolar transistors (either integrated or separated devices) connected in such a way that the current amplified by the first transistor is amplified further by the second one. This configuration gives a much higher current gain than each transistor taken separately and, in the case of integrated devices, can take less space than two individual transistors because they can use a shared collector. Integrated Darlington pairs come packaged in transistor-like integrated circuit packages. DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER A device which accepts an input signal and produces an output signal proportional to the input is called an amplifier. An amplifier that amplifies the difference between the two input voltage signals is called a differential amplifier. The output voltage Vo is proportional to difference between the two input signals. The differential amplifier is an essential basic building block in modern IC amplifiers. In common mode, two input voltages which are equal in all respects are applied so that ideally output voltage must be zero. The common-mode rejection ratio is usually defined as the ratio between differential-mode gain (Ad) and common-mode gain (Ac). As Ac approaches zero, CMRR approaches infinity. The higher the resistance value Re, the lower Ac is, and the better the CMRR. Differential amplifiers are found in many systems that utilize negative feedback, where one input is used for the input signal, the other for the feedback signal. A common application is for the control of motors or servos, as well as for signal amplification applications. CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIER Class A amplifying devices operate over the whole of the input cycle such that the output signal is an exact scaled-up replica of the input with no clipping. Class A amplifiers are the usual means of implementing small-signal amplifiers. They are not very efficient; a theoretical maximum of 50% is obtainable with inductive output coupling and only 25% with capacitive coupling. In a Class A circuit, the amplifying element is biased so the device is always conducting to some extent, and is operated over the most linear portion of its characteristic curve (known as its transfer characteristic or transconductance curve). Because the device is always conducting, even if there is no input at all, power is drawn from the power supply. This is the chief reason for its inefficiency. Class A amplifiers are typically more linear and less complex than other types, but are very inefficient. This type of amplifier is most commonly used in smallsignal stages or for low-power applications (such as driving headphones).

CLASS B COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY POWER AMPLIFIER The power amplifier is said to be a class B amplifier if the Q point and input signals are selected such that the output signal is obtained only for one half cycle for a full input cycle. For this operation, the Q point is shifted on X axis (i.e.) transistor is biased to cutoff. Due to the selection of Q point on the X axis, the transistor remains in the active region, only for the positive half cycle of the input signal. Hence this half cycle is reproduced at the output. But in a negative half cycle of the input signal, the transistor enters into a cutoff region and no signal is produced at the output. The collector current flows only for 180 (half cycle) of the input signal. In other words, the angle of the collector current flow is 180 (i.e.) one half cycle. As only a half cycle is obtained at the output, for full input cycle, the output signal is distorted in this mode of operation. To eliminate this distortion, practically two transistors are used in the alternate half cycles of the input signal. Thus overall, a full cycle of output signal is obtained across the load. Each transistor conducts only for a half cycle of the input signal. HALF WAVE RECTIFIER: In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output, it is very inefficient if used for power transfer. Halfwave rectification can be achieved with a single diode in a one-phase supply, or with three diodes in a three-phase supply. A half-wave rectifier will only give one peak per cycle and for this and other reasons is only used in very small power supplies. The ac ripples obtained an be reduced by using capacitor filter in order to get pure dc signal at the output. FULL WAVE RECTIFIER: A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to DC (direct current), and is more efficient. For single-phase AC, if the transformer is center-tapped, then two diodes back-toback (i.e. anodes-to-anode or cathode-to-cathode) can form a full-wave rectifier. The two diodes used in FWR rectify the ac signal and gives dc pulsating signal at the output. The ac ripples obtained an be reduced by using capacitor filter in order to get pure dc signal at the output