De Broglie Waves & Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle DE BROGLIE WAVES

De Broglies hypothesis:
The suggestion that particles may have wave properties was first put forward by Louis de Broglie in 1924 in his doctoral dissertation. He argued that, if , light can sometimes behave like particles, then it should be possible for matter( which is composed of particles) to exhibit wave like behaviour under suitable circumstances. He made hypothesis that the relation between energy of a particle and the frequency of the associated wave is exactly same as that the relation between the energy of a photon and the corresponding frequency of radiation. i.e. E = h .. .. .. [1]

Similarly, the wavelength of the matter wave associated with a particle of momentum p is =

h p

..

..

..

[2]

This wavelength of a particle is called de Broglie wavelength. Using the above relation calculate the wavelength of matter wave associated with the following cases. The wavelength of a particle computed according to Eq. [1] is called its de Broglie wavelength. Example 1: Compute the de Broglie wavelength of the following: [1] A 1000-kg automobile traveling at 25 m/s. [2] A 10 gm bullet traveling at 500 m/s. [3] A smoke particle of mass 10-9 gm moving at 1cm/s. [4] An electron with a K. E of 1keV. [5] An electron with a K.E of 100 MeV. Solution: [1] =

h h 6.6x10 34 J.s = = = 2.6504 10 - 38 m p mv [1000kg][2 5 m/s]

[2]

=
=

h h 6.6 x10 34 J .s = = = 1.3 x10 34 m 2 p mv [10 kg ][ 500 m / s ] h h 6.6 x10 34 J .s = = = 6.6 x10 20 m p mv [10 12 kg ][10 2 m / s ]

[3]

[4] [5]

h hc hc = = = 2 p pc E 2 m0 c 2 hc ( KE + m 0 c ) m 0 c
2 2 2

1240 eV .nm = 0.0387 nm 2 ( KE + m0 c 2 ) 2 m 0 c 2 31984 eV hc = 1240 eV .nm = 0.12338 x 10 15 m = 0.12338 fm 8 1.00498 x10 eV

hc = pc

Note that the wavelengths computed in parts [1] to [3] are far too small to be observed in the laboratory. Only in the last two cases, in which the wavelength is of the same order as atomic or nuclear sizes, we have the chance of observing the wavelength. Because of the smallness of h, only for particles of atomic or nuclear size will the wave behavior be observable. It was only after four years of de Broglies hypothesis the wave nature of electrons was discovered when Davisson and Germer observed the diffraction of electron from nickel crystal in 1928. It should be mentioned that as in the case of electromagnetic waves, the wave and particle aspects of moving bodies can never be observed at the same time.

What kind of wave phenomena:

Let us now look into the question of what kind of wave phenomenon is involved in the matter waves of de Broglie. In water waves, the quantity that varies periodically is the height of the water surface. In sound waves, it is pressure. In light waves, electric and magnetic fields vary. What is that varies in the case of matter waves? The quantity whose variations makeup matter waves is called the wave function, symbolically represented by (psi). The value of the wave function associated with a moving body at the particular point x,y,z in space at the time t is related to the likelihood of finding the body there at the time. | | 2 is the square of the absolute value of the wave function and is called the probability density. The probability of experimentally finding the body described by the wave function at the point x,y,z at the time t is proportional to the value of | | 2 there. A large value of | | 2 means the strong possibility of the bodys presence, while a small value of | | 2 means the slight possibility of its presence. As long as | | 2 is not actually zero somewhere, there is a definite chance, however small, of detecting it there. This interpretation of wave function was first given by Max Born in 1926. While the wavelength of the de Broglie waves associated with a moving body is given by the simple formula =h/mv, to find their amplitude | | as a function of position and time is often difficult. How to calculate will be discussed afterwards in another section. Phase and group velocities: How fast do de Broglie waves travel? If we call the de Broglie wave velocity

v p , we can apply the usual formula v p =

to find vp . To find the frequency , we equate the quantum expression total energy E=mc2 to obtain

E = h

with the relativistic formula for

h = mc 2

=
The de Broglie wave velocity is, therefore,

mc 2 h

v p = = [

mc 2 h c2 ][ ]= h mv v

Because the particle velocity v must be less than the velocity of light c, the phase velocity of de Broglie waves is always greater than that of the light! In order to understand this unexpected result, we must look into the distinction between phase velocity and group velocity. Phase velocity is what we have been calling wave velocity. It may be noted that a group of waves need not have the same velocity as the waves themselves. We know that a pure sine wave is completely unlocalized- it extends from - to + . A classical particle, on the other hand, is completely localized. Our quantum description mixes particles and waves. The particles are approximately, but not completely, localized. An electron, for example, is bound to a specific atom. We know its position to within an uncertainty of the order of the diameter of the atom [10-10 m], but we dont know exactly where it is within that atom. The method used in physics to describe such a situation is that of a wave packet. A wave packet can be considered to be the superposition of a large number of waves, which interfere constructively in the vicinity of the particle, giving the resultant wave a large amplitude, and interfere destructively far from the particle, so that the resultant wave has a small amplitude in regions where we do not expect to find the particle. An ideal wave packet would be one such as is pictured in Fig. 1. Its amplitude is negligibly small, except for a region of space of dimension x. This corresponds to a particle that is localized in the region of dimension x.

x
Fig. 1: The resultant of the addition of many sine waves [of different wavelengths and possibly different amplitudes]

We expect that the mathematical description of the wave packet will be in terms of the addition [superposition] of a number of waves of varying wavelengths. We may represent the original waves by the formulae

y1 = Acos[ t kx] y 2 = Acos[( + )t (k + k)x]

where k=wave number=2 / and =angular frequency=2

........

.......

.....[3]

The resultant displacement y at any time t and any position x is the sum of y1 and y2 . Now using

cos + cos = 2cos

and

[ + ] [ ] cos 2 2

cos[ ] = cos[ ]
we get

y = y1 + y 2 = 2Acos [(2 + )t (2k + k)x] [ kx] cos 2 2

Since and k are small compared with and k respectively,

2 + 2 2k + k 2k
and so

y = 2Acos[ A kx]cos[
Now the phase velocity vp and group velocity vg are defined as

k t x] 2 2 d dk

vp =

and

vg =

The angular frequency and wave number of the de Broglie waves associated with a body of rest mass m 0 moving with the velocity v are

= 2 = 2

E h

..

[a]

[as E = h ]

and

k=

2 2 2p = = h h p
E=
p=

..

[b]

[as = h/p]

From [a],

h = 2

and

from [b],

h k = k 2
d d dE dp 1 dE dE =[ ][ ][ ] =[ ][ ][ ] = dk dE dp dk dp dp

The group velocity of the de Broglie wave can then be expressed as

g =

g =

E = p p =

2 p 2 c 2 + m0 c 4

pc 2
2 p 2 c 2 + m0 c 4

Now

pc 2 E m 2 vc = m 2 c = =

Therefore, the de Broglie wave group associated with a moving body travels with same velocity as that of the body. Example 2: An electron has a de Broglie wavelength of 2.00 pm=2.00x10-12 m. Find its K.E, phase velocity and group velocity of its de Broglie waves. Solution:

pc =

hc [4.136x10 15 eV.s][3.00 x10 8 m s] = = 6.20x10 2.00x10 12 m

eV = 620 keV

Rest energy of the electron =E0 = 511 keV Therefore,

K.E = E E 0 = E 2 + (pc) 0
The electron velocity can be found from

E 0 = (511 keV)

+ (600 keV)

511 keV

= 803 keV 511 keV = 292 keV

E=

E0 1 v 2 c 2

or,
2 = c 1 E 0 E 2 = c 1 [511 803 ] 2 = 0.77 c

Therefore,

c2 c2 = =1.30 c p v 0.77 c g = v

HEISENBERGS UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

To regard a moving particle as a wave group implies that there are fundamental limits to the accuracy with which we can measure such particle properties as position and momentum. To make clear what is involved, let us look at the wave group of Fig.1 below:

x
Fig. 1: A wave group
The particle that corresponds to this wave group may be located anywhere within the group at a given time. Of course, the probability density | | 2 is a maximum in the middle of the group, so that it is most likely to be found there. Nevertheless, we may still find the particle anywhere where | | 2 is not actually zero.

=?

x Fig : 2a

x Fig : 2b

The narrower its wave group, the more precisely a particles position can be specified (Fig. 2a). However, the wavelength of the waves in such a narrow packet is not well defined; there are not enough waves to measure v accurately. This means that since =h m , the particles momentum mv is not a precise quantity. On the other hand, a wide wave group, such as that in Fig. 2b, has a clearly defined wavelength. The momentum that corresponds to this wavelength is therefore, a precise quantity. But where is the particle located? The width of the group is now too great for us to be able to say exactly where it is at a given time. Thus we have the uncertainty principle: It is impossible to know both the exact position and exact momentum of an object at the same time This principle, which was discovered by Werner Heisenberg in 1927, is one of the most significant of physical laws. Now consider what happens when we add to our original wave another wave of slightly different wavelength [ i.e. different k]. When we had a single sine wave, k was zero [only one k] and x was infinite [ the wave extended throughout all space]. As we increased k [by adding more waves], we decreased x [ the wave became more confined]. We seem to have an inverse relationship between k and x; as one decreases, the other increases. An approximate mathematical relationship between x and k is

x 1 k

...

..

[a]

where the wavy equal sign is taken to mean of the order of magnitude. The wave function (x) whose variation gives the probability distribution of the particle can be represented by Fourier integral

( x ) = g ( k ) cos kx dk
0

where g(k) is the amplitude of the function at wave number k. Minimum value of the product x k occurs when envelop of the wave group has the form of a Gaussian function. Taking x and k are the standard deviations of (x) and g(k) respectively the minimum value is x k = . However it is reasonable to express the relationship as x k The wave number of the de Broglie wave is given by . .. . [a]

k=
Therefore,

= p[

2 ] h

p=

h k 2

p k or, =
Using [b] in [a] we get

[b]

xp x

[c]

where the x subscript has been added to the momentum to remind us that Eq. [c] applies to motion in a given direction and relates the uncertainties in position and momentum in that direction only. Similar and independent relationships can be applied in other directions as necessary; thus

yp y

, 2

or,

z p z

, 2

Another form of uncertainty principle is sometimes useful. Let us consider emission of electromagnetic radiation, where energy E is being emitted in the time interval t in an atomic process. If the frequency of the electromagnetic wave is then, there is a possibility that we will make an error of at least one cycle in counting the frequency ( number of waves). So the error i.e. uncertainty in frequency would be The corresponding uncertainty in energy is E = h and so, E

1 t

h t

or, E t

a precise for of calculation based on the nature of wave groups changes this result to E t

The above expression gives the uncertainty principle in terms of energy and time.

PROBLEMS ON DE BROGLIE WAVES & HEISENBERGS UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE 1. Show that de Broglie wave group associated with a moving body travels with the same velocity as the body.

2. The phase velocity of ocean waves is g/ 2 , where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Find the group velocity of ocean waves. 3. Certain surface waves in a fluid travel with phase velocity b / , where b is a constant. Find the group velocity of a packet of surface waves, in terms of the phase velocity. 4. Show that the group velocity of a wave is given by vg =

d . d (1 / )

5. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a proton whose kinetic energy is equal to the rest energy of an electron. Mass of a proton is 1836 times that of the electron. Also calculate the phase velocity and group velocity of the proton wave. Rest mass of an electron=9.1x10-31kg. 6. Find the phase velocity and group velocity of the de Broglie waves of an electron whose energy is two times its rest energy. What is the kinetic energy of this electron? 7. Assume that an electron is moving along an x-axis and that you measure its speed to be 2.05x106 m/s, which can be known with a precision of 0.05%. What is the minimum uncertainty with which you can simultaneously measure the position of the electron along the x-axis. 8. A hydrogen atom is 5.3x10-11 m in radius. Use the uncertainty principle to estimate the minimum energy an electron can have in this atom. 9. An excited atom gives up its excess energy by emitting a photon. The average time period that elapses between the excitation of an atom and the time it radiates is 1.0x10-8s. Find the inherent uncertainty in the frequency of the photon. 10. An electron is confined to a region of space of the size of an atom (0.1 nm). What is the K. E of an electron with a momentum equal to p? 11. A charged pi meson has a rest energy of 150 MeV and a lifetime of 30 ns. Find the energy uncertainty of the pi meson, expressed in MeV and also as a fraction of its rest energy. 12. The speed of an electron is measured to within an uncertainty of 2.0x104m/s. What is the size of the smallest region of space in which the electron can be confined? 13. Suppose an atom is in an excited state and remains in this state for an average time of 1.6x10 -8s before it makes a transition back to the ground state emitting a photon with wavelength 589.0 nm and energy 2.105 eV. What is the uncertainty in energy of that excited state? What is the wavelength spread of the corresponding spectrum line? 14. In a measurement of the wavelength of water waves, 10 wave crests are counted in a distance of 200 cm. Estimate the minimum uncertainty in the wavelength that might be obtained from this experiment. 15. To what voltages must we accelerate electrons [as in an electron microscope, for example] if we wish to resolve a virus of diameter 12 nm? An atom of diameter 0.12 nm? A proton of diameter 1.2 fm? 16. High-speed electrons are used to probe the interior structure of of the atomic nucleus. For such electrons the expression = h p still holds, but we must use the relativistic expression for momentum

p = m0 v

1 v 2 c 2 . Show that the speed of an electron [of rest mass m0 ] that has de Broglie wavelength
1 + ( m0 c h) 2 .

is v = c

17. For relativistic particles the de Broglie relation = h p still holds, but the magnitude of momentum related to the total energy E by

p is

E 2 = (pc ) 2 + (m 0 c 2 ) 2 and the kinetic energy K=E-E0. Show that the de

K(K + 2m 0 c 2 ) .

Broglie wavelength of a particle of kinetic energy K and rest mass m0 is = hc