The scale of things

1 meter

(1m)

1 mm

(10-3 m)

human hair (100 m)

1 um

(10-6 m)

248 nm -DUV lithography

1 nm

(10-9 m)

transistor (~100 nm)

biomolecules (10snm)

1 pm

(10-12 m)

wavelength of light (< 1mm)

mhweng@ndl.gov.tw

Crystal Structure

Silicon atom (0.118 nm)

Crystal

Grain boundary

v LatticeThe periodic arrangement of points in a crystal

v Basis The constituent atoms attached to each lattice point

Grain

v Crystal = Lattice + Basis

Amorphous

Polycrystalline

Crystal

a
a : Lattice constant

CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

A direction of lattices plane

PRIMITIVE LATTICE
The basis consists of a primitive cell, arranging one cell at ea ch lattice point will fill
up the entire crystal without leaving undefined voids or overlapping regions. The
Bravais lattice vectors describe how these repeating units in a crystal are tiled. A
Bravais lattice can be defined as all points with positions

r
r
r
r
R = n1 a1 + n2 a2 + n3 a3

(6)

a
a

where a i are not in the same plane, and are ni integers. The
ai vectors are called
the primitive vectors and there are many possible choices of these vectors.

Fig. 10 (a)(10)(b)(32)

CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
Cubic a=b=c = ==( /2)

Fig. 5(a)

Fig. 5(b)

Fig. 5(c)

Tetragonal
a=bc== =( /2)

Fig. 5(d)

Fig. 5(e)
,

CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

Orthohombicabc===(/2)

Trigonala=b=c ==(/2)

Fig. 7(a)
Fig. 6(a)

Fig. 6(b)

Fig. 6(c)

Fig. 6(d)

Monoclinic a bc==(/2)

Hexagonal a=bc==(/2)
=(2/3)

Fig. 6(e)
,

CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

Fig. 7(b)

Fig. 7(c)
,

Crystal Structure
Diamond Structure(Ex:Si) Unit Cell in Diamond &
ZincblendeStructure

Triclinic abc

Zincblende Structure (Ex:GaAs)

Fig. 8

Miller Indices

Miller Indices
v

The Miller indices are obtained using the following

steps.
Find the intercepts of the plane on the three Cartesian coordinate in
terms if the lattice constant.
Take the reciprocals of these numbers and reduce them to the
smallest three integers having the same ratio.

(110)

(100)

Enclose the result in parentheses (hkl) as the Miller indices for a

single plane.
(111)

RECIPROCAL LATTICE

Miller Indices

The reciprocal lattice can be defined as all that

satisfy
r
r
r

r
k = m1b1 + m 2b2 + m3b3

The bi vectors are generated by satisfying the following

relation: r r
r
r
r
r
r

1 1

4 5

Miller indices [5 4]

r
k R = (n1 a1 + n2 a2 + n3 a3 ) m1 b1 + m2 b2 + m3 b3 = N 2
r r
r
a a
b = 2 r r r
a ( a a )
3

t = 4x+5y

(7)

(8)
(9)

r r
r
a a
b2 = 2 r 3r 1r
a1 ( a2 a3 )
r r
r
a a
b3 = 2 r 1r 2r
a1 ( a2 a3 )

(10)
(11)

WIGHERSEITZ CELL

THE FIRST BRILLOUIN ZONE

(1)

(2)(

The Wigner Seitz cell is the most common

choice for the primitive unit cell. This defines a
region of space that is closer to a particular
point rather than to any other point on a Bravais
lattice.
,

BRAGG REFLECTION

BRAGG CONDITION

In such forbidden frequency gaps

or
Bragg
frequencies,
electromagnetic waves attempting to
propagate experience exponential
attenuation due to Bragg reflections.
Although it has been shown that
omnidirectional reflection can be
achieved with a one -dimensional
periodicity, this is only true when
the point source of waves is not
placed close to the crystal structure.
Fig. Plot showing an example of the
dispersion relation and the Bragg condition.
,

Fig. is the angle of incidence ,which is also the angle of

diffraction
,

The Bragg law

n X1

2d sin = n
dn
Braggs Law
n Braggs Law

Bragg s Lawa
AB
b

Si Crystal
n In crystal structure , atoms shares their valence electrons with its
neighbors. These sharing of electrons is covalent bonding.

Zincblende

( valence band)

conduction band

1eV

&
n At higher temperature, thermal vibration may break the covalent
bonds; the free electrons can participate in current conduction. When
electrons leave the covalent bond, the vacancies were considered as a
particle similar to an electron. This fictitious particle is cal led a hole.

Hydrogen Atomic Model

Hydrogen Atomic Model

Bohrs

n For an atom, each electron must have a separate distinct energy

state defined by 4 quantum numbers:

Model

A. Principle quantum number, n = 1, 2, 3

B. Angular momentum quantum number, l = 0, 1, 2, ---n-1

m q
8 e h n

C. Magnetic quantum number, m = 0, 1, ---l

D. Electron spin, s = 1/2

n Only hydrogen atom can be solved due to electronelectron interaction

Band Formation
n The interaction results in the discrete quantized energy level
splitting into two discrete energy levels.
Probability density function
of a isolated hydrogen atom

Energy Band
Degenerate :
When N isolated atoms
are brought together to
form a solid, the orbits of
the outer electrons of
different atoms overlap
and interact with each other.
n

Energy Band

Band Formation
p orbital : six allowed states
s orbital : two allowed states

Schematic showing he splitting of three energy states

into allowed bands of energies.

Si Atom Interaction

Band Formation
n Schematic diagram of the formation of a silicon crystal from
N isolated silicon atoms.

Band Formation
Mole

Atom

Solid

Energy Momentum Diagram

n For a free electron, energy E can be given by

Effective Mass Concept

n Electrons in conduction band and holes in valence band are

similar to free electrons since they can move relatively freely.
n We can treat electrons and holes as classical particles.

Effective Mass Concept

Energy Band Diagram of Silicon

Band Structure

Energy Band
Temperature Effect

Direct Semiconductor

Band Gap vs. Temperature

Si

GaAs

Band Structure

Indirect semiconductor:

n The top of the highest

(occupied) valence band and the
bottom of the lowest
(unoccupied) conduction band
are at the same value in k-space.
In most cases this k-point is the
origin of the BZ, the G point.
Examples: GaAs, InP, GaN,
ZnO.

Energy Band
Conductor , Semiconductor & insulator

The extreme at the top of

the valence band and at the
bottom of the conduction
band are at different kvalues. Examples: Ge, Si.

10

Conductivity of Materials
Insulator

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

Intrinsic Semiconductoris one that contains relatively small
amounts of impurities compared with the thermally generated
electrons and holes.

Empty Conduction
Band
Eg ~ 9 eV

3 types of materials by
Filled Valence Band
their electrical
conductivity
Semiconductor Conduction Band
Insulator
Semiconductor
Conductor

Fermi-DiracDistribution Function.
Eg ~ 1 eV

Valence Band
Conduction Band

Conductor
Valence Band

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

Intrinsic semiconductor. (a) Schematic band diagram. (b)

Density of states. (c) Fermi distribution function. (d)
Carrier concentration.

11

Thermal Excitation( T > 0

K)

Fermi-DiracDistribution

Probability that a quantum state at the energy E will be

occupied by an electron

Fermi Level at T= 0
K

Donor & Acceptor

Extrinsic : A semiconductor doped with donor or
acceptor impurities.

The Fermi probability function versus

energy for T = 0 o K

Discrete energy states and

quantum states for a particular
system at T = 0o K

12

N- and P- Doped
Increase the conductivity of the
semiconductor with impurity
N- ( As, P ): donate electrons
As+ , P +
Majority carrier : electron
Minority carrier : hole
P- ( B )
B Majority carrier : hole
Minority carrier : electron

electron

Si

Si

Si

Si

As

Si

Si

Si

Si

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

hole
Si

Si

m-3

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

2x10 16 2x10 19

np = ni (T )

ni

Metal-Oxide-Silicon Field Effect

Transistor MOSFET

Extrinsic Carrier Concentration

VGS

n
,
,

p

law of
mass action

VD S
G

N+

N+

Induced n channel
P-type Substrate

13

I-V Characteristics of a
MOSFETs I -V
I -V

I-V Characteristics of a
MOSFETs

Threshold Voltage ( Vt ) :
Vt is the gate bias which make substrate start to inverse strongly

VG > Vt : dominated by drift current

Linear Region
Saturation Region

DS

DS

DS

ON State

VG < Vt : dominated by diffusion current

Subthreshold
OFF State

MOSFET
MOSFET

MOS

SiO2) (Oxidation Furnace)
Vapor Phase Deposition)
CVD


Doping) (Ion Implantation)
Thermal Diffusion)

(Isolation Process)

(Local Oxidation, LOCOS)

MOS
Field Oxide)
(Trench Isolation)
CMOS
(Anisotropic)PMOSNMOS

CMOSCMOSPMOSNMOS
(Silicon On Isolation, SOI)

CMOS
CMOSCMOS

14

MOSFET
MOSFET

(Channel Stop)


M O S
Q = C
V)

MOSFET

NMOS
= /

-NMOS

Vd >0)

npn

Electrical Breakdown)

MOS

Short Channel Effects)

MOSMOS(
MOS
MOS

(Subthreshold Current)
MOSVtVg MOSId

MOSVt Vg MOS
(Hot Electron Effect)
MOS

MOSFET

Lightly Doped Drain, LDD)

LDDMOS
nn
LDDMOS
LDDMOS

MOS
LDD

15