4th International Conference on Managing Pavements (1998)

STRUCTURE OF THE NEW HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT TOOLS (HDM-4)

H.R. Kerali, J.B. Odoki, D.C. Wightman and E.E. Stannard School of Civil Engineering, The University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham UK Abstract The paper describes the new Highway Development and Management tools (HDM-4) which has been developed to supersede the World Banks Highway Design and Maintenance Standards Model (HDM-III). The new HDM-4 has a broader scope incorporating a wider range of technical relationships with three dedicated applications tools for project level analysis, road work programming under constrained budgets, and for strategic planning of long term network performance and expenditure needs. In addition to updating the HDM-III technical relationships for vehicle operating costs, and pavement deterioration for flexible and unsealed pavements, new technical relationships have been introduced to model rigid concrete pavement deterioration, accident costs, traffic congestion, energy consumption and environmental effects. 1. INTRODUCTION The Highway Design and Maintenance Standards Model (HDM-III), developed by the World Bank (Harral et al, 1979; Watanatada et al, 1987), has been used for over two decades to combine technical and economic appraisals of road investment projects, and to analyse strategies and standards for road network improvements. The HDM-III model has been instrumental in justifying increased road maintenance and rehabilitation budgets in many countries. However, a fundamental redevelopment was required to meet current needs. In particular new relationships for vehicle operating costs (VOC) were necessary to reflect the significant improvements in vehicle technology over the past 20 years which have resulted in considerably lower operating costs than those predicted by HDM-III (Cox, 1994). In addition, whilst most applications of HDM-III have been in developing countries, in recent years many industrialised countries have begun to apply the model. This has resulted in a need for additional capabilities to be included, such as models for traffic congestion, a wider range of pavement types including rigid concrete pavements and the introduction of environmental effects models. There was also a need to apply modern computer technology to meet current user expectations. In order to address the above issues, the Highway Development and Management Tools (ISOHDM) was set up in August 1993 to extend the scope of the HDM-III model and to provide a harmonised systems approach to road management, through a set of adaptable and user-friendly software tools (Kerali et al, 1996). Emphasis in the HDM study was placed on collating and applying existing knowledge, rather than undertaking major new empirical studies, and only limited field data collection was undertaken. In addition, new applications tools were developed to cater for the management needs of road agencies in different countries. The enhancements made to the technical relationships are described relative to those in HDM-III.

TRB Committee AFD10 on Pavement Management Systems is providing the information contained herein for use by individual practitioners in state and local transportation agencies, researchers in academic institutions, and other members of the transportation research community. The information in this paper was taken directly from the submission of the author(s).

4th International Conference on Managing Pavements (1998)

2. IMPROVEMENTS TO TECHNICAL RELATIONSHIPS 2.1 VOC Relationships and Vehicle Speeds

The HDM-III VOC relationships for a total of 10 representative vehicles were derived from research conducted in Brazil (GEIPOT, 1982), India (CRRI, 1982), Kenya (Hide et al, 1975) and the Caribbean (Morosiuk and Abaynayaka, 1982). In the new HDM-4, relationships for a total of 16 representative vehicles have been incorporated based on the original HDM-III relationships updated using results from recent research conducted in New Zealand, South Africa and Australia. The vehicle speed models in the new HDM4 are calculated separately under free-flow and congested traffic flow conditions. Revised free speed models have been developed based on the constrained speed model used in HDM-III. For congested traffic conditions, the three zone model proposed by Hoban (1987) have been extended to incorporate vehicle acceleration noise (Bennett, 1996) and the effects of non-motorised transport (PADECO, 1996; Yuli, 1996). Table 1 gives a list of the changes to the VOC technical relationships in HDM-4 for the representative vehicles summarised in Table 2 (NDLI, 1995a; Bennett, 1995). Table 1: Comparison of VOC models in HDM-III and HDM-4
Models Free Speed HDM-III Model based on the 5 limiting velocities (VDESIR, VBRAKE, VCURVE, VDRIVE and VROUGH) HDM-4 Same as in HDM-III except for: VDESIR incorporates XNMT, XFRI VDRIVE incorporates rolling resistance VCURVE equation form changed VBRAKE incorporates critical gradient length concept Model based on the 3-zone speed-flow relationship New model based on the ARFCOM mechanistic fuel model Based on the HDM-III model for heavy vehicles with; Changed model coefficients Congestion effects incorporated Predicted as a function of fuel consumption, engine oil capacity, and distance between oil changes. Uses the constant annual working hours method only

Congested Speeds Fuel Consumption Tyre Consumption

Not modelled in HDM-III, (included in HDM95) Uses the Brazil study fuel consumption model The Brazil study tyre consumption model: different forms of equations for light vehicles and for heavy vehicles Oil and Lubricant Predicted as a function of Consumption roughness Vehicle Utilisation Three methods are used: Constant annual km Constant annual hours Adjusted utilisation method Two methods are used: Constant vehicle life method de Weilles varying life Two different forms of equations are used depending on the transitional roughness value for each vehicle type. Modelled as a function of parts consumption and roughness.

Vehicle Service Life Parts Consumption

Labour Hours

Two methods are used: Constant vehicle life method Optimal vehicle life method One general form of equation is used. The HDM-III exponential equation form has been dropped. Congestion effects incorporated Modelled as a function of parts consumption only.

TRB Committee AFD10 on Pavement Management Systems is providing the information contained herein for use by individual practitioners in state and local transportation agencies, researchers in academic institutions, and other members of the transportation research community. The information in this paper was taken directly from the submission of the author(s).

4th International Conference on Managing Pavements (1998)

Table 2: HDM-4 Default Representative Vehicle Classes and Basic Characteristics

Number Vehicle Type 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Note:

Description Motorcycle or scooter Small passenger cars Medium passenger cars Large passenger cars Panel van, utility or pickup truck Very light truck for carrying goods (4 tyres) Land Rover/Jeep type vehicle Small two-axle rigid truck (approx. < 3.5 t) Medium two-axle rigid truck (> 3.5 t) Multi-axle rigid truck Articulated truck or truck with draw bar trailer Small bus based on panel van chassis Light bus (approx. < 3.5 t) Medium bus (3.5 - 8.0 t) Multi-axle or large two-axle bus Large bus designed for long distance travel
P = Petrol, D = Diesel

Fuel Number Type of Axles P P P P P P P D D D D P D D D D 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 5 2 2 2 3 3

Number of Wheels 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 10 18 4 4 6 10 10

Tare Weight (t) 0.1 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.3 0.9 1.5 1.8 4.5 9.0 11.0 1.1 1.75 4.5 8.0 10.0

Operating Weight (t) 0.2 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.8 2.0 7.5 13.0 28.0 1.5 2.5 6.0 10.0 15.0

Motorcycle Small Car Medium Car Large Car Light Delivery Vehicle Light Goods Vehicle Four Wheel Drive Light Truck Medium Truck Heavy Truck Articulated Truck Mini-bus Light Bus Medium Bus Heavy Bus Coach
Fuel Type:

Source: (NDLI, 1995a)

TRB Committee AFD10 on Pavement Management Systems is providing the information contained herein for use by individual practitioners in state and local transportation agencies, researchers in academic institutions, and other members of the transportation research community. The information in this paper was taken directly from the submission of the author(s).

4th International Conference on Managing Pavements (1998)

Table 3: HDM-4 Pavement Classification System

Surface Category PAVED Surface Class Bituminous Pavement Type AMGB AMAB AMAP AMSB AMCP STGB STAB STAP STSB Surface Type AM ST AC SST Surface Material HRA DBST DBM PM etc. etc. Base Type GB AB AP SB CP GB AB AP SB WBM AC CS JPCP WBM AC CS Base Material WM HRA LS JRCP WM HRA LS etc. DBM etc. CRCP etc. DBM etc. etc. etc. etc. Subgrades UNPAVED Concrete Block Unsealed STCP JPCP JRCP CRCP RCCP CBSG CBLC GRUP SSUP EAUP SAUP JP JR CR RC CB BR GR SS EA SA

CP JPCP JRCP CRCP etc.

GB

SB

EB

AB

SG

LC

GN FN

Source: (NDLI, 1995b) Notes: Surface Types AM Asphalt Mix ST Surface Treatment JP Jointed Plain JR Jointed Reinforced CR Continuous Reinforced RC Roller Compacted CB Concrete Block BR Brick GR Gravel SS Set Stone EA Earth SA Sand Base Types GB Granular Base AB Asphalt Base AP Asphalt Pavement SB Stabilised Base CP Concrete Pavement EB Emulsified Base SG Sand/Gravel LC Lean Concrete Subgrades GN Granular FN Fine Materials AC Asphalt Concrete HRA Hot Rolled Asphalt DBM Dense Bitumen Macadam SST Single Surface Treatment DBST Double Surface Treatment PM Penetration Macadam WBM Water Bound Macadam

TRB Committee AFD10 on Pavement Management Systems is providing the information contained herein for use by individual practitioners in state and local transportation agencies, researchers in academic institutions, and other members of the transportation research community. The information in this paper was taken directly from the submission of the author(s).

4th International Conference on Managing Pavements (1998)

2.2

Road Deterioration and Maintenance

A comprehensive framework for road deterioration relationships has been designed for HDM-4. A set of generic models, based on those used in HDM-III (Paterson, 1987), has been specified with different parameter values to cater for a wide range of pavement types. The pavement classification system used in HDM-4 depends on the surface type and base type, as given in Table 3 (NDLI, 1995b). Separate relationships are provided for the pavement defects summarised in Table 4. Table 4: Pavement defects modelled in HDM-4 Bituminous Concrete Block* Unsealed

Cracking Cracking Rutting Gravel loss Rutting Joint spalling Surface texture Roughness Ravelling Faulting Roughness Pot-holing Failures Edge break Serviceability rating Surface texture Roughness Skid resistance Roughness * - Not yet implemented in HDM-4 Source: (Paterson, 1987; Riley and Bennett, 1996; LAST, 1995).

2.3

Road works

Road works in HDM-4 have been categorised as follows (Odoki, 1995): (i) Routine maintenance: Works that should be undertaken each year, normally within the recurrent budget. These include cyclic and reactive maintenance activities. Periodic maintenance: Works planned to be undertaken at intervals of several years and are typically funded within recurrent or capital budgets. These include; preventive maintenance, resurfacing, overlays and pavement reconstruction. Special works: The frequency for these cannot be estimated with certainty. These are typically funded from special or contingency budgets, but sometimes from recurrent budget. This category includes emergency and winter maintenance. Development: Road network improvements planned at discrete points in time and normally funded from the capital budget. These include widening, realignment and construction of new road sections.

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

The effect of road works on pavement performance depends on the characteristics of the individual works activity and the frequency of application. 2.3.1 Effect of road works The impact of road works is normally felt in terms of vehicle speed changes and

TRB Committee AFD10 on Pavement Management Systems is providing the information contained herein for use by individual practitioners in state and local transportation agencies, researchers in academic institutions, and other members of the transportation research community. The information in this paper was taken directly from the submission of the author(s).

4th International Conference on Managing Pavements (1998)

stop/start conditions. This results in additional travel time and vehicle resource consumption. A stand-alone road works effects module has been designed for HDM-4 to estimate the additional travel time and VOC resource consumption (Greenwood, 1996). The results from this can be included within the HDM-4 economic analysis framework. Table 5 gives a summary of changes to the road deterioration and maintenance effects relationships in HDM-4. Table 5. Comparison of Road Deterioration Models in HDM-III and HDM-4 RDMIE Models
Road Surface Classes

HDM-III
Bituminous Unsealed

HDM-4

Bituminous Unsealed Concrete Blocks (proposed) Pavement Strength Structural Number Structural Number Measures Benkleman Beam deflection Benkleman Beam deflection FWD (proposed) Construction Quality A single indicator (CQ), with a Two indicators CDB and CDR, discrete value of 0 or 1 continuous variables ranging between 0 and 1.5 Comprises: Cracking Comprises: Structural cracking (All, Wide, All cracking, Wide cracking, Indexed), Reflection cracking Indexed cracking Ravelling As in HDM-III, but changes in model coefficients Potholing Predicted as percentage area of Predicted as number of potholes the carriageway per km Edge Break Not modelled Included Rutting Initial densification Initial densification Structural deterioration Structural deterioration Plastic deformation Wear by studded tyres Comprising: Roughness (IRI) Comprising: Structural deterioration, Cracking Structural deterioration, Cracking Rutting, Potholing, Environment Rutting, Potholing, Environment, Patching Texture Depth (TD) Not modelled Included Skid Resistance Not modelled Included Road Maintenance Additional works types: Mill and replace, Inlay, Edge repair, Crack sealing Road Improvements (i.e., Not modelled Additional types: Capacity improvement) Widening, Realignment New Construction with Diverted Traffic Diverted traffic not considered Diverted traffic included

TRB Committee AFD10 on Pavement Management Systems is providing the information contained herein for use by individual practitioners in state and local transportation agencies, researchers in academic institutions, and other members of the transportation research community. The information in this paper was taken directly from the submission of the author(s).

4th International Conference on Managing Pavements (1998)

2.4

Road Accidents, Energy Consumption and Environmental effects

The new HDM-4 incorporates accident costs within the economic analysis framework. The estimation process applies user specified accident rates and monetary values for different accident severity according to road stereotypes (Kerali et al, 1996). Energy consumption models have been incorporated for estimating the total life cycle energy consumption due to road works, vehicle operation and vehicle production. These are calculated in terms of both national and global energy consumption totals (ETSU, 1996). Vehicle emission relationships have been developed for estimating volumes of the following; hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, lead and particulates. The relationships are based on a number of parameters including pavement condition, road alignment, speed limit, and road cross-section (Hammerstrom, 1995). Table 6. Additional Models included in HDM-4
Components Road Safety Vehicle Emissions HDM-III Not modelled Not modelled HDM-4 Includes road accidents on sections and at nodes Different types of emissions are predicted as a function of fuel consumption, vehicle speed and average vehicle life Models global and national life-cycle energy use as a function of fuel, oil, tyre and parts consumption. Includes energy used in vehicle production and fuel production.

Energy Balance

Not modelled

3. 3.1

DATA REQUIREMENTS Road Network Definition

The road network representation in the new HDM-4 views a road network as an integrated set of sections and nodes (Kerali et al, 1996). Each section is analysed separately as a homogeneous unit. Within a road network, nodes mark points at which traffic characteristics or road features change significantly. Although the specification of nodes in HDM-4 is optional, the facility is provided for future extensions and for compatibility with pavement management systems (PMS) and geographic information systems (GIS). The types of nodes catered for in HDM-4 are;

TRB Committee AFD10 on Pavement Management Systems is providing the information contained herein for use by individual practitioners in state and local transportation agencies, researchers in academic institutions, and other members of the transportation research community. The information in this paper was taken directly from the submission of the author(s).

4th International Conference on Managing Pavements (1998)

(i) (ii) (iii)

intersections or junctions, intermediate nodes (e.g. start or end of dual carriageways, administrative boundaries, etc.), or dead-ends (i.e. start or end of a road).

In future extensions to HDM-4, nodes may be included in the analyses of accidents at intersections, or in transportation models of traffic movements. A section is a segment of road which is homogeneous in terms of its physical characteristics. The homogeneous section is the default entity for all calculations of pavement deterioration, construction and maintenance costs, and road user effects. The data required to define sections in HDM-4 include the physical characteristics, pavement condition, average daily traffic, and a number of calibration parameters. 3.2 Data Structure

The new HDM-4 requires a wider range of data input, when compared to HDM-III. Consequently, a tiered data structure has been designed. The first tier comprises mandatory data which define the characteristics of the road network (e.g., length, width, pavement type, terrain, climate, etc.), and the representative vehicle characteristics (e.g., fuel type, weights, etc.). Some of this data could be specified in aggregate terms, for example, the terrain could be specified as either flat, rolling, hilly or mountainous. User defined default attributes are then assigned to the variables required in the HDM-4 models based on the aggregate data. The second tier comprises detailed data required to define precisely the parameters in the HDM-4 models. These include details of the pavement structure, material characteristics, geometric characteristics, etc. 3.3 Calibration and Validation

The new HDM-4 is designed to be used in a wide range of environments. A comprehensive calibration facility has been developed to facilitate its adaptation in different countries. The technical relationships described above incorporate parameters that can be adjusted to suit the observed performance of roads and vehicles in most countries. A number of default calibration data sets will be provided for different regions to simplify initial use throughout the world. These may be updated in each country where HDM-4 is used to obtain more accurate predictions of pavement and vehicle performance. 4. APPLICATION MODULES Separate application modules have been developed for project analysis, work programming, and network strategy analysis (Kerali et al, 1995). 4.4 Project Analysis

Project analysis is concerned with the evaluation of one or more road projects or investment options. Each road section can be assigned user-specified treatments. The

TRB Committee AFD10 on Pavement Management Systems is providing the information contained herein for use by individual practitioners in state and local transportation agencies, researchers in academic institutions, and other members of the transportation research community. The information in this paper was taken directly from the submission of the author(s).

4th International Conference on Managing Pavements (1998)

costs and benefits for these are calculated for each year of the analysis period. Economic indicators are then determined by comparing different investment options. Typical project analyses include the appraisal of maintenance and rehabilitation options for existing roads, widening or geometric improvement schemes, pavement upgrading, new road construction, etc. 4.5 Work Programming

Programme analysis is concerned with the preparation of work programmes in which candidate investment options are identified and selected, subject to resource constraints. Road networks are analysed section by section and estimates are produced of road works and expenditure requirements for each section over a funding period which is typically less than 5 years. Programme analysis may be used to prepare multiyear rolling work programmes. 4.6 Network Strategy Analysis

Strategic planning is concerned with the analysis of a chosen network as a whole. A typical application is the preparation of long range planning estimates of expenditure needs for road network development and maintenance under different budget scenarios. The road network is characterised by lengths of road in different categories defined by parameters such as road class, surface type, pavement condition or traffic flow. Estimates are produced of expenditure requirements for medium to long term periods of between 5 to 40 years. 5. SYSTEM STRUCTURE The overall structure of the new HDM-4 software is illustrated in Figure 1. Separate software modules have been developed using Visual C++ and object-oriented database tools to operate under Microsoft Windows for each of the applications: Project analysis Programme analysis Network strategy analysis

The analysis tools operate on data objects defined in the following data managers: Road network manager; defines characteristics of the road network elements (sections and nodes). Vehicle fleet manager; defines the characteristics of the representative vehicle fleet. HDM-4 set-up; defines the default data to be used during the analysis. A set of default data will be provided with the system, but users will have to modify these to reflect local conditions and circumstances. HDM-4 file converter; facilitates data exchange with external systems, such as pavement management systems.

TRB Committee AFD10 on Pavement Management Systems is providing the information contained herein for use by individual practitioners in state and local transportation agencies, researchers in academic institutions, and other members of the transportation research community. The information in this paper was taken directly from the submission of the author(s).

4th International Conference on Managing Pavements (1998)

Figure 1. HDM-4 Software Modules 6. CONCLUSION The software development phase of the International Study of HDM was followed by extensive software testing and full scale field trials of the completed HDM-4 software under real project conditions. The objective was to validate the technical relationships built into the modules and to conduct a comprehensive test of the software. Comparisons were carried out between the results obtained from HDM-4 analyses against those produced by HDM-III. The results of the pilot trials will be used to prepare regional default data sets which will be supplied with the final software package. Regional training centres will be established to disseminate and train a wide crosssection of users. The overall benefit of the new HDM-4 to the international community will be the introduction of a standardised set of applications for project analysis, work programming and budgeting, and for road network strategy analysis. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The development of HDM-4 has been sponsored by several agencies, including the World Bank, the United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID), the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the Swedish National Road Administration (SNRA), the Federation of Intra-American Cement Manufacturers (FICEM), and the Finnish Road Administration (FinnRA). Many other organisations and individuals in a number of countries have made significant contributions by providing information, or undertaking technical review of products. The study has been co-ordinated by the ISOHDM Secretariat based within the Highways Management Research Group (HMRG) within the School of Civil Engineering at the University of Birmingham in the United Kingdom. The key organisations involved in the HDM-4 development were: the HMRG responsible for system design and software development. N D Lea International Limited based at the Road Research Institute in Malaysia (IKRAM) were responsible for updating the technical relationships for road user costs and for road deterioration and maintenance effects.

TRB Committee AFD10 on Pavement Management Systems is providing the information contained herein for use by individual practitioners in state and local transportation agencies, researchers in academic institutions, and other members of the transportation research community. The information in this paper was taken directly from the submission of the author(s).

4th International Conference on Managing Pavements (1998)

SNRA were responsible for developing deterioration relationships for cold climate effects, road safety and environmental effects, and for supporting HMRG with system design and software development. FICEM funded the development of deterioration and maintenance relationships for Portland cement concrete roads FinnRA provided assistance to HMRG in the development of strategic and programme analysis modules

REFERENCES BENNETT, C R, (1996). The New HDM-4 Model. Proceedings, Combined 18th ARRB Transport Research Conference and Transit New Zealand Symposium, Christchurch, New Zealand, Part 4 (Asset Management). COX, J B (1994). A Fleet Vehicle Operating Cost Model to More Accurately Determine Benefits Over the Analysis Period. International Study of Highway Development and Management Tools, School of Civil Engineering, The University of Birmingham. CRRI, (1982). Road user cost study in India. Final Report, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, India. CRRI, (1990). Road deterioration study. Final Report, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, India. ETSU (1995). Life-Cycle Analysis of Motor Fuel Emissions. Final report to COST 319 Sub-group A4.C. ETSU Ref RYCA/18691001/Issue 1. European Commission, Brusells. GEIPOT, (1982). Research on the interrelationships between costs of highway construction, maintenance and utilisation (PICR). Final report, 12 volumes, Brasilia, Brazil. GREENWOOD, I.G. (1996). The Effects of Road Works on Users. Proceedings, Combined 18th ARRB Transport Research Conference and Transit New Zealand Symposium, Christchurch, New Zealand, Part 4 (Asset Management). HAMMERSTROM, U (1995). Vehicle Exhaust Model for HDM-4. Road and Traffic Management Division, Swedish National Road Administration, Borlange, Sweden. HARRAL, C G and others, (1979). The Highway Design And Maintenance Standards Model (HDM): Model Structure, Empirical Foundations And Applications. PTRC Summer Annual Meeting, University of Warwick. London: PTRC Education and Research Services. HIDE, H et al, (1975). The Kenya Road Transport Cost Study: Research on Vehicle Operating Costs. TRRL Laboratory Report 672. Crowthorne: Transport and Road

TRB Committee AFD10 on Pavement Management Systems is providing the information contained herein for use by individual practitioners in state and local transportation agencies, researchers in academic institutions, and other members of the transportation research community. The information in this paper was taken directly from the submission of the author(s).

4th International Conference on Managing Pavements (1998)

Research Laboratory. HIDE, H, (1982). Vehicle operating costs in the Caribbean: results of a survey of vehicle operators. TRRL Laboratory Report 1031. Crowthorne: Transport and Road Research Laboratory. HOBAN, C J, (1987). Evaluating traffic capacity and improvements to geometry. Technical Paper Number 74, The World Bank, Washington DC, USA. KERALI, H R, R ROBINSON and V MANNISTO, (1995). Strategic and Programme Analysis Specifications. International Study of Highway Development and Management Tools, School of Civil Engineering, The University of Birmingham. KERALI, H R, J B Odoki and D C Wightman (1996). The New HDM-4 Analytical Framework. Proceedings, Combined 18th ARRB Transport Research Conference and Transit New Zealand Symposium, Christchurch, New Zealand, Part 4 (Asset Management). KERALI, H R et al (1996). HDM-4 Inception Workshop, October 1993. Proceedings, Combined 18th ARRB Transport Research Conference and Transit New Zealand Symposium, Christchurch, New Zealand, Part 4 (Asset Management). LAST (1995). Concrete Pavement Performance Equations. Latin American Study Team, International Study of Highway Development and Management Tools, School of Civil Engineering, The University of Birmingham. MOROSIUK, G and S W ABAYNAYAKA, (1982). Vehicle operating costs in the Caribbean: an experimental study of vehicle performance. TRRL Laboratory Report 1056. Crowthorne: Transport and Road Research Laboratory. NDLI (1995a). Modelling Road User Effects in HDM-4. Final Project Report, Asian Development Bank, RETA 5549, N.D. Lea International Limited, Vancouver, Canada. NDLI (1995b). Modelling Road Deterioration and Maintenance Effects in HDM-4. Final Project Report, Asian Development Bank, RETA 5549, N.D. Lea International Limited, Vancouver, BC, Canada. ODOKI, J B and H R KERALI, (1996). Road Maintenance and Improvement Effects Models. International Study of Highway Development and Management Tools, School of Civil Engineering, The University of Birmingham. PADECO (1996). HDM-4 Non Motorised Transport Modelling. International Study of Highway Development and Management Tools, School of Civil Engineering, The University of Birmingham. PATERSON, W D O (1987). Road Deterioration and Maintenance Effects: Models for Planning and Management. The Highway Design and Maintenance Standards

TRB Committee AFD10 on Pavement Management Systems is providing the information contained herein for use by individual practitioners in state and local transportation agencies, researchers in academic institutions, and other members of the transportation research community. The information in this paper was taken directly from the submission of the author(s).

4th International Conference on Managing Pavements (1998)

Series. The World Bank, Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, USA. RILEY, M J and C R BENNETT, (1996). Specifications for HDM-4 Road Deterioration and Maintenance Effects Models. International Study of Highway Development and Management Tools, School of Civil Engineering, The University of Birmingham. YULI, P (1996). Development of Speed and Fuel Consumption Models for Chinese Vehicles. PhD Thesis, School of Civil Engineering, The University of Birmingham. WATANATADA, T et al, (1987). The Highway Design And Maintenance Standards Model Volume 1: Description of the HDM-III Model. The Highway Design and Maintenance Standards Series. The World Bank, Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, USA.

KEYWORDS Project Appraisal, Highway Economics, Vehicle Operating Costs, Energy Consumption, Vehicle Emissions.

TRB Committee AFD10 on Pavement Management Systems is providing the information contained herein for use by individual practitioners in state and local transportation agencies, researchers in academic institutions, and other members of the transportation research community. The information in this paper was taken directly from the submission of the author(s).