The Structure and Functions of Blood

Note: Knowledge of the structure and function of blood and aspects of the heart and vascular system are part of training in various therapies, (incl. e.g. Massage, Aromatherapy, Acupuncture, Shiatsu, etc.). This page is intended to include detail suitable for introductory courses, and some ITEC Diplomas. This page is divided into the following sections: 1. The Functions of Blood (generally - as opposed to the functions of particular components of blood). 2. The Composition of Blood (incl. the different types of blood cells and their properties and functions). 3. Process of Oxygenation of Tissues due to Circulation of Blood 4. Types of Leucocytes (White Blood Cells)

1. Functions of Blood
1. Transports:
Dissolved gases (e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide); Waste products of metabolism (e.g. water, urea); Hormones; Enzymes; Nutrients (such as glucose, amino acids, micro-nutrients (vitamins & minerals), fatty acids, glycerol); Plasma proteins (associated with defence, such as blood-clotting and anti-bodies); Blood cells (incl. white blood cells 'leucocytes', and red blood cells 'erythrocytes').

2. Maintains Body Temperature 3. Controls pH 4.

The pH of blood must remain in the range 6.8 to 7.4, otherwise it begins to damage cells. Removes toxins from the body The kidneys filter all of the blood in the body (approx. 8 pints), 36 times every 24 hours. Toxins removed from the blood by the kidneys leave the body in the urine. (Toxins also leave the body in the form of sweat.) Regulation of Body Fluid Electrolytes Excess salt is removed from the body in urine, which may contain around 10g salt per day

5.

(such as in the cases of people on western diets containing more salt than the body requires).

2. Composition of Blood
Blood consists of many components (constituents). These include: 55% Plasma 45% Components, i.e. 'Blood Cells'. Of these, 99% are erythrocytes (red blood cells) and 1% are leucocytes (white blood cells) and thrombocytes (blood platelets). This is summarised in the following diagram, and described in further detail below.

The summary chart above includes: erythrocytes (red blood cells), thrombocytes (blood platelets) and leucocytes (white blood cells). It also includes categories of leucocytes: agranulocytes and granulocytes (also known as polymorphonucleocytes), which may also be sub-divided into lymphocytes, monocytes, basophils, neutrophils and eosinophils.

The following table includes further general information about the constituents of blood.

Structure Plasma
Normal blood plasma is 90-92 % water. This is the straw-coloured fluid in which the blood cells are suspended, and consists of: Dissolved substances including

Functions
The medium in which the blood cells are transported around the body (by the blood vessels) and are able to operate effectively. Helps to maintain optimum body

electrolytes such as sodium, chlorine, potassiun, manganese, and calcium ions; Blood plasma proteins (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen); Hormones.

temperature throughout the organism. Helps to control the pH of the blood and the body tissues, maintaining this within a range at which the cells can thrive. Helps to maintain an ideal balance of electrolytes in the blood and tissues of the body.

Erythrocytes Immature erythrocytes have a nucleus but mature erythrocytes (Red blood have no nucleus. cells)
Haem Erythrocytes have a "prosthetic group" (meaning "in addition to" in this case, in addition to the cell). The active component of this prosthetic group is Haem. Haem relies on the presence of iron (Fe). Haem combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin:

Carry oxygen (process described in more detail - below).

... continued in section below. Erythrocytes are eventually broken down by the spleen into the blood pigments bilinubin and bilviridin, and iron. These components are then transported by the blood to the liver where the iron is re-cycled for use by new erythrocytes, and the blood pigments form bile salts. (Bile breaks down fats.) Have a longevity of approx. 120 days. There are approx. 4.5 - 5.8 million erythrocytes per micro-litre of healthy blood (though there are

variations between racial groups and men/women). There are different types of Leucocytes (White blood leucocytes (described in more detail - below), classified as: cells) Granular: e.g. Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils. Agranular (do not contain granules): e.g. Monocytes, Lymphocytes. Have a longevity of a few hours to a few days (but some can remain for many years). There are approx. 5,000 - 10,000 leucocytes per micro-litre of blood. Major part of the immune system.

Trombocytes (Platelets)

Blood platelets are cell fragments; Disk-shaped; Diameter 2-4 um (1 micro-metre = 1 um = 0.000001m); Have many granules but no nucleus; Have a longevity of approx. 5-9 days. There are approx. 150,000 400,000 platelets per micro-litre of blood.

To facilitate blood clotting - the purpose of which is to prevent loss of body fluids.

3. The Oxygenation of Blood

The oxygenation of blood is the function of the erythrocytes (red blood cells) and takes place in the lungs. The sequence of events of the blood becoming oxygenated (in the lungs) then oxygenating the tissues (in the body) is as follows: The Right Ventricle (of the heart) sends de-oxygenated blood to the lungs. While in the lungs: 1. Carbon Dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the lungs, and 2. Oxygen (breathed into the lungs) combines with haemoglobin in the blood as it passes through the lung capillaries. Oxyhaemoglobin returns to the heart via the pulmonary vein and then enters the systemic

circulation via the aorta. There is a low concentration of oxygen in the body tissues. They also contain waste products of the metabolism (such as carbon dioxide). Due to the high concentration of oxygen in the blood and the low concentration of oxygen in the tissues, ... the high concentration of carbon dioxide in the tissues diffuses into the blood. (95% of this carbon dioxide dissolves in the blood plasma.) Blood returns from the tissues back to the heart via the superior vena cava (from the upperbody) and the inferior vena cava (from the lower-body)

4. Types of Leucocytes (White Blood Cells)

Lymphocytes: Approx. 24% of leucocytes are lymphocytes. These produce anti-bodies and include: * T-Cells * B-Cells * Natural Killer Cells

Monocytes: Approx. 4% of leucocytes are monoocytes. These are also known as phagocytes. They combat microbes by the process of phagocytosis.

*Basophils:

*Neutrophils:

*Eosinophils: 0.5-1% of leucocytes are eosinophils. Diameter 8-10 micrometres. Liberate heparin, histamine, and seratonin in allergic reactions, intensifying inflammatory response.

60-70% of leucocytes are 2-4% of leucocytes are basophils. neutrophils. Diameter 10-12 micro-metres. Diameter 10-12 micrometres. Phagocytosis. Destruction of bacteria with lysozyme and Combat the effects of strong oxidants. histamine in allergic reactions; Phagocytize antigenantibody complexes; Destroy some parasitic worms.

* It is only possible to observe the differences between these by staining them.

Further notes about the types of leucocytes identified above:

Lymphocytes: Phagocytosis: The term "antigen" refers to something that is not naturally present and 'should not be in the body'. A phagocyte is a cell able to engulf and digest bacteri T Cells (lymphocytes) are activated by the thymus protozoa, cells, cell debris, and other small particles. gland. Phagocytes include many leucocytes (white blood cell B Cells (lymphocytes) are activated by other and macrophages - which play a major role in the bod lymphoid tissue. The 'B' indicates 'bone marrow' defence system. cells. Phagocytosis is the engulfment and digestion of bacte Both T-cells and B-cells: and other anigens by phagocytes. (1) destroy antigens, and (2) produce 'memory cells' and anti-bodies. This is illustrated below. Basophils: An increased (higher than usual) percentage of basophils in the blood may indicate an inflammatory condition somewhere in the body. Neutrophils & Monocytes: Neutrophils are the first leucocytes to respond to bacterial invasion of the body. They act by carrying out the process of phagocytosis (see opposite), and also be releasing enzymes - such as lysozyme, that destroy certain bacteria. Monocytes take longer to reach the site of infection than neutrophils - but they eventually arrive in much larger numbers.Monocytes that migrate into infected tissues develop into cells called wandering macrophages that can phagocytize many more microbes than neutrophils are able to. Monocytes also clear up cellular debris after an infection. Eosinophils: An increased (higher than usual) percentage of eosinophils in the blood may indicate parasitic infection somewhere in the body. The Human Defence System We are constantly under attack by bacteria, fungi, viruses and other organisms. These invaders are called pathogens. Our body is a rich source of nutrients and water that these invaders need to survive. Amazingly we remain healthy most of the time. We are obviously very good at protecting ourselves. There are two major aspects to our defence system general and specific. General Defence System

The first parts of the general defence system are really barriers that stop the pathogens from entering the body. These barriers try to stop all pathogens therefore they are considered non-specific defences. The physical barriers of our general defence system consist of: The Skin- This was discussed in the excretion web page. It is a physical barrier that stops pathogens. Clotting- If the skin is broken the blood clot stops entry of pathogens. Sebaceous and sweat glands- These produce chemicals that kill bacteria. Lysozyme- This is in the saliva and the tear glands. It kills bacteria. Mucous membranes- These secrete mucus which lines many body parts. The mucous traps pathogens and prevents them from entering the body. Nasal hairs- These remove suspended micro-organisms from the air. Cilia- These small hairs beat to force mucus to the pharynx for swallowing to the stomach. Coughing helps in this process. Hydrochloric acid- This is found in the stomach. It kills microorganisms. The vagina- It contains bacteria that produce lactic acid that prevents the growth of pathogens. Also the vagina has a low pH to kill bacteria as well as mucous membranes.

If pathogens do get past the physical barriers our second line of defence takes over. This is our general defence system. The major components of the general defence system are:

1. Phagocytes- These are white blood cells that engulf pathogens. They ingest the pathogen in the same way as the Amoeba eats. These were discussed in the blood web page.

Watch an animation showing phagocytes.

2. Macrophages- These are large, longer living phagocytes. Some move around the body and act as scavengers while others remain in a fixed place. There are many that are present in our lymph system. 3. Complement Defence Proteins- These are substances produced by other protein or in response to the presence of foreign material in the body and that triggers or participates in a complement reaction. This is a reaction to the presence of a foreign microorganism in which a series of enzymatic reactions, triggered by molecular features of the microorganism, result in the bursting or engulfing of the pathogen. Watch a video about complement proteins. 4. Interferons- These are defence proteins that are produced by body cells that are infected by a virus. They travel to nearby cells and prevent the spread of the virus. 5. Inflammation- Cells that have been infected produce chemical called histamine. This chemical causes the blood capillaries to dilate (get wider) and become more porous. As a result the area swells, gets red, becomes warm, and is painful. This results in more white blood cells coming to the area to fight

the infection. If the inflammation happens over the whole body we get a fever. The fever is the bodys way to combat bacteria and viruses. The higher temperature inhibits the pathogen from reproducing. Watch a video about fever. Specific Defence System This defence system is called the specific defence system because the system attacks specific invaders. This can happen by the production of antibodies or by white blood cells engulfing a particular pathogen. 1. White Blood Cells- Lymphocytes and monocytes are produced in the bone marrow. They then are transported by the blood to lymph vessels, lymph nodes, the spleen or the thymus gland. a. Monocytes- These are white blood cells that become macrophages. These are large white blood cells. They engulf invaders. Once engulfed part of the invader remains on the surface of the microphage. This is called an antigen. Antibodies are produced to fight off future invaders. b. Lymphocytes- Some attack body cells that have antigens (parts of the invader) on their surface. Other lymphocytes produce antibodies. 2. Antibodies- Lymphocytes produce antibodies as a result of antigens. These are proteins in the group called immunoglobulins. Each antigen will only stimulate the production of one specific antibody that will fit into its receptor area. This is called natural active induced immunity. It is protection gained against a particular pathogen by the production of specific antibodies after the antigen on the pathogen has been detected.

These antibodies act in numerous ways: a. Some bind to the antigens on the surface on the pathogens. This prevents the pathogen from entering the host cell. Others cause the pathogens to clump together. Phagocytes then engulf the clumped pathogens. Some antibodies activate the complement system which then acts to burst the pathogen.

b. c.

This antibody protection remains in our bodies. When the same pathogen invades the antibodies are quickly produced because some of the lymphocytes from the previous invasion are still present. We may get various types of ailments although they may appear to be the same ailment as a previous one. That is because there are different forms of the same ailment. An example is colds. Different pathogens may produce colds. When that occurs our body must produce new antibodies to attach to those specific antigens. Sometimes our antibody system works against us. In this case the body produces antibodies against itself! These conditions are called autoimmune diseases. Rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis are 2 examples. Sometimes our bodies produce antibodies against noninvaders. For some reason the body perceives a harmless

substance to be an invader. As a result allergies arise to particular substances. 2. Artificial active immunity contrasts with natural active immunity. In this type of immunity the person is inoculated with a non-diseasing causing part of the pathogen. (either a part of the pathogen or a dead pathogen) This will carry the antigen that will trigger the production of antibodies. This is called a vaccination. Genetic engineering is now producing antigens that can be inoculated into people. The antibodies form without any risk to the person. Types of Vaccines 1. Preparation of the dead pathogen. 2. Preparation of the live but weakened pathogen (cannot reproduce). 3. Preparation of a close but relatively harmless relative of the pathogen. 4. Preparation of parts of the pathogen that carry the antigen. The first vaccine was produced by Edward Jenner in 1796. He discovered a vaccine that produced antibodies against smallpox. 3. Natural Passive Immunity occurs when a child gets antibodies from the mother either before it is born or in the mothers milk. This type of immunity only lasts a few months.

WATCH A VIDEO ABOUT NATURAL PASSIVE IMMUNITY 4. Artificial Passive Immunity occurs when a person is injected with antibodies made by another organism. A tetanus shot is an example. The antibodies are gotten from horses. This immunity lasts only a short time.

TYPES OF LYMPHOCYTES- HIGHER LEVEL DISCUSSION Lymphocytes are either B-cells or T-cells depending on where the cells matured. B-cells mature in the bone marrow while T-Cells mature in the Thymus gland.

1. B-cells- B-cells work in the lymphatic system especially the spleen and lymph nodes. Each B-cell works on 1 specific antigen therefore produces only 1 type of antibody to that specific antigen. A B-cell will come into contact with the antigen and then reproduce rapidly. These rapidly produced cells are called plasma cells. These last only a few days but are extremely effective.

Most of these B-cells die within a few days but others remain alive. They are called Memory B-cells. When the same antigen becomes present in the organism these memory B-cells are already there to begin the production of plasma cells and antibodies. This is called a secondary B-cell response. This is

more effective than the original B-cell response for the following reasons: a. b. c. The antibodies are produced to a smaller amount of antigen. The antibodies are produced much faster. More antibodies are produced than in the original response.

2. T-cells- These defenders are produced in the bone marrow but become activated in the thymus gland. These cells do not produce antibodies but protect us in the following ways: 1. Helper T-cells: They recognise antigens on the surface of other white blood cells, especially macrophages. The Helper Tcells enlarge, multiply, and form a group of Helper T-cells. This group will produce chemicals including interferon and also stimulate the formation of B-cells. They also stimulate the reproduction of Killer Tcells.

2. Killer T-cells: These cells destroy abnormal body cells such as virus-infected cells and cancer cells. As stated previously, they are stimulated by Helper T-cells. These cells release a protein called perforin. These proteins form pores in the membranes of the cells they attack. Water and ions from the surroundings flow into the cells and burst them. This is called lysis.

3. Suppressor T-cells: As the same suggests, these cells suppress or inhibit from working after the pathogen has been destroyed. 4. Memory T-cells: Many of these cells survive for life. They stimulate Memory B-cells to produce antibodies. Others stimulate the production of Killer T-cells. Both of these memory cells are responsible for lifelong immunity.

The Nitrogen Cycle

The nitrogen cycle represents one of the most important nutrient cycles found in terrestrial ecosystems (Figure 9s-1). Nitrogen is used by living organisms to produce a number of complex organic molecules like amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids. The store of nitrogen found in the atmosphere, where it exists as a gas (mainly N2), plays an important role for life. This store is about one million times larger than the total nitrogen contained in living organisms. Other major stores of nitrogen include organic matter in soil and the oceans. Despite its abundance in the atmosphere, nitrogen is often the most limiting nutrient for plant growth. This problem occurs because most plants can only take up nitrogen in two solid forms: ammonium ion (NH4+ ) and the ion nitrate (NO3- ). Most plants obtain the nitrogen they need as inorganic nitrate from the soil solution. Ammonium is used less by plants for uptake because in large concentrations it is

extremely toxic. Animals receive the required nitrogen they need for metabolism, growth, and reproduction by the consumption of living or dead organic matter containing molecules composed partially of nitrogen.

Figure 9s-1: Nitrogen cycle.

In most ecosystems nitrogen is primarily stored in living and dead organic matter. This organic nitrogen is converted into inorganic forms when it re-enters the biogeochemical cycle via decomposition. Decomposers, found in the upper soil layer, chemically modify the nitrogen found in organic matter from ammonia (NH3 ) to ammonium salts (NH4+ ). This process is known as mineralization and it is carried out by a variety of bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi. Nitrogen in the form of ammonium can be absorbed onto the surfaces of clay particles in the soil. The ion of ammonium has a positive molecular charge is normally held by soil colloids. This process is sometimes called micelle fixation (see Figure 9s-1). Ammonium is released from the colloids by way of cation exchange. When released, most of the ammonium is often chemically altered by a specific type of autotrophic bacteria (bacteria that belong to the genus

Nitrosomonas) into nitrite (NO2- ). Further modification by another type of bacteria (belonging to the genus Nitrobacter) converts the nitrite to nitrate (NO3- ). Both of these processes involve chemical oxidation and are known as nitrification. However, nitrate is very soluble and it is easily lost from the soil system by leaching. Some of this leached nitrate flows through the hydrologic system until it reaches the oceans where it can be returned to the atmosphere by denitrification. Denitrification is also common in anaerobic soils and is carried out by heterotrophic bacteria. The process of denitrification involves the metabolic reduction of nitrate (NO3- ) into nitrogen (N2) or nitrous oxide (N2O) gas. Both of these gases then diffuse into the atmosphere. Almost all of the nitrogen found in any terrestrial ecosystem originally came from the atmosphere. Significant amounts enter the soil in rainfall or through the effects of lightning. The majority, however, is biochemically fixed within the soil by specialized micro-organisms like bacteria, actinomycetes, and cyanobacteria. Members of the bean family (legumes) and some other kinds of plants form mutualistic symbiotic relationships with nitrogen fixing bacteria. In exchange for some nitrogen, the bacteria receive from the plants carbohydrates and special structures (nodules) in roots where they can exist in a moist environment. Scientists estimate that biological fixation globally adds approximately 140 million metric tons of nitrogen to ecosystems every year. The activities of humans have severely altered the nitrogen cycle. Some of the major processes involved in this alteration include:

The application of nitrogen fertilizers to crops has caused increased rates of denitrification and leaching of nitrate into groundwater. The additional nitrogen entering the groundwater system eventually flows into streams, rivers, lakes, and estuaries. In these systems, the added nitrogen can lead to eutrophication. Increased deposition of nitrogen from atmospheric sources because of fossil fuel combustion and forest burning. Both of these processes release a variety of solid forms of nitrogen through combustion. Livestock ranching. Livestock release a large amounts of ammonia into the environment from their wastes. This nitrogen enters the soil system and then the hydrologic system through leaching, groundwater flow, and runoff. Sewage waste and septic tank leaching.

What is the Carbon Cycle?

The Carbon Cycle is a complex series of processes through which all of the carbon atoms in existence rotate. The same carbon atoms in your body today have been used in countless other molecules since time began. The wood burned just a few decades ago could have produced carbon dioxide which through photosynthesis became part of a plant. When you eat that plant, the same carbon from the wood which was burnt can become part of you. The carbon cycle is the great natural recycler of carbon atoms. Unfortunately, the extent of its importance is rarely stressed enough. Without the proper functioning of the carbon cycle, every aspect of life could be changed dramatically.

We believe that it's vital to understand how the carbon cycle works in order to see the danger of it not working. Therefore, let's look at a sample carbon cycle and explore how carbon atoms move through our natural world. Plants, animals, and soil interact to make up the basic cycles of nature. In the carbon cycle, plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and use it, combined with water they get from the soil, to make the substances they need for growth. The process of photosynthesis incorporates the carbon atoms from carbon dioxide into sugars. Animals, such as the rabbit pictured here, eat the plants and use the carbon to build their own tissues. Other animals, such as the fox, eat the rabbit and then use the carbon for their own needs. These animals return carbon dioxide into the air when they breathe, and when they die, since the carbon is returned to the soil during decomposition. The carbon atoms in soil may then be used in a new plant or small microorganisms. Ultimately, the same carbon atom can move through many organisms and even end in the same place where it began. Herein lies the fascination of the carbon cycle; the same atoms can be recycled for millennia!

Sulfur cycle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The sulfur cycle are the collection of processes by which sulfur moves to and from minerals (including the waterways) and living systems. Such biogeochemical cycles are important in geology because they affect many minerals. Biogeochemical cycles are also important for life because sulfur is an essential element, being a constituent of many proteins and cofactors.[1] Steps of the sulfur cycle are:

Mineralization of organic sulfur into inorganic forms, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), elemental sulfur, as well as sulfide mineralss. Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide, sulfide, and elemental sulfur (S) to sulfate (SO42). Reduction of sulfate to sulfide. Incorporation sulfide into organic compounds (including metal-containing derivatives).

Structure of 3'-phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate, a key intermediate in the sulfur cycle. These are often termed as follows: Assimilative sulfate reduction (see also sulfur assimilation) in which sulfate (SO42) is reduced by plants, fungi and various prokaryotes. The oxidation states of sulfur are +6 in sulfate and 2 in RSH. Desulfurization in which organic molecules containing sulfur can be desulfurized, producing hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S, oxidation state = 2). An analogous process for organic nitrogen compounds is deamination. Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide produces elemental sulfur (S8), oxidation state = 0. This reaction occurs in the photosynthetic green and purple sulfur bacteria and some chemolithotrophs. Often the elemental sulfur is stored as polysulfides. oxidation of elemental sulfur by sulfur oxidizers produces sulfate. Dissimilative sulfur reduction in which elemental sulfur can be reduced to hydrogen sulfide. Dissimilative sulfate reduction in which sulfate reducers generate hydrogen sulfide from sulfate

Chordata
The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition | 2008 | Copyright Chordata , phylum of animals having a notochord, or dorsal stiffening rod, as the chief internal skeletal support at some stage of their development. Most chordates are vertebrates (animals with backbones), but the phylum also includes some small marine invertebrate animals. The three features unique to chordates and found in all of them at least during early development are: the notochord, composed of gelatinous tissue and bound by a tough membrane; a tubular nerve cord (or spinal cord), located above the notochord; and gill slits leading into the pharynx, or anterior part of the digestive tract (the throat, in higher vertebrates). In addition, all have blood contained in vessels, and the tunicates and vertebrates have a ventrally located heart. All have a postanal tail, that is, an extension beyond the anus of the notochord or backbone and of the body-wall musculature, containing no internal organs. In vertebratesanimals of the subphylum Vertebrataa backbone of bone or cartilage segments called vertebrae develops around the notochord; its upward projections partially surround the nerve cord. In many fishes and in early fossil amphibians and reptiles the notochord persists in the adult and is enclosed by the

vertebrae; in higher vertebrates, however, it disappears during embryonic development. There are two invertebrate subphyla: the Urochordata, or tunicates , and the Cephalochordata, or lancelets. A third invertebrate group, comprising the acorn worms and their relatives, shows affinities with chordates and has sometimes been considered a chordate subphylum, but is now often classified in a phylum of its own, the Hemichordata .