1

CHAP 1
Preliminary Concepts
EGM 6352 (Fall 2010)
Instructor: Nam-Ho Kim (nkim@ufl.edu)
Web: http://www.mae.ufl.edu/nkim/egm6352
2
Goals
Learn index notation and summation rule
Learn tensor, notation, and linear operator
Learn vector and tensor calculus
Review mechanics of continuous body
Be able to state the boundary value problem (BVP)
Learn the principle of virtual work
Understand strong form and weak form of BVP
Understand principle of minimum potential energy
3
Index Notation and Summation Rule
Index notation: Any vector or matrix can be expressed in
terms of its indices
Einstein summation convention
In this case, k is a dummy variable (can be j or i)
The same index cannot appear more than twice
Basis expression of a vector
Let e
k
be the basis of vector space V
Then, any vector in V can be represented by
3
1
k k k k
k
a b a b
=
=
_
1
N
k k k k
k
w w
=
= =
_
w e e
1 11 12 13
2 21 22 23
3 31 32 33
[ ] [ ]
i ij
v A A A
v v A A A A
v A A A
( (
( (
= = = =
( (
( (

v A
4
Index Notation and Summation Rule cont.
Examples
Matrix multiplication:
Trace operator:
Dot product:
Cross product:
Contraction: double dot product
( )
j k j k ijk j k i
u v e u v = = u v e e e
0 unless , , are distinct
1 if ( , , ) is an even permutation
1 if ( , , ) is an odd permutation
ijk
i j k
e i j k
i j k

= +

3 3
1 1
:
ij ij ij ij
i j
J A B A B
= =
= = =
__
A B
Permutation
symbol
11 22 33
1 1 2 2 3 3
tr( )
ij ik kj
kk
k k
C A B
A A A A
uv u v u v u v
= =
= + + =
= + + =
C A B
A
u v
5
Cartesian Vector
Cartesian Vectors
Dot product
Kronecker delta function
Equivalent to change index j to i, or vice versa
How to obtain Cartesian components of a vector
1 1 2 2 3 3 i i
j j
u u u u
v
= + + =
=
u e e e e
v e
( ) ( ) ( )
i i j j i j i j i j ij i i
u v uv uv uv o = = = = u v e e e e
1 if
0 if
ij
i j
i j
o
=
=

X
1
X
2
X
3
e
1
e
2
e
3
u
v
( )
i i j j j ij i
v v v o = = = e v e e Projection
6
Tensor and Rank
Tensor
A tensor is an extension of scalar, vector, and matrix
(multidimensional array in a given basis)
A tensor is independent of any chosen frame of reference
Tensor field: a tensor-valued function associated with each point
in geometric space
Rank of Tensor
No. of indices required to write down the components of tensor
Scalar (rank 0), vector (rank 1), matrix (rank 2), etc
Every tensor can be expressed as a linear combination of rank 1
tensors
Rank 1 tensor v: v
i
Rank 2 tensor A: A
ij
Rank 4 tensor C: C
ijkl
7
Tensor Operations
Basic rules for tensors
Tensor (dyadic) product: increase rank
i j i j ij i j
uv A uv = = = A u v e e
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )
=
=
=
u v w u v w
w u v v w u
u v w x v w u x = u v v u
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) o o o
=
+ = +
= =
= =
TS R T SR
T S R TS TR
TS T S T S
1T T1 T
Different notations
= TS T S
Identity tensor
[ ]
ij
o = 1
8
Tensor Operations cont.
Symmetric and skew tensors
Symmetric
Skew
Every tensor can be uniquely decomposed by symmetric and
skew tensors
Note: W has zero diagonal components and W
ij
= - W
ji
Properties Let A be a symmetric tensor
1
2
1
2
( )
( )
T
T
= +
=
S T T
W T T
T
T
=
=
S S
W W
= + T S W
: 0
: :
=
=
A W
A T A S
9
Example
Displacement gradient can be considered a tensor (rank 2)
1 1 1
1 2 3
2 2 2
1 2 3
3 3 3
1 2 3
u u u
X X X
u u u
X X X
u u u
X X X
c c c
c c c
c c c
c c c
c c c
c c c
(
(
c (
(
V = =
(
(
c

(
(

u
u
X
3 1 1 2 1
1 2 1 3 1
3 1 2 2 2
2 1 2 3 2
3 3 3 1 2
3 1 3 2 3
1 1
2 2
1 1
2 2
1 1
2 2
( ) ( )
sym( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
u u u u u
X X X X X
u u u u u
X X X X X
u u u u u
X X X X X
c c c c c
c c c c c
c c c c c
c c c c c
c c c c c
c c c c c
(
+ +
(
(
V = + +
(
(
+ +
(

u
3 1 2 1
2 1 3 1
3 1 2 2
2 1 3 2
3 3 1 2
3 1 3 2
1 1
2 2
1 1
2 2
1 1
2 2
0 ( ) ( )
skew( ) ( ) 0 ( )
( ) ( ) 0
u u u u
X X X X
u u u u
X X X X
u u u u
X X X X
c c c c
c c c c
c c c c
c c c c
c c c c
c c c c
(

(
(
V =
(
(

(

u
Strain tensor
Rotation
tensor
10
Orthogonal Tensor
In two different coord.
Direction cosines
Change basis
* *
i i j j
u u = = u e e
*
i j ij
Q = e e
*
i ij j
Q = e e
* *
*
j j i i
i ij j
u u
u Q
= =
=
u e e
e
*
j ij i
u Q u =
* T
= u Q u
e
1
*
e
2
*
e
3
*
e
1
e
2
e
3
We can also show
* *
j ij i
Q = = e e u Qu
*
( ) ( )
T T T
= = = u Q u Q Qu Q Q u
det( ) 1
T T
= = = Q Q QQ 1 Q
Orthogonal tensor
1 T
= Q Q
11
Dual Vector
For any skew tensor Wand a vector u
Wu and u are orthogonal
Let
Then,
= = = 0
T
u Wu u W u u Wu
=
ij ijk k
W e w
(

(
= =
`
(

(
)
12 13 23
12 23 13
13 23 12
0
0
0
W W W
W W W
W W W
W w
= =
ij j ijk k j ikj k j
W u e w u e w u
= Wu w u
Dual vector of skew tensor W
=
1
2
i ijk jk
w e W
12
Linear Operator
Let A be a vector valued function of a vector variable
Linear operator
How to find A?
Let
Then
( ) = v A u
( ) ( ) ( ) a b a b + = + A u v A u A v
( ) ( )
i i
u = = v A u A e ( )
[ ( )]
i i j j
i j j
v u
u
=
=
e A e
e A e
( )
ij i j
A = e A e
i ij j
v A u =
We just showed that a tensor is a linear operator
= v A u
13
Linear Operator cont.
Change Basis
We have
Now consider
Thus, a rank 2 tensor can change its basis by
If for all possible bases, then A is an isotropic
operator
* *
* *
T
i ki k
T
j lj l
v Q v
u Q u
= =
= =
v Q v
u Q u
= v A u
* * T T
= Q v A Q u
* * T
= v Q A Q u
A
*
* * T T
= = A Q A Q A Q A Q
*
ij ij
A A =
14
Vector and Tensor Calculus
Gradient operator
Gradient is considered a vector
We will often use a simplified notation:
Laplace operator
Gradient of a scalar field |(X): vector
( )
O I
X |
i
i
X
c c
V = =
c c
e
X
,
i
i j
j
v
v
X
c
=
c
2
i j
i j j j
X X X X
| |
| | c c c c
V = V V = =
|
|
|
c c c c
\ .
\ .
e e
( )
i
i
X
|
|
c
V =
c
X e
15
Vector and Tensor Calculus
Gradient of a Tensor Field (increase rank by 1)
Divergence (decrease rank by 1)
Ex)
Curl
j
i j j i j
i i
X X
|
|
c
c
V = V = =
c c
e e e e | |
( )
i
i j j
i i
X X
|
|
c | | c
V = =
|
c c
\ .
e e |
, jk j k
o V = e o
, i ijk k j
e v V = v e
16
Integral Theorems
Green-Gauss Theorem
Gradient Theorem
Stokes Theorem
Reynolds Transport Theorem
d d
O I
V O = I
}} }
A n A
d d
O I
V O = I
}} }
A n A
( ) d d
c
c
I
V I =
} }
n v r v
c
I
c
r
d d ( ) d
d
dt t
O O I
c
O = O + I
c
}} }} }
A
A n v A
17
Example
S: unit sphere (x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
= 1), F = 2xi + y
2
j + z
2
k
Integrate d
S
S
}
F n
t
O
O
O O O
O
= V O
= + + O
= O + O + O
= O
=
} }}
}}
}} }} }}
}}
d d
2 (1 ) d
2 d 2 d 2 d
2 d
8
3
S
S
y z
y z
F n F
18
Mechanics of Continuous Bodies
Balance of linear momentum
Stress tensor (rank 2):
Surface traction
Cauchys Lemma
d d d
b

O I O
O + I = O
}} } }}
n
f t a
ij i j
o = e e o
11 12 13
21 22 23
31 32 33
ij
o o o
o o o o
o o o
(
(
( =
(
(

=
n
t n o

=
n n
t t

= =
n n
t n t n o o
O
I
n
t
n
X
1
X
2
X
3
e
1
e
2
e
3
X
f
b
: body force
t
n
: surface traction
19
Mechanics of Continuous Bodies cont
Balance of linear momentum
For static problem
Balance of angular momentum
( ) d d d
b

O I O
O = I = V O
}} } }}
f a n o o
[ ( )] d 0
b

O
V + O =
}}
f a o
( ) 0
b
V + = f a o
,
0 0
b b
ij i j
f o V + = + = f o
d d d
b

O I O
O + I = O
}} } }}
n
x f x t x a
T
ij ji
o o = = o o HW: Show this
Green-Gauss Thm
20
Projected Stresses
Normal stress
Shear stress
Principal stresses
Mean stress (hydrostatic pressure)
Stress deviator
( )
ij i j
n n o o = = =
n
n t n n n o
2
2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t o o = =
n n
n t n n t n n t
1 2 3
, , o o o
n
t n
1 1
11 22 33 1 2 3
3 3
( ) ( )
m
o o o o o o o = + + = + +
o o o o
o o o o o
o o o o
(
(
= =
(
(

o
11 12 13
12 11 23
13 23 11
m
m m
m
s 1
Which stresses are frame indifferent?
: Parallel
21
Boundary Value Problem
We want to determine the state of a body in equilibrium
The equilibrium state (solution) of the body must satisfy
local momentum balance equation
boundary conditions
Strong form of BVP
Given body force f
b
, specified
displacement g and traction f
S
on the
boundary, find u such that
and
on essential BC
on natural BC
g
S h
= I
= I
u g
f n o
0
b
V + = f o
Why do we call it a strong form?
(1)
(2)
(3)
O
I
n
f
S
X
1
X
2
X
3
e
1
e
2
e
3
X
f
b
22
Boundary Value Problem cont.
How to solve BVP
To solve the strong form, we want to construct trial solutions that
automatically satisfy part of BVP and find the solution that satisfy
remaining conditions.
Statically admissible stress field: satisfy (1) and (3)
Kinematically admissible displacement field: satisfy (2) and have
piecewise continuous first partial derivative
Admissible stress field is difficult to construct. Thus, we will use
admissible displacement field
Trial solutions (Space #)
{ }
1 3
[ ( )] ,
g
H
I
= e O = u u u g
H
1
: first-order derivatives are integrable
23
Virtual Displacement Field
Virtual displacement (Space ')
Small arbitrary perturbation of real displacement
Let be the virtual displacement, then u + must be kinematically
admissible, too
Then, must satisfy homogeneous displacement BC
Space ' only includes homogeneous
essential BCs
t + e e u u u u
{ }
I
= e O =
1 3
[ ( )] , 0
g
H u u u
In the literature, ou is often used instead of
24
Principle of Virtual Work
Instead of solving the strong form directly, we want to
solve the equation with relaxed requirement (weak form)
Virtual work Work resulting from real forces acting
through a virtual displacement
Principle of virtual work when a system is in equilibrium,
the forces applied to the system will not produce any
virtual work for arbitrary virtual displacements
Balance of linear momentum is force equilibrium
Thus, the virtual work can be obtained by multiplying the force
equilibrium equation with a virtual displacement
If the above virtual work becomes zero for arbitrary , then it
satisfies the original equilibrium equation in a weak sense
0
b
V + = f o
( ) d
b
W
O
= V + O
}}
f u o
25
Principle of Virtual Work cont
PVW
Integration-by-parts
Green-Gauss Thm
The boundary is decomposed by
o
O
+ O = e
}} ,
( ) d 0
b
ij i j j
f u u
,
d d
b
ij i j j j
u f u o
O O
= O + O
}} }}
, ,
( ) d d
b
ij j i ij j i j j
u u f u o o
O O
(
= O + O

}} }}
,
d d d
b
i ij j ij j i j j
n u u f u o o
I O O
= I O + O
} }} }}
0 on and on
g S h
j i ij j
u n f o = I = I
g h
I = I I
,
d d d
S
S b
j j ij j i j j
f u u f u o
I O O
= I O + O
} }} }}
for all '
26
Principle of Virtual Work cont
Since o
ij
is symmetric
Weak Form of BVP
Internal virtual work = external virtual work
Starting point of FEM
Symbolic expression
Energy form:
Load form:
o c
O O I
O = O + I e
}} }} }
d d d
h
b S
ij ij j j j j
f u f u u
= e ( , ) ( ) a u u u u
( , ) : d a
O
= O
}}
u u o c
( ) d d
h
T b T S

O I
= O + I
}} }
u u f u f
O
, ,
sym( )
ij j i ij j i ij ij
u u o o o c = =
,
1
sym( )
2
j
i
i j ij
j i
u
u
u
X X
c
c | |
c
= + =
|
|
c c
\ .
[ ]{ } { } = K d F
FE equation
27
Example Heat Transfer Problem
Steady-State Differential Equation
Boundary conditions
Space of kinematically admissible temperature
Multiply by virtual temperature, integrate by part, and
apply boundary conditions
Q
domain A
S
q
S
T
q
n
T = T
0
n = {n
x
, n
y
}
T
0
y
x
T
T
k Q
k
y x y
x
c c c | |
c | |
+ + =
|
|
c c c \ . c
\ .
=

= +

0
on
on
T
n x x y y q
T T S
q f n f n S
{ }
1
( ) ( ) 0,
T
T H T S = e O = e x x
O O
| | c c c c
+ O = O + e
|
c c c c
\ .
} } }
d d ,
q
x y n q
S
T T T T
k k d TQ Tq S T
x x y y
c c
= =
c c
,
x x y y
T T
f k f k
x y
Fourier law of heat conduction
28
Example Beam Problem
Governing DE
Boundary conditions for cantilevered beam
Space of kinematically admissible displacement
Integrate-by-part twice, and apply BCs
4
4
d
( ), [0, ]
d
v
EI f x x L
x
= e
2 3
2 3
d d d
(0) (0) ( ) ( ) 0
d
d d
v v v
v L L
x
x x
= = = =
f(x)
x
L

= e = =
`
)
2
d
[0, ] (0) (0) 0
d
v
v H L v
x
= e
} }
2 2
2 2
0 0
d d
,
d d
L L
v v
EI dx fv dx v
x x
29
Difference b/w Strong and Weak Solutions
The solution of the strong form needs to be twice
differentiable
The solution of the weak form requires the first-order
derivatives are integrable bigger solution space than
that of the strong form
If the strong form has a solution, it is the solution of the
weak form
If the strong form does not have a solution, the weak
form may have a solution
F
0
y
x
T
T
k Q
k
y x y
x
c c c | |
c | |
+ + =
|
|
c c c \ . c \ .
O
| | c c c c
+ O
|
c c c c
\ .
} x y
T T T T
k k d
x x y y
30
Energy Method
Differential Eq. (Local, force balance)
Variational Eq. (Global, energy balance)
If u exists, then u =
If u does not exists, may exist
Linear differential operator
D
A
: Solution space, smoothness, boundary conditions
2
( ) 0 u f x u C '' + = e
Classical solution or Strong solution
C
2
: twice differentiable function
1
u C e
1
Generalized solution or Weak solution
F
2
2
d
Au u A
dx
'' = =
A
Au f u D = e (1)
31
Linear Differential Operator
Positive definiteness
A: symmetric
For all u 0 in D
A
,
(u, v): scalar product
[u, v]
A
: energy scalar product = (Au, u)
energy norm:
Positive bounded below
A is positive definite
A constant c > 0 exists, such that
( , ) d 0
T
Au u u Au
O
O >
}}
1/2 1/2
[ , ] ( , )
A
A
u u Au u u = =
2
( , ) ( , ) 0,
A
Au u c u u c u u u D > = = e
32
Linear Differential Operator cont.
Physical interpretation
u: displacement
Au: force
(Au, u) > 0: positive work is required for non-zero displacement,
but could be small
(Au, u) c u
2
: more work for larger displacement, stable system
Example
Solution space:
A is linear:
(Au, u): energy or work
2
2
( ), (0, L),
(0) (L) 0,
d u
Au f x x
dx
u u
= e
= =
{ }
2
(0, ) (0) ( ) 0
A
D u C L u u L = e = =
( ) A u v Au Av o | o | + = +
z
x
L
f(x)
33
Linear Differential Operator cont.
A is symmetric
A is positive definite
Observation: What happens if f is a concentrated force
Solution space needs to be extended
=
=
= +
=
}
}
}
2
l
2 0
l
l
0
0
l
2
l
2 0
0
( , ) ( )
[ ]
( ) [ ]
( , )
d u
Au w w dx
dx
du dw du
dx w
dx dx dx
d w dw
u dx u
dx
dx
u Aw
2
0
( , ) ( ) 0
L
Au u u dx ' = >
}
( , ) 0 0 const 0 BC Au u u u u ' = = = = BC
34
Energy Functional
Energy functional
If a unique solution u
0
(1) exists, then u
0
minimizes (2)
Observation
( ) ( , ) 2( , ) ( 2 )d
T T
A A
O
H = = O
}}
u u u u f u u u f
0 0
( ) min ( ),
A
A D = H = H e
u
u f u u u Classical solution
0 0
( ) min ( ) ,
A
A D H = H = e
u
u u u f u
Generalized solution
Weak solution
( ) 2 potential energy H = u
Strain energy work done by applied loads
(2)
35
Principle of Minimum Potential Energy (PMPE)
Strain energy
Work done by applied loads
Potential energy
I
h
I
g
O
u
1
u
2
u
3
x
1
x
2
x
3
f
s
f
b
1
( ) ( ) ( ) d ,
2
ij ij
U o c
O
O
}}
u u u
( ) ( )
ij ijkl kl
C o c = u u
( ) d d .
h
T b T s
W
O I
= O + I
}} }
u u f u f
( ) ( ) ( )
1
( ) ( ) d d
2
h
T b T s
ij ij
U W
d o c
O O I
H =
= O O I
}} }} }
u u u
u u u f u f
(3)
36
PMPE cont.
Differential Eq
Solution space:
Principle of minimum potential energy: Solution of (4) in
D
A
minimizes H(u) in (3)
Weak solution
( ) ,
0,
,
b
g
s h
A V = e O
= e I
= e I
u u f x
u x
n f x
o
o
(4)
{ }
= e O = I = I
2 3
[ ( )] 0 on , on
g s h
A
D C u u n f o
{ }
1 3
[ ( )] | 0 on
g
H = e O = I u u
A
D
A
37
PMPE cont.
Necessary condition for minimum PE
Variation of strain energy
0
0
1
( ; ) lim [ ( ) ( )] ( )
d
d t
t
o t t
t t
=
H = H + H = H + u u u u u u u
( ; ) ( ; ) ( ; ) 0, U W o o o H = = u u u u u u
1
2
( ; ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) d
( ) ( ) d
( , )
ij ijkl kl ij ijkl kl
ij ijkl kl
U C C
C
a
o c c c c
c c
O
O
(
= + O

= O

}}
}}
u u u u u u
u u
u u
0
d
d
t
t
o
t
=
c c + c | | | |
= =
| |
c c c
\ . \ .
u u u u
x x x
( ) ( )
ij ij ij
oc c c = = u u
ij ijkl ij
C oo c =
38
PMPE cont.
Variation of work done by applied loads
Thus, PMPE becomes
Load form is linear with respect to
Energy form a(u, ) is symmetric, bilinear w.r.t. u and
Different problems have different a(u, ) and , but they share
the same property
Whats the difference from the principle of virtual
work?
( ; )
( )
h
T b T s
W d d o
O I
= O + I

}} }
u u u f u f
u
= e ( , ) ( ), a u u u u
( ) u ( )
( ) u
39
Summary
Tensor
an extension of vector and matrix, but has a similar properties and
operations.
Tensor operation is independent of any chosen frame of reference
Strong form of BVP is derived using the balance of linear
momentum and boundary conditions
Weak form of BVP is derived using the principle of virtual
work
The solution space of the weak form is larger than that of
the strong form
How can we satisfy for all ' requirement?
Can we test infinite number of ?