2005 IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution
Conference & Exhibition: Asia and Pacific
Dalian, China
Impacts of Distributed Generation on Electric
Grid and Selecting of Isolation Transformer
W. Y. Zhang, S. Z. Zhu, J. H. Zheng, and H. Zhang
Abstract-- As distributed generation (DG) is increasingly
developed, the study of DG has become one of electric power
research emphasis. This paper conducts study on impacts of DG
on electric grid and how to select isolation transformer. Because
of the particularity of DG, interconnection of DG with grid
results in a wide range of system issues. One of feasible
measurements to reduce the harms is to install isolation
transformer at the export of DG units. The general guidelines of
selecting transformer are revealed at first, and then the
appropriate connection of transformation is brought forward.
Besides that, in view of limiting the DG current during the fault
of grid and insuring effective grounding of DG, the parameters of
DG is chosen based on developing expression and several
simulations. The result shows that selecting proper configures
and parameters of isolation transformer could be beneficial to
the power system with DG units.
Index Terms-- distributed generation; grounding; impact;
impedance; interconnections; isolation transformer; mode of
connection; overvoltage; power distribution harmonics; short
circuit currents
I. INTRODUCTION
A distributed generation (DG) is increasingly developed in
the form of solar power, wind power, biogas power
generation and so on, most DG investors expect to connect
DGs to power system and carry out DGs parallel operation to
grid for DGs’ economical efficiency and reliability. However,
some experts and personnel of electric power system are
afraid that large numbers of DGs connected to grid may lead
to hidden troubles to the reliability and stability of power
system. Some studies also indicate that due to DGs ’
particularity, the interconnection of DGs surely results in a
wide range of system issues, e.g. harmonic, flicker, direct
current and short circuit current augment. [1], [2] In order to cut
down and prevent the harm of the interconnection of DGs, it
is necessary to find feasible measures to deal with the
This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of
China (No. 50277021) and SCITECH Plan Project of Beijing Municipal
Science & Technology Commission (No. H030630010510).
W. Y. Zhang is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua
University, Beijing, China P.R., China (e-mail:
zhangwy03@mails.tsinghua.edu cn).
S. Z. Zhu is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua
University, Beijing, China P.R., China
J. H. Zheng is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua
University, Beijing, China P.R., China.
H. Zhang is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua
University, Beijing, China P.R., China
0-7803-9114-4/05/$20.00 ©2005 IEEE. 1
problems before we apply and generalize DGs. In
consequence, the study of DG has become one of electric
power scientific research emphasis. [3]- [5]
This paper makes a study of DG on just this background.
Before all, some impacts of DGs on grid will be analyzed,
according to which solutions answering to the purpose will be
put forward. One measure among those is installing isolation
transformer at the exit of DG. The paper bases on theory
analysis and formula derivation, in combination with
simulation illustration to develop study on how to select the
isolation transformer. It gives selection principles of
connection mode and rules of selecting parameters of isolation
transformer.
II. DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
Distributed Generation is a clean and environmental
generation equipped at the loads. It is an economical, efficient
and reliable generating formality, with low power (dozens kW
to dozens MW) and mini-type modular. DGs are different
from traditional generating formality whose characteristic is
concentration generation, long distance transmission and large
interconnection network. And the prime motors of DG system
can be several kinds of energy switching facilities such as gas
turbine, wind turbine, solar energy photovoltaic cell, waste
incineration boiler, fuel cell, and reserve energy and so on.
DG can be seen as different models for different study
purposes. In this paper, the system and DG are equal to two
generator systems with unequal capacity and voltage
respectively. And the study emphasizes particularly on
studying different impacts when selecting different connection
modes and parameters of transformer. In the study, outputs of
system and DG keep invariable with node voltage changes.
III. IMPACTS OF DG INTERCONNECTION AND GENERAL
PRINCIPLES OF SELECTING TRANSFORMER
As DGs are mainly interconnected to distribution network,
the distribution network becomes active network with
dispersal resource and its operation, governing and dynamic
state process are impacted. The impacts of DG mainly include:
(1) affect power flow of distribution network, change the
voltage distribution of distributing feeder and add to difficulty
of voltage regulation; (2) affect power quality of distributing
system, and result in pollution such as voltage fluctuation,
harmonic and direct current injection and so on; (3) affect
contribution of DG to level of short circuit current and system
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protection. DGs will supply short circuit current and increase flow passing transformer is very small during the fault, it will
short circuit level during system fault, which may damage take some time for protection of DG to detect system fault.
distribution equipment and impact distributing protection. During this period, electric apparatus have to suffer
Although interconnection of DG leads to a series of overvoltage.
negative impacts, we can allocate and set connecting arrester suffering overvoltage
equipment, such as limiting interconnecting capacity of DG,
setting isolation transformer and equipping relevant
connecting equipment and so on, to reduce and prevent above
disadvantageous impacts.
Isolation transformer of DG means special transformer
installed at the exit of DG when DG with large capacity needs single-phase to ungrounded
ground fault transformer
being interconnected. Voltage transformation is not its chief
function, and by selecting proper connection modes and Fig. 1 electric apparatus such as arrester suffer overvoltage during single-
phase fault
parameters of transformer, we can obtain following functions: It can be seen from above analysis that if high-pressure
(1) Prevent injecting direct current to grid (because direct side of isolation transformer uses ungrounded mode of
current doesn’t cause change of magnetic flux, direct current connection, it will lead to resonance overvoltage and steady
at the side of DG will not induce direct current potential via overvoltage and endanger electric apparatus such as DG unit,
transformer, and ordinary transformer can obtain this transformer, and lightning arrester and so on. Therefore, when
function); selecting connection mode of isolation transformer, the high-
(2) Clear harmonics with 3 or integer multiples of 3 orders, pressure side should be guaranteed grounding to prevent
cut down on impacts of higher harmonic and voltage overvoltage at DG side during system fault. [7]
fluctuation on other users on the distribution network;
(3) Make sure the side of DG can detect the fault during B. Guarantee DG side to detect grid fault
system fault and limit short circuit current to prevent In order that line opening doesn’t result in islanding
protection disoperation of the system; operation during system fault, DG’s protection should detect
(4) Prevent resonance overvoltage and steady overvoltage system fault correctly and trip off DG before line opening, in
at the side of DG during system fault, resulted from this way electric department can clear the fault according to
ungrounded of DG side or DG disconnection with grid. initial plan. Even above method is unfeasible, DG’s protection
Above are just about the general principles to select should detect the fault before reclosing relay starts and cut off
connection mode and parameters of DG isolation transformer. DG after line breaker trips off.
As a general rule, it is not necessary for DG with small If there is an isolation transformer at the exit of DG, then
capacity to install special isolation transformer. While connection mode of transformer will have certain impacts.
capacity of DG is considerable, several disadvantageous Therefore, when selecting connection mode of transformer,
impacts can be weaken and reduce by installing isolation we must follow principles convenient to fault detection. For
transformer. protection of power supply system, when short circuit presents
to system, we hope the actual short circuit current is more
IV. SELECTING OF TRANSFORMER CONNECTION MODE enough so that the protection action will be more reliable and
in favor of cutting off fault line quickly. For the most frequent
A. Prevent ferro resonance and overvoltage short circuit fault style, namely single-phase short circuit fault,
If electric lines at grid side have to exit operation due to the quantity of short circuit current depends on zero sequence
lighting stroke or service, circuit breaker, reclosing equipment, impedance. If the grid side of isolation transformer isn’t
section breaker or fuse will act to cut off power supply lines. grounding, the zero sequence impedance will be very large
If DG units are still in operation then, voltage will remain in and fault zero sequence current can’t circulate, which results
the electric lines. As showed in figure 1 that DG is connected that it is difficult for DG side to detect single-phase fault at
to other loads with an ∆ / Y isolation transformer, without grid side. If the fault isn’t detected, it means that the electric
grounding source. Here, typical ferro resonance will present. [6] apparatus will suffer overvoltage.
Besides that, the two lighting arresters of the other non-fail It can be seen from above analysis that on the view of
phases will suffer line voltage (in excess of rated voltage of preventing overvoltage at the DG side and guaranteeing DG
the lighting arresters because of ungrounded connection mode side to detect system fault, the primary side of isolation
of transformer high-pressure side. Here, if DG relay can not transformer needs effective grounding. Therefore, we should
detect abnormal islanding state and still supply power for follow the principle of the primary side grounding when
other users in the electric lines, it will lead to no planned selecting transformer connection mode.
independent operation. Because the designed load of DG unit First of all, we analyze the current distribution during
is not so much, this operation mode will result in very serious single-phase short circuit at system side, when DG’s isolation
sequent and damage the unit at last. In addition, the remaining transformer adopts Yn / ∆ (e.g. yn11, D). Assume the ratio of
voltage in the line will endanger maintainers’ lives. If the net transformer line voltage is n, and then the ratio of phase

2

voltage is n. The relation of currents of DG side and system
side is
D n D D
Ia = ( I A − IC )
3 fault. Therefore, it is better to select transformer with Yn / ∆
D n D D
Ib = (I B − I A ) (1)
3
D n D D
Ic = ( IC − I B )
3
When single-phase short current presents to C phase at the
D D
(1)
D D
system side, there is I C = I K , I B = I A = 0 . The positive-
sequence current, negative-sequence current and zero-
sequence current will all be transmitted into delta winding at
the DG side, but the zero-sequence current only circulates in
delta winding. Then, there is following relation that
D
D n (1)
Ia = −
3IK
D
Ib = 0 ( 2)
D
D n (1)
Ic =
3IK
It can be known that no matter which phase the single-
phase short circuit occurs to, there are always two line
currents at DG side reflecting single phase short circuit
current at system side, and system fault can be detected by
over current protection.
From above analysis, we can see that when isolation
transformer uses connection, the single-phase short circuit
fault is easy to be detected according to voltage between
phases or line current of DG side and other faults is
correspondingly easy to be detected.
C. Restrain harmonic injecting
The theory and experimental investigation have both
verified that high-power electron device and converter
apparatus based on traditional linear rectification will cause
lots of harmonics, some of which with considerable amplitude
is harmonics with integer multiples of 3 order. If these
harmonics inject to grid, it will result in pollution on electric
grid, which is not allowed. As a consequence, it is necessary
to take measures to restrain harmonic. Selecting connection
mode of isolation transformer reasonably can obtain the aim
of clearing harmonics with integer multiples of 3 order. In
view of clearing harmonics with 3 and integer multiples of 3
order, we can take delta connection as the connection modes
of either side of the isolation transformer, that is ∆ / Yn or
Yn / ∆ connection. In this way, harmonics with integer
multiples of 3 orders circulate in the winding of delta
connection, instead of flowing into public grid.
In conclusion, it is proper to select isolation transformer
with the primary side grounding, and complete earth fault
detection at its primary side to prevent overvoltage when
island operation or independent operation. Although ∆ / Yn
3
3
connection can shield harmonic, the fault current can’t
circulate, which makes DG side can not detect the fault. While
Yn / Yn connection is scarcely used because other negative
effect is too much (e.g. DG is easy to de destroyed during the
mode of connection.
V. SELECTING OF TRANSFORMER PARAMETERS
The main function of isolation transformer is step up and
down instead of isolation, and the voltage level of primary and
secondary side of transformer even can choose by the ratio of
1:1 in accordance with exit voltage of DG. Transformer
capacity can choose more than DG capacity. The uppermost
thing of selecting isolation transformer parameters is selecting
leakage reactance and neutral ground reactance of transformer.
We will analyze in two points of view as follow.
We make an assay on the illustration showed in Figure 2,
and select EMTDC simulation software to simulate on
different conditions. DG is connected to the feeder of a shutter
station, which has several additional outgoing feeders except
the feeder that DG is connected to. When fault presents to one
of the feeders, the connection of DG will lead to certain
impacts on system.
load
Xgrid
Xa
load a
Xb
b
load
DG
Fig. 2 DG is interconnected to certain feeder in distribution network
A. Consider in view of DG injecting short circuit current
Although Yn / ∆ transformer can clear triple harmonic and
convenient for fault detection, it also can result in other
operation issue. As is showed in figure 2, when faults occur to
other feeder in the grid, DG will be an additional short circuit
current source and increase fault current of short circuit point
when fault occurs to other feeders in the grid. Fault currents
not only flow from system side to fault pint, but also in other
paths such as in the outgoing feeder b of the shutter station
where DG is.
In such a case, there may be two impacts:
1) The short circuit level of the fault point is so much that
short circuit current of outgoing an in figure 2 exceeds short
circuit capacity and broken circuit capacity that switch gear
(cable, short circuiter etc) can endure.
2) In general, 10kV feeder is only equipped overcorrect
protection without directivity. As a consequence, if the short
circuit current caused by DG is too much, it will lead to
protection disoperation of line b in figure 2 and line b opening,
which will cause unnecessary supply interruption of users on

line b.
To solve this issue, it can be considered from following
two aspects: (1) limit connection capacity of DG; (2) increase
impedance of DG isolation transformer. We can limit DG
short circuit current and prevent some disadvantageous
impacts by these two ways. When DG capacity can not be
reduced for economic reason or other reasons, we should
select isolation transformer with high impedance or add to
reactor at neutral point of star side to reduce short circuit
current.
In medium-voltage distribution network, over current
protections generally take 1.4kA as detecting value. In order
to prevent original protection disoperation, zero sequence
impedance of transformer should be selected to make current
of DG side not pass 1.4kA during the fault.
B. Consider in view of effective grounding factor
While we guarantee the fault current of DG is not too large
to affect protection, we also have to prevent temporary
overvoltage at DG side during system fault, which is to
guarantee effective grounding after disconnection with electric
grid. Effective grounding means that when fault to ground
occurs to one of three phases of power system, the voltage to
ground of the other two phases can not be more than 125% of
rated voltage.
For DG parallel to grid model in figure 2, when single-
phase short circuit fault occurs to feeder as showed in the
figure, the equivalent circuit of positive sequence and zero
sequence is respectively showed in figure 3 and figure 4:
Xa1 Xb1
Xgrid1 Xload1
Fig. 3 equivalent circuit of positive sequence
Xa0 Xb0
Xgrid0 Xload0
Fig. 4 equivalent circuit of zero sequence
When A phase to ground short circuit occurs to system,
individual voltages of the non-fault phases B, C is [8]
⋅
=
⋅
−
⋅ k
U fB U fB 0 U fA 0 2+k0
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ k
= −
U fC U fC 0 U fA 0 2+k0
⋅ ⋅
Among these, ， ，
U fA 0 U fB 0
voltages of A, B, C phases at fault point before the fault,
4
x
k 0
= ∑ (0)
x ∑ (0)
It can be seen from above formula that the larger zero
sequence impedance is, the larger voltage of non-fault phase
after fault is. In order to prevent overvoltage, it should be
guaranteed that zero sequence impedance meets the
requirement of effective grounding.
Analyzing zero sequence impedance diagram of figure 4, it
can be seen that:
1) When DG is connected to grid, which will provide
grounding source (low enough zero sequence impedance), if
distribution network is grounding system, then DG is effective
grounding;
2) If electric grid doesn’t provide grounding source, or
DG trips off grid, there is no grid zero sequence impedance
(Xgrid is very great or infinitely great). Load Xloadb0 is
generally biggish, while zero sequence impedance of load
Xloadb0 may make a great difference, which requires DG to
provide effective grounding. Isolation transformer of DG
provides parallel zero sequence channel for load zero
impedance, and zero sequence impedance should be lower
enough to provide effective grounding.
However, in view of fault current, if the zero sequence
impedance is too low, DG will be easy to be affected by
overload of system disturbance. During the fault, short circuit
current of fault phase (A phase) is
⋅
⋅
=
⋅
+
⋅
+
⋅
= 3×
U f 0
( 5)
I f I f (1) I f (2) I f (0) z ∑(1) z ∑(2) + z ∑ (0)
+
Xt1 It can be seen from above equation that too low zero sequence
impedance will augment short circuit level, which may
Xloadb1
Xdg destroy protection of distribution. Therefore, in order to
restrain short circuit current, we must select transformer with
biggish impedance; however, in order to guarantee effective
grounding and prevent overvoltage, the impedance of
transformer should be reduced. In consequence, we should
make a compromise between them.
Xt0
There are two ways to change the impedance of
Xloadb0
transformer:
(1) Change leakage reactance of transformer;
(2) Change reactance of neutral point at star side.
Therefore, when selecting isolation transformer, we can
adjust leakage reactance and neutral point reactance to
determine zero sequence reactance of transformer and obtain
compromise between restraining DG injecting short circuit
0
−1
( 3) current and effective grounding.
C. 4.3 Simulation illustration
−1 This paper studies impacts of different zero sequence
0
( 4) impedances of transformer on short circuit current and
temporary overvoltage on the basis of model showed in figure
⋅ 2. In the illustration, DG is regarded as a 1.5MVA minitype
respectively are generator with 0.4kV export voltage, and system bus voltage
U fC 0
is 10.5kV. Because the ratio of reactance to resistance in the
grid is considerable, we only take reactance into account and
4
 5

ignore resistance. We choose MW base of 20MW and voltage

base of 10.5kV, and transform parameters value of load, DG
and grid to per unit value. The detailed data are as follow:
Xgrid1=0.0684 ， Xgrid0=6.155 ， Xa1 ＝ Xb1 ＝ 0.1368 ， Xa0
＝ Xb0 ＝ 0.1368 ， Xt1 ＝ Xt0 ＝ 0.3. Feeder where DG is
connected has the same loads of 0.1102 as feeder where fault
occurs to. And the total loads of other feeders are active
power of 0.675 and reactive power of 0.15.
Load on the feeders add up to 0.9 and the output of DG is
8.2％ of total loads. The simulation is made up of four steps:
Fig. 7 short current effective values of DG side, grid and short circuit point
(1) Adopt isolation transformer with leakage impedance of
when increasing leakage impedance of transformer
3％ and neutral point reactance of 0. The simulation results
are showed in following figures:

Fig. 8 voltage of primary side of isolation transformer when increasing

leakage impedance of transformer
Fig. 5 short current effective values of DG side, grid and short circuit point It can be seen in figure 7 that when we increase leakage
during single-phase short circuit fault impedance to 3％ and neutral point reactance of 0, the zero
sequence impedance of transformer is 0.7p.u.. Here, the
effective value of maximum short circuit current provided by
DG side is 1.1kA, and the effective value of maximum short
circuit current is close to 4.8kA. Both currents of DG side and
short circuit point decrease. However, the maximum voltage
to earth of non-fault phase at primary side of transformer
exceeds 125% of rated voltage (7.6kV), that is to say that zero
sequence impedance of transformer is so large that DG side is
not effective grounding.
(3) Adopt isolation transformer with leakage impedance of
Fig. 6 voltage of primary side of isolation transformer during single-phase 3％ and neutral point reactance of 0.6. The simulation results
short circuit fault are showed in following figures:
It can be seen in figure 5 that when we choose leakage
impedance of 3％ and neutral point reactance of 0, the zero
sequence impedance of transformer is 0.3p.u.. Here, the
effective value of maximum short circuit current provided by
DG side is 1.64kA, more than 1.4kA. And the effective value
of maximum short circuit current is close to 6kA, which may
lead to overload of distributing apparatus. While the
maximum voltage to earth of non-fault phase at primary side
of transformer is 6.6kV, less than 125% of rated voltage, that
is 7.6kV, and the DG side is effective grounding.
(2) Adopt isolation transformer with leakage impedance of
Fig. 9 short current effective values of DG side, grid and short circuit point
7％ and neutral point reactance of 0. The simulation results when increasing neutral point reactance
are showed in following figures:

5

Fig. 10 voltage of primary side of isolation transformer when increasing
neutral point reactance
It can be seen in figure 9 that when we keep leakage
impedance of 3％ and increase neutral point reactance to 0.8 ,
the zero sequence impedance of transformer is 0.74p.u.. Here,
the effective value of maximum short circuit current provided
by DG side is 0.7kA, and the effective value of maximum
short circuit current is close to 4.3kA. Both currents decrease.
However, the maximum voltage to earth of non-fault phase at
primary side of transformer exceeds 125% of rated voltage
(7.6kV), that is to say that zero sequence impedance of
transformer is so large that DG side is not effective grounding.
(4) Adopt isolation transformer with leakage impedance of
3％ and neutral point reactance of 0.4. The simulation results
are showed in following figures:
Fig. 11 short current effective values of DG side, grid and short circuit point
when adjusting reactance of transformer
Fig. 12 voltage of primary side of isolation transformer when adjusting
reactance of transformer
It can be seen in figure 11 that when we keep leakage
impedance of 3％ and change neutral point reactance to 0.4 ,
the zero sequence impedance of transformer is 0.52p.u.. Here,
the effective value of maximum short circuit current provided
by DG side is 0.8kA, and the effective value of maximum
short circuit current is close to 4.3kA. That is to say, the short
circuit current of DG side is comparatively small and will not
6
6
destroy the protections. And the maximum voltage to earth of
non-fault phase at primary side of transformer is 7.3kV, less
than 125% of rated voltage (7.6kV), that is to say effective
grounding of DG side. In consequence, we obtain a better
compromise between restraining short circuit current and
preventing overvoltage.
Table 1 gives 4 groups of data corresponding to simulation
illustration, and the results show that as the zero sequence
impedance of transformer increase, the effective values of
maximum short circuit current of DG side and short circuit
point gradually decrease, and the maximum voltage to earth of
non-fault phase keeps the trend of increasing.
TABLE 1
GROUPS OF DATA CORRESPONDING TO SIMULATION ILLUSTRATION
illustration 1 2 3 4
zero sequence 0.3p.u 0.7p.u. 0.74p.u 0.52p.u
impedance
max. current at 1.64kA 1.1 kA 0.7 kA 0.8 kA
DG side
max. current of 6kA 4.8 kA 4.3 kA 4.3 kA
short circuit point
max. voltage of 6.6kV 7.8 kV 7.8 kV 7.3 kV
non-fault phases
Comparing figures from 5 to 12 and table1, it can be found
that selecting transformer with small zero sequence impedance
can prevent overvoltage of non-fault phases, but it may cause
that current of DG side and short circuit point is too large to
destroy distribution protection and lead to overload. Selecting
transformer with biggish zero sequence impedance can
prevent DG side to inject too much current, but may lead to
overvoltage at DG side during the fault. We can obtain the
compromise between them by adjusting zero sequence
impedance. And zero sequence impedance can be adjusted by
two means of changing leakage reactance and neutral point
reactance of transformer. In general, if it is adjusted by means
of choosing different leakage reactance of transformer, it is
necessary to buy special high impedance of transformer,
which may bring some troubles to operation and maintenance.
Therefore, it is better to select a routine transformer and
change zero sequence impedance by adjusting neutral point
reactance of transformer to obtain the aim of compromise.
VI. CONCLUSION
This paper illustrates the ways of selecting DG isolation
transformer by theory analysis and simulation illustration on
the basis of study of impacts of DG on power system.
(1) In order to prevent ferro resonance and overvoltage
due to without earthing source at DG side and guarantee DG
side to detect system fault during the fault, it calls for effective
grounding at primary side of isolation transformer;
(2) In view of clearing triple-harmonic and higher
harmonics with integer multiples of 3 order, we can choose
isolation transformer with delta mode of connection;
(3) By analysis and comparison, we can find that the
 7

better mode of connection is;

(4) Isolation transformer with biggish zero sequence
reactance can restrain short circuit current, but may lead to
overvoltage of DG side. While zero sequence is smaller, the
overvoltage can be prevented, but the short circuit current may
increase and destroy protection of distribution. Therefore, we
must select zero sequence of transformer properly and make a
compromise between them.
(5) We can change zero sequence impedance of
transformer by selecting transformer of different leak
reactance and setting reactor at the star side of transformer.
The more convenient way is to change reactance of neutral
point;
(6) Besides that, it should be noticed that the impacts of
zero sequence impedance of transformer is diverse if DG is
connected to different electric grid. When the equal
impedance of grid itself is small, the impacts of transformer
on voltage and current are not serious. However, when the
equal impedance of grid itself is considerable, impacts of
transformer with the same parameters on voltage and current
is more.

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[3] IEEE 1547, IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources
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[4] GE Corporate Research and Development One Research Circle
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