PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING UNIT I COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT 1.

. Define Environment: Environment is defined as the holistic view of the world as it functions at a given point of time, with a multitude of spatial, elemental and socio-economic systems, distinguished by quality of space, and the mode of behaviour of the various abiotic and biotic forms. 2. Write down the elements of environment The elements of environment can be broadly divided into two; 1. Abiotic It consists of physical environment consisting of air, water and soil or sediment. The abiotic components are further divided into three; Lithosphere (sphere of rocks / soil / sediment) Hydrosphere (sphere of water) Atmosphere (sphere of gases) 2. Biotic The biotic or biological environment consists of flora, fauna and micro-organisms. The biotic component consists of, Producers (green plants) Consumers a. Primary Consumer b. Secondary Consumer c. Tertiary Consumer Decomposers (bacteria and fungi) 3. What is abiotic environment? Abiotic environment is composed of external physical factors like temperature, humidity, water, minerals and gases etc. 4. What are biotic environment? Biotic environment is composed of all the living components-plants, animals and micro-organisms. 5. What is autecology? It is concerned with the ecology of an individual species and its population. While studying the autecology of a particular species, an ecologist studies its behavior and adaptation to the environmental condition at every stage of that individuals life cycle. Autecology is also called species ecology. 1

6. Why are plants called as producers? The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap solar energy and change it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic compounds namely water and carbondioxide.As the green plants manufacture their own food they are known as Autotrpohs. 7. Write the classification of biological environment. 1. Floral/Plant Environment 2. Faunal /Animal Environment 3. Microbial environment 8. Write notes on troposphere This layer is composed of water vapour, clouds and precipitation. It occupies 80% of the mass of atmosphere. At mid-latitudes it extends upto 10 to 12 km from earths surface. At the poles it ranges about 5 to 6 km and at equator it is about 18 km height. In this layer the temperature decreases at 5 to 7 0C as we go up. It is due to the wet adiabatic lapse rate. Troposphere is a very turbulent place ie. there are strong vertical air movements that lead to rapid and complex mixing. Mixing is good for air quality since it rapidly disperse pollutants. 9. Write notes on stratosphere Stratosphere is a stable layer of dry air. Since there are no strong vertical movements, the pollutants remain suspended for a long time. They can drift back to troposphere where they are diluted and removed by rainfall or settling. Stratosphere contains ozone which absorbs the short wavelength ultraviolet energy, causing the air to heat up. The resulting temperature inversion makes the stratosphere stable. Both troposphere and stratosphere together account for 99.9 % of mass of the atmosphere. It extends upto 50 km above the surface of earth. 10. Define Ecology and Ecosystem: Ecology is defined as the study of relationships between organisms and their environment. An Ecosystem is defined as a natural functional ecological unit comprising of living organisms (biotic community) and their non-living (abiotic or physiochemical) environment that interact to form a stable self-supporting system.

11. Write short notes on photosynthesis.

The process by which chlorophyll bearing plants use energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars is called photosynthesis. The generalized equation for photosynthesis is,

12. Explain energy flow and write down the laws governing that. The behaviour of energy in an ecosystem can be termed as energy flow. The flow of energy through the ecosystem is unidirectional and non-cyclic. This one way flow of energy is governed by laws of thermodynamics which state that; I) Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can only be transformed from one form to another. This is known as the first law of thermodynamics. Energy transfer is always accomplished be dispersion of energy into unavailable heat (ie. entropy). This law is known as the second law of thermodynamics or the law of entropy.

II)

13. Explain food chain and food web. Food chain: In a food chain each organism eats the smaller organism and is eaten by the larger one. All these organisms which are interlinked with each other through food together constitute a food chain. The different species in a food chain are called trophic levels. Each food chain has three major trophic levels Producers, Consumers and Decomposers. Sunlight Producer (Plants) Grass Primary Consumer (Herbivores) Rabbit Secondary Tertiary Quartenary Consumer Consumer Consumer (Primary (Secondary (Omnivores) Carnivores) Carnivores) Fox Wolf Man

Death Inorganic Substances Decomposers (Bacteria, Fungi) Fig.: Basic nutritional links in an ecosystem.

Food web: Various food chains are often interlinked at different trophic levels to form a complex interaction between different species from the point of view of food. This network is called the food web. The following figure shows the food web from grass to hawk. Grasshopper Grass Mouse Rabbit Snake Lizard Hawk

Fig.: Example of food web. If any of the intermediate stage of the food chain is removed, the succeeding links of the food chain will be affected. The food web provides more than one alternatives of food to most of the organisms in an ecosystem and, therefore, increases their chances of survival. 14. Define Nutrient cycle / Biogeochemical cycle / Material cycle. The cyclic exchange of nutrient material between the living organisms and their non-living environment is called nutrient / material / biogeochemical cycle. As indicated by the name, the nutrients circulate through life (bio) and through earth (geo) repeatedly (cycle). 15. What all will be included under Edaphic factors? Soil, pH, topography, minerals etc 16. Name some of the natural impacts on water, air and land: Natural hazards can be broadly divided into two: 1. Geo Physical 2. Biological Geo Physical can be again divided into; i. Climatic and Meteorological ii. Geologic and Geomorphic Climatic and Meteorological hazards include; Snow & Ice f) Hail Droughts g) Heat waves Floods Fog Frost

a) b) c) d) e)

h) Tropical cyclones

i) Lightning andj) Tornadoes Fire Geologic and Geomorphic hazards include; a) Avalanches b) Earthquakes c) Erosion d) Land Slides Biological hazards can be divided into, i. Floral ii. Faunal Floral hazards include; a) Fungal disease b) Hay fever c) Poisonous plants Faunal hazards include; a) Bacterial and Viral disease b) Venomous animal bites c) Infestation

e) Shifting Sand f) Tsunamis g) Volcanic Eruptions

17. Name some of the man-made (Anthropogenic) impacts on environment 1. London smog 2. Mediterranean-a dead sea 3. Nuclear explosions 4. Minamata disease 5. Bhopal disaster 6. Chernobyl disaster 7. Gulf war hazards 8. Acid Rain 9. Global warming and green house effect 10. Ozone layer depletion 18. State the theory of Classical Economics Adam Smith and Thomas Malthus, in the 1700s developed the theory of classical economics, according to this view, as the population grows, the increasing scarcity of the finite resources reduces the quality of life, increases competition and ultimately causes population to fall. 19. Give two importance of ecological services. 1. Chemical composition of the atmosphere and oceans 2. Water catchments and ground water recharge. 3. Biological diversity balance.

20. What is PEP? PEP is Preventive Environmental Policy. It involves the adoption of technologies such as 1. Cleaner technologies for production process. 2. Recycle and reuse technologies. 3. Replace non-renewable resource base with renewable resource base. 4. Integrated technologies that minimize cross-media transfer of pollutants, thus minimizing overall pollution- induced risks in all environmental components. 21. What are Heterotrophic components? Fungi, non-photosynthetic bacteria, other microorganisms and animals are the heterotrophic components of the ecosystem. 22. What are the different types of capital in neoclassical economics? Economics distinguish several kinds of capital 1. Natural capital 2. Human capital 3. Manufactured capital 23. Define Sustainable Development The term 'sustainable development' was introduced in a 1987 report by the World Commission on Environment and Development called 'Our Common Future'. According to the report, the term 'sustainable development' can be summarised as 'meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.' 24. Explain the concept of sustainable development The concept of sustainable development has the following underlying promises: 1. A symbiotic relationship between the consumer human race and the producer natural system. 2. Compatibility between ecology and economics.

Fig: Concept of sustainable development The following general constitutional preconditions must be satisfied while working towards the goal of sustainable development: 1) Economic efficiency

2) Ecologic harmony 3) Equality and Social justice 4) Endogenous choices 25. Write notes on carrying-capacity-based developmental agenda for sustainable development. A carrying-capacity-based developmental agenda for sustainable development ensues, which includes; a. A preventive environmental policy b. Structural economic change c. The enhanced role of environmental management tools like, Environmental Impact and Risk Assessment (EIRA), Environmental Audit (EA), Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Natural Resource Accounting (NRA).

UNIT II SCIENCE OF ENVIRONMENT 26. Define mole. Mole is defined as the amount of substance present in a material. The term mole can be applied to any particle. In general it is the ratio between mass and molecular weight of a particle. 27. Define pH. It is the logarithmic scale used to specify whether a solution is acidic, basic, or neutral. 28. Define molality. Molality is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1000gm of the solvent.It is another common measurement of concentration Molality = Number of moles of solute Weight of solvent 29. Define Molarity. Molarity is defined as the number of moles of the solute present in 1000ml of the solution. Molarity = Number of moles of solute Volume of solution

30. Define Hardness of Water. Hardness of water is defined as the property of Water which consumes more soap to produce foam or lather. It is due to the presence of certain salts of calcium, magnesium and other heavy metals dissolved in it. 31. Differentiate between Temporary hardness and Permanent hardness Temporary hardness is due to the presence of dissolved bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium and other heavy metals and the carbonates of iron. It is mostly destroyed by heating. Permanent hardness is caused due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium, magnesium, iron and other metals. This is not destroyed by heating. 32. Define buffering capacity of water. Buffering capacity is the ability of water to maintain a stable pH value even if acids or bases are added. 33. Define Turbidity. Turbidity in water is a measure of the resistance of water to the passage of light through it. 34. Define permeability of soil, It is defined as the ability of movement of water through the pore spaces of soil particles. 35. What are the principle nutrients required for algae. i) Nitrogen ii) Phosphorus iii) Carbon dioxide 36. List the properties of acid and base. A solution for which the hydrogen ions are greater are than the hydroxyl ions, it is called as acid. A solution for which the hydroxyl ions are greater than hydrogen ions, it is called as base. 37. Define Chemical oxygen Demand This is defined as the amount of oxygen required for chemical oxidation of the organic matter and other reducing agents present in waste water. 38. List some physical properties of water. Color

Temperature Turbidity Taste and odour. 39. Define Bio chemical oxygen demand. BOD is defined as the quantity of dissolved oxygen required by bacteria for the oxidation of organic matter under aerobic conditions 40. What is an point source pollution. Polluted water discharged from specific locations such as drain pipes, ditches, etc. are called point source pollution. 41. What is an non-point pollution ? Water pollution caused in a scattered or diffuse manner having no specific origin or point of entry into a particular body of water are called non-point pollution sources. 42. List the different types of fresh water algae? i)Green algae ii)Motile green algae iii)Blue green algae. iv)Brown algae. 43. Explain the basic classification of micro organism. Bacteria Fungi Algae Protozoa Viruses 44. What is an indicator organism? The detection of pathogens in routine water analysis is difficult, uneconomical and impractical. Instead water is tested using a surrogate that is an indicator of fecal contamination. Example: total coliforms, fecal streptococci and clostridium perfingens 45. Calculate the number of moles of CO2 in 44 g of CO2? Number of moles = Mass / Molecular Mass

= 44 / 44 =1 mole. 46. Calculate the pH of a solution with [H+]=3.4x10-4 mol/l pH = - log10[H+] = - log10(3.4) log10(10-4 ) = - 0.534 + 4 = 3.47 47. What is a policy? A policy is a plan or statement of intent either written or stated about a course of action or inaction intended to achieve certain goals. 48. Write the pH of i)Human blood ii)Lemon juice iii)Wine iv)Distilled water Human blood Lemon juice Wine Distilled water : 7.5 :-2 :-4 : 7

49. What is an saturated solution? This is a solution, which contains as much solute as it can dissolve in the presence of solvent at a given temperature. 50. Name all the mass/mass units used for representing concentration of solution? i)percent by weight ii)parts per million iii)molality iv)mole fraction

UNIT III CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 51. What is meant by air pollution? Air pollution may be defined as the presence of impurities in excessive quantity and duration to cause adverse effects on plants, animals, human beings and materials. 52. What are the main sources of air pollution?

Natural sources and Man made or anthropogenic sources 53. List the types of air pollutants. Particulate pollutants Gaseous pollutants 54. What do you understand by suspended particulate? Suspended particulate matter is a complex mixture of small and large particles with size less than 100 varying origin and chemical composition. The largest source of particulate matter is coal-fired power plants, but auto and diesel exhaust are also prime contributors, especially along busy transportation corridors. 55. Write short note on color-coding of biomedical waste. In order to dispose the biomedical waste safely and economically it is necessary to collect the waste by suitable segregation. The system of using different color bags to collect different types of medical waste is known as color-coding. The biomedical waste can be divided into 3 categories according to the colors, Yellow bag waste Eg: Human anatomical waste-Should be incinerated or deeply burried Red bag waste Eg: Plastic waste-Should be disinfected with chemicals Black bag waste Eg: Incinerated ash-Should be disposed for landfills. 56. How can exhaust reduction be done in vehicles? The exhaust deduction in the vehicle may be achieved to some extend by adopting the following technique. Catalytic converters Manifold air injection Fundamental engine modification 57. Write short note on radioactive property of hazardous waste. In the spontaneous break down of the nucleus of an atom, mainly three types of radioactive materials are found to be hazardous namely: particles, particles, radiations. The particle emission occurs mainly in radioactive isotope and the radiations are the electron released from a radioactive nucleus. The radiations are electromagnetic radiation traveling at speed of light. 58. How can you control the emission of nitrogen oxides? OR Explain EGR method. Since high temperature favors the production of nitrogen oxide, the emission may be controlled by lowering the combustion temperature. This can be achieved by recirculating the exhaust gases, which will no longer burn. Hence it will not produce any heat if re-circulated and will quench the heat of the combustion gases. This method is called Exhaust Gas Recirculation(EGR). The temperature in the cylinder ranges from 500oC and the end of compression stroke (before ignition) to about 3000-

C after ignition, which produces nitrogen oxides. Hence to reduce the formation of nitrogen oxides the temperature must be maintained as low as 1300 oC which can be maintained by adopting EGR method. 59. What are the sources of hydrogen fluoride? Hydrogen Fluoride is released by aluminium industry, chemical industries, textile and fertilizer industries. HF affects the respiratory track, bone fluorisis, skin burns, and destroys the crops. 60. Write short note on incineration process used in managing hazardous waste. The incineration process is very complex and involves chemistry, physics and thermodynamics. During this process, the bonds between the molecules break and free radicals are formed leading to violent reactions, and finally to harmless products. Some reactions are also speeded up by catalysts at high temperature. 61. What is landscape diversity? Landscape diversity involves more than just the spatial arrangement of habitats across a large area but also includes the flux of energy, nutrients, disturbances and organisms across the area. 62. What are the main components of municipal solid waste? Garbage (or) food waste Rubbish Ashes and Residues Special wastes Construction and demolition wastes Treatment plant waste 63. Define green house effect. The green house effect is a naturally occurring process that makes the earth warmer by trapping more energy in the atmosphere. The green house gases absorb and hold heat from the sun, preventing it from escaping back into the space. 64. Define global warming Global warming is defined as the increase in temperature of the earth, which causes more changes in climate. 65. What are the effects of global warming? More heat waves Expansion of desert area Natural fires in forest land More evaporation of water from oceans and water bodies Melting of ice caps in artic and Antarctica regions More cloud formation in the atmosphere Rise in sea level More drought More impacts on plants, animals and humans.

66. Define screening and skimming. The process of removing the large matters from sewage by allowing it to pass through screens is called screening. The process of removal of floating matters such as oils, grease, etc by skimming tanks is called as skimming. 67. Name any three disinfection method Chlorination, Ozonation, UV treatment 68. What are the types of autoclave systems used in treatment of biomedical waste? Gravity system Pre vacuum system Retort type systems 69. When is a waste said to be hazardous? A waste is said to be hazardous if it posses one or the more of the following characteristics Toxicity Reactivity Ignitability Radioactivity Corrosivity 70. What are major vehicle pollutants? The major pollutants due to vehicles are Carbon monoxide Hydrocarbons Oxides of nitrogen Lead components and Suspended particulate matter. 71. Write short note on nitrification / denitrification An approach to nitrogen control utilizes aerobic bacteria to convert ammonia(NH4+) to (NO2-) which is nitrification followed by an anaerobic stage in which different bacteria converts nitrates to nitrogen gas(N2) which is denitrification. The overall process is referred to as nitrification / denitrification. 72. Explain drying and dewatering. The shredded waste material is pre-dried to decrease its weight by removing the amount of moisture. If there is any need for incineration of sludge from treatment plants, then dewatering is essential. 73. What are the two main classifications in sources of radioactive pollution? Natural sources Man-made sources

74. What is half-life of a radioactive substance? The half-life of a radioactive substance is defined as the time taken for decaying half of the material present. 75. What are the factors to which the effect of radioactive pollutants depend on? Duration of exposure to the radiation Strength of the radiation Half life period of the radioactive pollutant Rate of diffusion of the pollutant Environmental conditions

UNIT IV ENGINEERING INTERVENTIONS TO REDUCE THE ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSES 76. What is DRE? DRE refers to the destruction and removal efficiency that evaluates the measurement of qualitative functioning of an incinerator. A DRE value of 99.99 indicates that one molecule of an organic compound is released in to the atmosphere for every 10,000 molecules of pollutant treated by the incinerator. 77. What is flow diagram and what are its advantages? Flow diagram is a graphical representation of various processes involved in various methods of treatment plant. The advantages are i) It shows the sequential processes involved in a particular type of treatment method. ii) Easy to understand and can easily identify if anything goes wrong. 78. What are the objectives of waste minimisation? i) Reduced hazard to human health from the generation of toxic wastes. ii) Preventing environmental degradation caused by unnecessary release of waste materials. iii) Reduced the waste disposal and its cost reduction. 79. What are the factors involved in the amount of waste generation process? i)House keepinng practices ii)Extent of process control. iii)Product quality requirements and initiative. iv)Managing system and initiative. 80. What is the aim of national committee of environmental planning and coordination. i)Conservation of natural resources. ii)Control of environmental pollution. iii)Environmental education.

iv)Environmental laws. 81. What is waste treatment? Waste treatment technique or process change the physical,chemical and biological character of waste. 82. What are the objectives of waste treatment? i)To recover the material or energy resources from the waste. ii)To neutralise the waste. iii)To reduce the volume of waste. 83. What is an clean technology? Clean technology is an integrated preventive environmental and business strategy which uses fewer raw materials, less energy and generate less waste than an existing technology. It produces products and provide services at a higher efficiency ,increased profitability and reduces risk to the environment. 84. What are the advantages of clean technology? i)It helps to use fewer raw materials and energy and generate less waste. ii)It helps to ensure worker safety. iii)It reduce the impacts for products along the entire life cycle from material extraction to disposal. 85. What are the steps to be taken to implement cleaner production in an industry. i)Undertake environment review and create the awareness of environmental issues. ii)Establish environmental policy duly acknowledged by the executive officer. iii) Carry out environmental audit on suppliers of services. 86. What do u mean by end of pipe approach? In this case waste treatment is done at the end of pipe (ie) after the manufacturing process is over. Steps are taken to mininise the waste during the manufacturing processes and also the generated wastes are not reused. Therefore ,the waste treatment alone is called End of Pipe approach. 87. What is environmental waste audit? The most important process, which reveals the actual generation of waste in an industrial unit, is the waste audit. 88. What are the important points of good waste audit? i) Help set targets for waste reduction. ii) Increase knowledge of the production process. iii)Help to improve process efficiency. 89. How the waste audit is divided? a) Pre assessment b) Material balance

c) Synthesis. 90. What is disposal? Disposal is the discharge, deposit, injection, dumping, spilling, leaking or placing of waste in to or any land, water or air. 91. What is standard of performance? The minimum allowable concentration of each chemical agent in a waste water or effluent that is prepared by suitable acts or amendments is called standard performance. 92. What is the objective role of standards of performance in the control of pollution? The standards of performance function to monitor and assess the overall concentration of toxic pollutants in the effluent and enable the analyst or investigators to check whether the prescribed limit of those pollutants do not exceed the allowable level. 93. Mention the standards of a few chemical parameters in the oil refinery industry. 1.Phenol 2.Sulphide 3.BOD at 200c 4.Suspended solids 0.7 kg/1000 tones of crude processed 0.35 kg/1000 tones of crude processed 10.5 kg/1000 tones of crude processed 14 kg/1000 tones of crude processed

94. Mention the standards of a few chemical parameters in the cotton textile industry 1.pH 2.Suspended solids 3.BOD at 20 0 c 4.Sulphides 5.Total chromium content 5.5 to 9.0 100 mg/lit 150 mg/lit 2.0 mg/lit 2.0 mg/lit

95. What is the percentage removal of suspended solids and BOD in primary treatment? The primary treatment is aimed to remove 60% of suspended solids and 40% of BOD. 96. What are the elements of waste minimisation strategy? a. Reduction at source b. Recycle/Reuse c. Treatment d. Disposal. 97. What are the possible solutions of waste disposal? i)Install a fume incinerator.

ii)Install a condenser to recover the solvent for reuse 98. What is MINAS? Effluent standards were designed on techno economic grounds called the Minimal National Standards 99. What is LSS? Effluent standards are calculated on the basis of the assimilative capacity of the receiving environment, called the Location Specific Standard 100. What are the operations included in ETP? i)Blending ii)Equalization iii)Neutralization iv)Precipitation v)Chemical or Biological Oxidation . UNIT V TOOLS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 101. Define Environmental Impact Assessment.

The operations included in ETP(effluent Treatment Plants) are

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) can be defined as the systematic identification and evaluation of the potential impacts (effects) of proposed projects, plans, programs, or legislative actions relative to the physical-chemical, biological, cultural, and socioeconomic components of the total environment. 102. Write down the objective of EIA:

The objective of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is to ensure that environmental aspects are addressed and potential problems are foreseen at the appropriate stage of project design. EIA should be envisaged as an integral part of the planning process and initiated at the project level from the start. 103. What is the need of EIA? All the developmental activities are proposed to facilitate the public. For that the resources are used more and that may alter and affect the environmental parameters. Hence this EIA is carried out in order to ensure the depletion of resources and the alterations and effects on the quality of environmental parameters. What are the goals of EIA?

104.

The goals of EIA are: Conservation of resources. Minimization of wastes. Recovery of by-products. Utilization of efficient equipments. 105. 106. List the key elements of EIA. Organizing the job. Assessment performance. Preparation of Environmental Impact Statement. Reviewing of Environmental Impact Statement. Approval of Plan with or without modifications. Define Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)

An Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is a detailed written statement which serves as an action-forcing device, provides full and fair discussion of significant environmental impacts and must inform the decision makers and public the reasonable alternatives which would avoid or minimize adverse impacts or enhance the quality of human environment. 107. i. ii. Write down the types of EIA: Rapid EIA Comprehensive EIA

There are two types of EIA.

Rapid EIA is done quickly based on one season data whereas Comprehensive EIA will be detail and normally takes at least one year for its preparation. 108. Write down some of the benefits of EIA:

The benefits of the EIA are, i. Reduce cost and time of project implementation ii. Increase project acceptance and improve project performance. iii. Avoid impacts and violations of laws and legislations. iv. Improved human health and maintenance of biodiversity. v. Decreased resource use and fewer conflicts over natural resource use. 109. Write down the major objectives of ISO 14000 series:

The major objectives of ISO 14000 series is to promote more effective and efficient environmental management in organization and to provide useful and

usable tools-ones that are cost-effective, system based, flexible and reflect the best organizational practices available for gathering, interoreting and communicating environmentally relevant information. The intended end result is the improvement of environmental performance. 110. Write down the subjects covered under various ISO 14000 :

ISO 14000 14009 : Environmental Management Systems ISO 14010 14019 : Environmental Audit ISO 14020 14029 : Environmental Labeling ISO 14030 14039 : Environmental Performance Evaluation ISO 14040 14049 : Life Cycle Assessment ISO 14050 14059 : Terms and Definitions ISO 14060 : Environmental Aspects in Product Stand 111. Write down the key requirements specified under ISO 14000:

The key requirements specified under ISO 14000 are, i. Environment access ii. Planning iii. Implementation and operation iv. Checking and corrective action v. Management review 112. Write notes on Precautionary Principle:

The precautionary principle emphasizes that we should plan a margin of safety for error or surprises in natural systems. In other words, when human health or the environment are threatened, precautionary measures should be taken even if cause-and-effect relationships are not fully established scientifically. 113. What is the beneficiary pays principle?

According to this principle, the people who get benefited due to an activity, which increases the pollution, should pay for that. 114. What do you know about risk management? Risk management is a process of resolving various policies regarding acceptable risk. It consists of risk assessment and risk control. Define risk assessment?

115.

Risk management is defined as the process of identifying, quantifying and evaluating the risk. . It contains risk determination and risk evaluation. 116. What are the activities covered in risk assessment? Risk identification. Risk estimation. Risk acceptance.

 Risk aversion. 117. Write notes on Polluter Pays Principle:

The basic environment law of the land requires that a polluter bear the remedial or clean-up costs as well as the amount payable to compensate the victims of pollution. This is known as the polluter pays principle. The principle becomes effective with Environmental Law. 118. What are the limitations of Polluter-Pays Principle? 1. The polluter pay taxes would be used to enrich government funds, not to compensate those who were harmed by the pollution. 2. The pollution control boards are in no position to assess the actual costs imposed by pollution. Pollution taxes enacted through the political process are likely to reflect political priorities rather than environmental ones 119. Compare and contrast polluter pays principle with beneficiary pays principle. In case of the polluter pays principle, the polluter is responsible and he should pay for his action. Whereas, incase of the beneficiary pays principle, the benefited persons should pay for enjoying a clean and safe environment. There is no need to pay by the polluters according to this principle. 120. Write down the components of Environmental Law:

Environmental Law includes official rules, decisions and actions concerning environmental quality, natural resources and ecological sustainability. 121. What are the major constitutional provisions in India for environmental protection? 122. Article 47. Article 48-A. Article 51-A (g). Article 253. State the Article-47 of the Indian Constitution.

Article 47 of the Constitution states that, "The State is to ensure as its primary duty of, 1.Raising standard of living of its people, 2.To increase the level of nutrition of the people, 3.To bring improvement in public health". 123. State the Article 48-A of the Indian Constitution.

Article 48-A of the Constitution states that, "the State shall endeavor for protection and improvement of the environment and for safeguarding the forest and wild life and improving the natural environment of the country". 124. State the Article 51-A(g) of the Indian Constitution.

According to Article 51-A(g) of the Constitution, it shall be the duty of every citizen of India 'to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers ,and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures'. 125. State the Article 253 of the Indian Constitution.

Article 253 of the Constitution empowers the parliament to make laws regarding preserving the environment. It states 'The parliament has power to make any law for the whole or any part of the territory of India for implementing any treaty, agreement or convention with any other country or countries or any decision made at any international conference, association or other body'. 126. List the major environmental conventions of 20th century. 1.World summit on sustainable development 2.The Earth Summit 3.World conference on women. 127. Name some of the acts enacted by the Indian Government to protect the environment. 1.The Water (prevention and control of pollution) Act 1974 2.The Water (prevention and control of pollution) Cess Act 1977 3.The Air (prevention and control of pollution) Act 1981 4.The Environment (protection) Act 1986 5.The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991. 128. What are the common objectives of environmental legislation?

All the Acts were enacted to achieve the following: 1.To control further damage to the environment and ecosystem 2.To conserve the environment 3.To restore the environment in areas damaged including such measures as reclamation of degraded land. 4.To create authorities to administer the policy and contents of the legislation. 5.To provide penalties and prosecution for violation of laws. 129. List the major environmental protocols of 20th century. 1.Kyoto protocol 2.Montreal protocol. 130. Write notes on NGOs:

The groups working for social changes are called Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). When the activities are concerned with environmental issues they are called environmental NGOs. 131. Write notes on Green Peace:

Green peace is one of the largest NGOs in the world with 1.6 million contributing members, carries out well-publicised confrontations with toxic waste dumpers, seal hunters and others who threaten very specific and visible resources. 132. List some of the NGOs available in India. 1.World Wide Fund for Nature India. 2.Indian Environmental Association, Mumbai. 3.Environmental Society of India (ESI), Chandigarh. 4.Sastrakalayatha, Kerala. 5.C.P.Ramaswami Ayer Environmental Education Centre. 6.Centre for Environmental Education, Ahmedabad. 7.Friends of River Narmada. 8.Madras Environmental Society, Chennai. 9.Eklavya, Madhya Pradesh. 10.SEARCH, Bangalore. 133. How does the community participation involve in protecting the environment? Community participation requires involvement in several areas: 1.Better theoretical knowledge about the environmental information (both Scientific and traditional) 2.Better practical guidelines and tools are need. 3.Better educational support. 4.Ethical inconsistencies in environmental decision-making are illuminated and kept to a minimum. 134. Write short notes on the history of implementation of international treaties and conventions. Over the past 25 years, more than 170 treaties and conventions have been negotiated to protect our global environment. These are mainly designed to regulate the following activities: 1. Intercontinental shipping of hazardous waste 2. Reforestation 3. Over-fishing 4. Trade in endangered species 5. Global warming and 6. Wildlife protection. 135. Mention the standards in EPR:

There are three types of standards mentioned in Environment Protection Rules (EPR),

a. Source standards, which require the polluter to restrict the emission and discharge of environmental pollutants at source. b. Product standards, which fix the pollution norms for new manufactured products such as car. c. Ambient standards, to set maximum pollutant loads in the air and to guide regulation on the environmental quality that ought to be maintained for healthy living. 136. Write notes on environmental law in ancient period in India:

Production, conservation and judicious use of natural resources were the ancient approach. It was Dharma of each individual in the society to protect the natural resources. People worshipped the objects of nature. The trees, the water, the land and the animals gains important position in the ancient time. 137. Write down the purpose of The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. The purpose of The Water Act is to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the maintenance or restoring wholesomeness of water for the establishment, with a view to and carrying out the purpose of aforesaid of Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution, for conferring on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto and for matters connected therewith. 138. According to The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 define air pollutant: The Air Act was passed for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution. This law defined an air pollutant as any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plants or property or environment. 139. 1986: Mention some important features of Environmental (Protection) Act,

Some important features of the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 are 1. Regulating the handling of hazardous substances 2. Has power to order the closure of the non co-operative industry. 3. Take all necessary steps to protect and improve the quality of environment. 140. Write notes on Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous chemical Rules, 1989. These rules are applicable to three different types of flammable substances and about 450 hazardous chemicals. The importers of hazardous chemicals should inform the Board authorities of the below given details within 30 days, 1. The place of entry in India 2. The name of address of the importer

3. Mode of transport 4. The quality of the chemicals and 5. The safety details of the product.

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16 MARKS UNIT I COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT UNIT I 1)Explain in detail about the components of environment?(16) Hydrosphere (6) Atmosphere (5) Lithosphere (5) 2)Explain in detail sustainable development? (16) Definition (2) Diagram (4) Agenda (5) Example (5) 3)Explain Nitrogen ,Sulphur, Carbon cycles? (16) Nitrogen cycle Diagram(3) Theory (3)

Sulphur cycle Diagram(3) Theory (2) Carbon cycle Diagram(3) Theory (2) 4) i)Explain in detail about the man made impacts on water,air,land? (16) ii)Explain about a)London smog b)Bhopal gas tragedy i) Man made impacts on Water (4) Man made impacts on Air (4) Man made impacts on Land (4) ii)London smog (2) Bhopal gas tragedy (2) 5) Explain the concept of sustainable development with necessary examples. Ecological economics(4) Concept of sustainable Development (6) Example(6) UNIT II 6. .Explain in detail the physical& chemical properties of water. Henry & Henike 7. Explain in detail the physical& chemical properties of air. Henry & Henike 8. Explain in detail the physical& chemical properties of land. Henry & Henike 9. Explain in detail the Biology of water, soil. Henry & Henike 10. Explain in detail the Biology of indoor air outdoor air. Henry & Henike UNIT III Explain the waste water treatment for municipal solid waste. G. M. Masters Page :241-252 12.How is hazardous waste managed? G. M. Masters Page:253-267 13.Discuss about solid waste management.

S.K. Dhameja 14.How can air pollution be controlled? S.K. Dhameja 15.Explain Green house effect and ozone layer depletion G.M.Masters384-390

UNIT IV 16.Explain various engineering interventions. Henry & Henike 17.Discuss in detail the waste minimization techniques. Henry & Henike 18.Explain the clean technology options. Henry & Henike 19.With flow sheets explain the waste management in paper and pulp industry. Refer theory from G.M.Masters and draw flow sheets 20.With necessary flow sheets explain the waste management in textile industry. Refer theory from G.M.Masters and draw flow sheets UNIT V

21.Describe in detail about EIA and EIS. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) - definition - objective - types - EIA report Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) - definition - features - elements contained EIA study - flow chart

22.Explain (i) Environment Management System (MIS) Standard (ii) Precautionary Principle (iii) Polluter Pays Principle Environmental Management System Standards - ISO - ISO 14000 series o Objectives o Subjects covered under ISO 14000 o Key requirements of ISO 14000 Precautionary Principle - definition - basic components of precautionary action Polluter Pays Principle - definition - scope & promoting it. 23.Define Environmental law and explain Indian Environmental Law scenario. definition of environmental law environmental law in ancient period environmental law in British period constitutional provisions and the environment - statement of Supreme court - fundamental norms recognized by court article 253 and environmental legislation

24.Describe the role of non-governmental organizations and community participation in environmental management Non-Governmental Organizations - definition - classification of groups and their area of activities - examples - Green peace - Conservation International Community Participation - definition - reasons to use collaborative approaches - example - EXNORA in India for clean surroundings 25.Write down the functions of Central Pollution Control Board and State Pollution Control Board in India.

The Water (Prevention and Control) Act, 1974 and Air (Prevention and Control) Act, 1981 assigned different functions to the Central / State Pollution Control Board. - Functions of CPCB - Functions of SPCB (atleast 8 points in each)

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Elaborative Answers
1. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) can be defined as the systematic identification and evaluation of the potential impacts or effects of proposed projects, plans, programs, or legislative actions relative to the physical-chemical, biological, cultural, and socioeconomic components of the total environment. The primary purpose of the EIA process is to encourage the consideration of the environment in planning and decision-making and to ultimately arrive at actions, which are more environmentally compatible. The objective of the EIA is to ensure that environmental aspects are addressed and potential problems are foreseen at the appropriate stage of project design. EIA should be envisaged as an integral part of the planning process and initiated at the project level from the start. There are two types of EIA. Rapid EIA, which is done quickly based on one season data whereas Comprehensive EIA will be detail and normally takes at least one year for its preparation.

EIA REPORT
An EIA report normally contains the following, 1. Introduction of the project : This includes technical details, economic feasibility, etc. of the proposed project. 2. Baseline data collection : This includes the present and past data on meteorology, present air and water quality monitoring, floral and faunal survey, socio-economic survey of people in the project area. 3. Prediction of impacts on the proposed project on local environment. 4. Mitigation measures and environmental management plan. 5. Summary, conclusion and recommendations

The various steps required to conduct an EIA are shown in Fig. ,

Project proposal Expert team

Proposal to conduct the study Proposal Evaluation Finalisation of the proposed study Report satisfactory

Commence EIA study

Database and impact identification

Interim report Evaluation of interim report

Finalise the modalities

Report satisfactory Meet to finalise reject proposal DataReport accepted Accept / Policy analysis and the recommendations Final Report

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

An Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is a detailed written statement which serves as an action-forcing device, provides full and fair discussion of significant environmental impacts and must inform the decision makers and public the reasonable alternatives which would avoid or minimize adverse impacts or enhance the quality of human environment. The Environmental Impact Statement has some unique features such as, 1. The statements generally depend on content, geography and the balance of beneficial versus harmful effects. 2. It should also highlight whether any areas of cultural, scientific or historical importance might be affected. 3. The EIS is the result of EIA Study, which is usually time consuming and expensive. 4. Sometimes, just requesting an EIS is enough to sideline a questionable project. 5. It gives adversaries time to rally public opposition and to research information. 6. Based on information given, environmentalists can appeal in the courts, if required. Every EIS must contain the following elements, 1. Purpose of the project proposal. 2. Absolute need of the project in a particular geographical location. 3. Alternatives to the proposed action.

4. Complete statements on the negative aspects of the project. 5. Advantages of the project in a particular location. 6. Cost benefit analysis 7. It should clearly mention the relationship between short-term resources and longterm productivity, as well as any irreversible commitment of resources resulting from project implementation.

2. i) Environment Management System Standards ISO 14000 Series

The preparatory work on the first international standards on Environmental Management Systems was undertaken by the International Organisations for Standards (ISO). These norms come under ISO 14000 series. The objectives of ISO 14000 series is to promote more effective and efficient environmental management in organization and to provide useful and usable tools ones that are cost-effective, system based, flexible and reflect the best organizational practices available for gathering, interoreting and communicating environmentally relevant information. The intended end result is the improvement of environmental performance. The subjects covered under the various ISO 14000 series are given in Table

ISO Number Range ISO 14000 14009 ISO 14010 14019 ISO 14020 14029 ISO 14030 14039 ISO 14040 14049 ISO 14050 14059 ISO 14060

Subject Environmental Management Systems Environmental Auditing Environmental Labeling Environmental Performance Evaluation Life Cycle Assessment Terms and Definitions Environmental Aspects in Product Stand

The ISO 9000 series on quality management system is focused mainly on ensuring customer satisfaction. Similarly, ISO 14000 series on environmental management systems addresses the needs of a wide cross section of people in the society to protect the environment and for this purpose the following key requirements were specified under ISO 14000; 1. Environment access 2. Planning 3. Implementation and operation

4. Checking and corrective action 5. Management review (ii) PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE The Precautionary Principle emphasizes that we should plan a margin of safety for error or surprises in natural systems. In other words, when human health or the environment are threatened, precautionary measures should be taken even if cause-andeffect relationships are not fully established scientifically. In many cases, if we wait until we have an absolutely certain solution, it may be too late to act. We need the best information available to make an important decision, but sometimes, we need to take a courageous, but modest, stand that chooses among the best possible policy options. Here lies, the importance of Precautionary Principle. There are four basic components of precautionary action; 1. People have a duty to take anticipatory steps to prevent harm. If there is a reasonable suspicion that something bad might happen, then there is an obligation to try to stop it. 2. Before using a new technology, process, chemical or new activity people have an obligation to examine a full range of alternatives, including the alternative of not using it. 3. The burden of proof of carelessness of a new technology, process, activity, or chemical, lies with the proponents, not with the general public. 4. Decisions applying the precautionary principle must be open, informed and democratic and must include the affected parties. (iii) POLLUTER-PAYS PRINCIPLE According to literature, the Polluter-Pays Principle is the legal requirement that the person responsible should bear the costs of pollution for causing the pollution and the consequential costs. According to the principle as interpreted by decision-makers, the polluters must pay for: The cost of pollution abatement The costs of environment recovery and The compensation costs for victims if any, due to pollution.

The polluter-pays principle can also inspire the use of economic instruments, and the application of rules relating to competition and subsidy. In protecting the environment, we should understand that provisions for the application of the polluterpays principle are clearly justified by the understanding of the term polluter and the responsibility to pay for pollution, which results from classifying a person legally as a polluter.

There are several policy and strategic approaches to the control of environmental pollution through the application of the polluter-pays principle. The first approach is direct regulation and control. Here, the government can decide what each polluter must do to reduce pollution by setting certain uniform standards and subjecting violators to legal penalties. The second approach is the fixing of charges for various levels of pollution, to enable the users to bear the cost of pollution prevention and control measures. Economists prefer this approach as well as the pollution-pays principle, because as a strategy, they believe pollution results from a failure of the pricing system and that the best way to correct the failure is through system itself. The third approach involves the enforcement of torts and property rights through the judiciary. Indeed, under torts, a pollution victim can seek redress in court for damage suffered. This method is effective when the identity of the affected parties is known, but the assignable damage might be ambiguous in many cases. The fourth approach is the one consisting of substantial subsidy for individual treatment. Polluters respond differently to these approaches in their own interest. Some find it cheaper for example to pay a pollution tax, while others might reduce pollution or avoid charges by using different raw material or improve energy consumption. However, the implementation of these strategies requires much information on the technology of each industry to enable regulation.

3. ENVIRONMENTAL LAW Environmental law includes official rules, decisions and actions concerning environmental quality, natural resources and ecological sustainability. Every country has different legislative and legal processes, and thus the environmental law changes from country to country. N D Tiwari Committee, appointed by then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in 1980, to evaluate various existing environmental laws in India, observed in its report that we have in about 500 or more environmental laws in India but we have not undertaken systematic review of these laws till date. This brings to us the present status of the environmental laws in India even today. While dealing with environmental laws in India, it will be more appropriate to study the evolution of the environmental laws from ancient time to present period in general and to evaluate specific environmental law in particular.
ANCIENT APPROACH

Production, conservation and judicious use of natural resources were the ancient approach. It was Dharma of each individual in the society to protect the natural resources. People worshiped the objects of the nature. The trees, the water, the land and the animals gains an important position in the ancient time. In ancient times, the knowledge, the motivation and the sanction were the basic postulates, which regulated

the eco-system. The Dharma of environment was to sustain and to ensure progress and welfare of all.
BRITISH INDIA PERIOD

It was considered a landmark period in the history of legal control in the environmental pollution. An attempt was made for the first time to control specifically water and atmospheric pollution through criminal sanctions. British India rule also enacted a number of legislations, which had a direct bearing on one or the other components of the environment. Three specific areas and one general area were selected for preserving the environment. 1. Industrial development required legislations for Regulation of the Factories, Boiler Act, 1983, Explosive act, 1884, Explosive Substance Act, 1908, Workmen Compensation Act, 1923. 2. Concern for the protection of forest made enactments such as the Cattle Trespass Act, 1971, the Destructive Insects & Pest Act, 1914. 3. Concern for the protection of animals, wild life and birds including elephants. 4. General areas such as the Smoke Legislations of Bengal, 1905, Bombay, 1912, Madras Town Planning, the Calcutta Improvements, U.P., Municipality, Bihar and Orissa Municipality. The above enactments had two main goals: 1. The care of public health and 2. The concern for gradual deforestation and the extinction of wildlife, birds and animals, but the British-India Rule was mainly concerned with the trade and commerce and therefore, aimed at the resources use and the exploitation by the State and industries under State patronage. Every resource was viewed as a commodity that deserves to be exploited. In true sense, the British did not enact Central Specific Legislation in relation to the environment protection and therefore, the common law principles were brought into play by the courts of law such as remedy for tort, negligence and nuisance etc.
ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS IN INDEPENDENT INDIA

The Indian Constitution is amongst the few in the world that contains specific provisions on environmental protection. The directive principles and the fundamental duties chapters explicitly enunciate the national commitment to protect and improve the environment. In India the environmental laws comes under the criminal section. This involves a maximum of 3 year imprisonment and a fine of Rs.10,000/- In many cases, the Supreme Court has intervened and has often stated that, the issue of environment must and shall receive the highest attention from this Court. The notable fundamental norms recognized by the court are,

1. Every person enjoys the right to a wholesome environment, which is a facet of the right to life guaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution of India. 2. Enforcement agencies are under an obligation to strictly enforce environmental laws. 3. Government agencies may not plead on non-availability of funds, inadequacy of staff or other insufficiencies to justify the non-performance of their obligations under environmental laws. 4. The polluter pays principle which is a part of the basic environmental law of the land requires that a polluter bear the remedial or clean up costs as well as the amounts payable to compensate the victims of pollution. 5. The precautionary principle requires government authorities to anticipate, prevent and attack the causes of environmental pollution. This principle also imposes the onus of proof on the developer or industrialist to show that his or her action is environmentally benign. 6. Government development agencies charged with decision making ought to give due regard to ecological factors including (a) the environmental policy of the Central and State government; (b) the sustainable development and utilization of natural resources; and (c) the obligation of the present generation to preserve natural resources and pass on to future generations an environment as intact as the one we inherited from the previous generation. 7. Stringent action ought to be taken against contumacious defaulters and persons who carry on industrial or development activity for profit without regard to environmental laws. 8. The power conferred under an environmental statute may be exercised only to advance environmental protection and not for a purpose that would defeat the object of the law. 9. The state is the trustee of all natural resources which are by nature meant for public use and enjoyment. The public at large is the beneficiary of the sea-shore, running waters, air, forests and ecologically fragile lands. These resources cannot be converted into private ownership.

Article 253 and Environmental Legislation

Article 253 of the Constitution empowers Parliament to make laws implementing Indias international obligations as well as any decision made at an international conference, association or other body. Article 253 states: Notwithstanding anything in the foregoing provisions of this Chapter, Parliament has power to make any law for the whole or any part of the territory of India for implementing any treaty, agreement or convention with any other country or countries or any decision made at any international conference, association or other body. Entry 13 of the Union List covers: Participation in international conferences, associations and other bodies and implementing of decisions made thereat. In view of the broad range of issues addressed by international conventions, conferences, treaties and agreements, Article 253 read with Entry 13 apparently gives Parliament the power to enact laws on virtually any entry contained in the State List.

4. ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS The groups working for social changes are called Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). When the activities are concerned with environmental issues they are called environmental NGOs. The groups and their area of activities are broadly classified into the following; 1. NGOs that are located in the developed countries and work on local issues. 2. Some of the NGOs are located in developed countries, but focus their attention on the problems of developing countries. 3. Some of them are global, with active groups world-wide. 4. A few are highly professional, combining private individuals with representatives of government agencies on quasi-governmental boards or standing comities, with considerable power. 5. Some of the organizations are meant for self-popularity and are inactive. 6. Many work for political change, especially by gathering and disseminating information. 7. Some groups undertake direct action to protect a specific resource. The activities of NGOs vary depending on their area of concentration. Generally, activities involve public education, protest marches, demonstration, civil disobedience, participatory public action and media events. Some instances are; Green Peace, one of the largest NGOs in the world with 1.6 million contributing members, carries out well-publicized confrontations with toxic waste dumpers, seal hunters and others who threaten very specific and visible resources. Conservation International has been a leader in dept-for-nature swaps to protect areas particularly rich in biodiversity. The members also concentrate on economic development, by seeking products made by local people that will provide income along with environmental protection.

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT WORKS Working with local communities can trap into traditional knowledge and gain early acceptance for management plans that finally emerge from policy planning. The important reasons to use collaborative approaches are; 1. The collective view should be incorporated in the early stages of project implementation; this will lead to the development of acceptable solutions in the end. 2. Always involve multiple stakeholders and multiple sources of information, which will enrich the process. 3. Committed people are a basic requirement. To identify such people and to involve them is an important process.

4. Active involvement by local residents is essential to the process. This will provide access to situation-specific information and experience. 5. A participant is an important management tool. All the stakeholders involved directly or indirectly in the process, should be invited for active co-operation. 6. The knowledge and understanding needed by those who will carryout subsequent phases of a project can be achieved only by active participation. EXNORA in India can be said as an example for the community participation for clean surrounding. The basic premise with which EXNORA begin its operations are that community participation at all levels of functioning was essential to make their work a success. EXNORA is a broad based voluntary, Non-Governmental Organization. As the acronym suggests, these ideas were to be EXcellent NOvel and RAdical (EXNORA), the objective is to create civic and environmental awareness among the citizens. And EXNORA wanted to provide a service to the public, which would turn these excellent novel and radical ideas into practice.
CITIZEN PARTICIPATION

Environmentally concerned citizens have many opportunities to influence government policies. Taking personal responsibility for environmental impact can have many benefits. Recycling, buying green products, and other eco-friendly work, not only set good examples for friends and neighbours, but also strengthens the sense of involvement and commitment.

Collective Action
Collective action multiplies individual power. It is responsible to obtain encouragement and useful information from meeting regularly with others who share the same interests. Its easy to discouraged by the slow pace of change; having a good support group helps to maintain speed. Generally, environmental action groups are broad spectrum. The interest, preferences, action may differ. Some of the types of collective groups can be, 1. Student environmental group 2. Mainline environmental organization 3. Radical environmental organization 4. Radical environmental group.

5. POLLUTION CONTROL BOARDS The water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 confers the power to Union Government to constitute Central Pollution Control Board and State Governments to constitute State Pollution Control Boards. For the effective implementation and enforcement of the different pollution control Acts and rules statutory authorities at National level (including Union Territories) Central Pollution Central Board and at State level State Pollution Control Boards have been constituted.

FUNCTIONS OF THE CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD

The water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1974) and Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1981) assign different functions to the Central Pollution Control Board. They are mainly: To promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the states under Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. To improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the country under Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. Advise the Central Government on any matter, concerning the prevention and control of water pollution, similarly for the improvement of the quality of air and the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution. Coordinate the activities of the State Boards and resolve disputes among them. Provide technical assistance and guidance to State Boards, carryout and sponsor investigations and research relating to problems of water and air pollution and for their prevention, control or abatement. Plan and organize the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in programmes for the prevention, control or abatement of water and air pollution on such terms and conditions as the Board may specify. Organize through mass media comprehensive programmes in connection with the prevention and control of water and air pollution. Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water and air pollution, devise measures for their effective prevention and control, prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to air pollution, treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents and disseminate the information connected therewith: Lay down, modify or annul, in consultation with the state government concerned, the treatment for a stream or well under Water Act and lay down standards for the quality of air under Air Act. Collect and disseminate information in respect of matters relating to water and air pollution. Establish or recognise a laboratory or laboratories to enable the Board to perform its function effectively under Water Act including the analysis of samples of water from any stream or well or of samples of sewage or trade effluents, and similarly air samples under Air Act. To perform the functions of the State Board where the State Board has defaulted in complying with the directions of the Central Board resulting into grave emergency and where it is required to do so in the public interest.

FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1974) and Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1981) assign the following functions to the State Pollution Control Boards. They are mainly:

To plan a comprehensive programme for the prevention control or abatement of pollution of streams and wells in the state and to secure the execution thereof under Section 17 of the Water Act and similarly for the control of air pollution in the state under Section 17 of the air Act. To advise the State Government on any matter concerning the prevention, control or abatement of water and air pollution. To collect, compile and disseminate information relating to water and air pollution and the prevention, control or abatement thereof. To encourage, conduct and participate in investigations and research relating to problems of water and air pollution and prevention, control or abatement thereof. To collaborate with the Central Board in organising the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in programmes relating to prevention, control or abatement of water and air pollution and to organise mass education programmes relating thereof. To inspect sewage or trade effluents, works and plants for the treatment of sewage and trade effluents and to review plans specifications or other data relating to plants set up for the treatment of water works for the purification thereof and the system of the disposal of sewage or trade effluents or in connection with the grant of any consent as required by the Water Act. To inspect at all reasonable times any control equipment, industrial plant or manufacturing process and to give, by order, such directions to such persons as it may consider necessary to take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution as specified in the Air Act. To inspect air pollution control areas at such intervals as it may think necessary, assess the quality of air therein and take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution in such areas. To lay down, modify or annual effluent standards for the sewage and trade effluents and for the quality of receiving waters (not being water in an inter-state stream) resulting from the discharge of effluents and to classify waters of the state under Water Act. Similarly to lay down, in consultation with the Central Board and having regard to the standards for the quality of air laid down by the Central Board, standards for emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere from industrial plants and automobiles or for the discharge of any air pollutants into the atmosphere from any other source whatsoever not being a ship or an aircraft. To evolve economical and reliable methods of treatment of sewage and trade effluents having regard to the conditions of soil, climate and water resources of different regions and more especially the prevailing flow characteristics of water in streams and wells which render it impossible to attain even the minimum degree of dilution. To advise the state government with respect to the suitability of any premises or location for carrying on any industry which is likely to cause air or water pollution.

To evolve methods of utilisation of sewage and suitable trade effluents in agriculture. To perform such other functions as may be prescribed or as may from time to time, be entrusted to it by the Central Board or the State Government. To establish or recognise laboratories for analysis of water samples of any sewage or trade effluents and air samples.