CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The kola nut or bitter cola (Cola Vera, Cola acuminata, Cola nitida) is a seed

part from a tree from the sterculiaceae family. The trees are native of central and

western Africa, but are now found in the West Indies and Brazil, where it was

introduced by African slaves.

The kola tree grows to approximately 40ft (12m) in height, and has white to

yellow flowers with spots that range from red to purple. The kola tree’s leaves are

6 – 8 inches (15-20 cm) long and the tree bears fruit that is often shaped like star.

1.2 Occurrence of kolanut

Kolanut is a tropical cash crop. Joannus Leo africanus was the first to refer to

the kolanut in 1556. Kolanut occurrence was recorded in 1591 in the Congo by a

Portuguese Odoardo Lopez; followed by Andre Alvares who saw kolanut in

Gambia in 1594 (Russell, 1955). Gradually, the tree was recorded all along the

west coast of Africa ranging from Gambia to Angola.

Kolanut is an economically important farm produce in Nigeria. The production

of Kolanut is increasing rapidly and Nigeria is the largest producer in West Africa,

(Opeke, 1987). Cola nitida is widely commercialized in West Africa, while cola

acuminata is highly valued in the southern parts of Nigeria where it originated

(Russell, 1955)
 The estimated production of kolanut in the major producing area between 1966

and 1976 is show in Table 1.1. The crop is harvested once a year between

Septembers and January except for a light harvest during the month of June and

July. Harvesting is carried out manually and requires a considerable amount of

time.

1.3 Industrial, Medical and Domestic Uses

Kolanut is used industrially for the preparation of Kola beverages such as

Pepsi cola, Coca-cola, Kola wine. Kola contains Caffeine and theobromine which

makes it a produce for annual exports to Europe and America for preparation of

drugs.

Kola is widely used medically as a treatment for whooping cough and asthma,

as the caffine acts as bronchodilator, expanding the bronchial air passages. It is

also used to treat migraine headache because the caffine and theobromine act as

cerebral vasodilators (increase blood flow in the head).

Table 1.1 Estimated Production of Kolanut in 1966 and 1976 (in

tonnes wet weight) (Opeke, 1987)

Country 1966 1976

Ivory coast 14,500 17,000

Guinea 4,342 5,000

Cameroon, Benin Togo 11,000 13,000

Glana 14,000 16,000

Sierra Leone 4,000 5,000

Nigeria 120,000 150,000

Liberia 4,000 5,000

South America 3,000 5,000

Total 174,842 216,000
In Africa, the fresh nuts are chewed as ceremonial greetings, as a stimulant, and to

help aid digestion. Consumers believe that it suppress hunger, sleep and thirst. It

also strengthens dental gums and suppresses related diseases.

Kolanuts are used as a source of dyne. The bark of Kola tree is used in treating

swelling and fresh wounds. The roots are excellent chewing stick and are effective

in cleaning the teeth.

1.4 Justification
Observations have been made and seen that the methods being adopted in

harvesting Kolanut with the existing sickle do not only peel the bark of the tree

plant but also damages the branch by breaking them as a result of the force exerted

by pulling the long sickle, and this result in reducing the productivity of the plant

in the following season. This calls for a need to design a new sickle or modify the

existing one that will harvest Kolanut without peeling the bark or breaking the

branches of the tree while harvesting, and thereby increasing the productivity in

the following season.

1.5 Objective
The main objective of this research work is to modify the existing sickle in such a

way that it will harvest the kolanut without damaging the fruit bearing branch

thereby lowering productivity the following season.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Varieties of Kola and Their Origin

The identifiable Kola species in Nigeria are cola nitada and cola acuminate

(Opeke, 1987)

2.1.1 Cola Nitada

Cola nitada was originally distributed along the coast of West Africa from

Sierra Leone to the republic of Benin with the highest frequency and variability in

the forest area of Ivory Coast and Ghana.

The area has been accepted as the center of origin of cola nitada and

remained for long, the only source of kolanut (Gbanja) to the West African trade

routes (Opeke, 1987) According to Russell (1955), Gbanja tree is a robust tree

with 9-12m high, although sometimes attaining a height of 24m. The tree may

have narrow buttress extending up the trunk for less than 1m. The foliage is dense

and not confined to the tip of the branches. The leaves have long petioles which

variable in size and shape. Also the leaves are flat except that the tip is sometimes

slightly bent. The lateral veins are very distinct.

The fruit is composed of five follicles borne on a short pendant peduncle.

Even fruiting carpet contain up to ten seeds (nuts) in two rows. The embryo is

covered with a tough membranous while or pink seed coat and has two or at time

three cotyledons, of white, pink or red Colour, this is illustrated in the plate 2.1and
2.2. The seeds are variable in size up to 5cm long, ellipsoid, globular by

compression.

The embryo constitutes the kolanut which usually mature during the month

of November and December.

iKola Nut
Plate 2.1 Kolanut - pod and seeds
 Plate 2.2 Cola acuminata

2.1.2 Cola Acuminata

Cola acuminate has its original sources of distribution stretching to Nigeria

and Gabon. Southern Nigeria is currently regarded as a centre of origin of cola

acuminata (Abata). Due to importance of kola in the early trade in West Africa,

interest was developed in the cultivation of kolanut in Nigeria by redistribution

from the centre of origin through activities of man.

Cola acuminate was described as similar to cola nitada. The “Abata”

kolanut (cola acuminate) is a slender tree, up to 12m high, but usually 6-9m. The

branches are slender, crooked and markedly ascending; the foliage is often sparse

and confined to the tips of the branches.

The fruits contain up to five follicles borne at right angle to the stalk or

slightly bent downward. There are up to 14 seeds in each follicle. The embryo of

cola acuminate may have three, five, six, or even eight cotyledon: pink red or

sometimes white in Colour. Cola acuminate mature in the periods from April to

June (Opeke, 1987).

2.1.3 General Morphology of Kola Fruit

The kolanut fruit is a berry fruit botanically varies in size, shape and

Colour. A whole kolanut fruit consist of three distinct parts: fruit wall (husk), the

testa which covers the nut and the nut itself.

The average dimension of the kola is 2cm by 3.5cm and 4cm, also it

contains pericarp i.e. the husk, which is almost 1.5cm thick and endocarp which in

about 0.1cm. The kolanut in the pericarp and the endocarp are together called

follicle.
2.2 Cultivation of Kola

Kola is generally propagated by raising of seeding. Seed are often sown at

stake sowing of seeds in the nursery usually gives better seedlings.

The seed either fresh or stored after the removal of the tasta are sown in

seed boxes filled with top soil mixed in equal parts with fine sand at a depth of 3-

5cm in pre germination medium.

The seeded boxes are then watered as often as needed but over watering

must be avoided. Observation shows that under this condition stored nut usually

gives slightly higher germination than fresh nuts.

Germination is usually completed within 80 days in nitada and 60days in

cola acuminate (Eijnattan, 1973). The pre germinated seeds are planted in basket

or poly pots filled with top soil, at a depth of 7-10cm. they are adequately watered

and kept under shade to develop in the nursery. The seedling will reach

transplanting size in 6-8months. The following factor must be provided for better

development of kola seedlings.

(I) Placement: The seeds must be horizontally placed in germination

medium to have straight roots in order to enhance high number of

seedling.

(II) Shade: Seeds germinate and seedling grows better when shaded.

(III) Planting depth: Depth of planting affect germination and seedling

development planting depth of 5-10cm in pre germinating seed

boxed are recommended.

 (IV) Sowing media: fertile soil with a high organic matter content is the

best medium for raising kola seedlings.

(V) Condition and size of the nut: Fresh nuts are preferred for

propagation and bigger seeds are preferred for bigger seedling

development

(VI) Temperature: The temperature is very important which is between

32ºc to 34ºc while continuous exposure to temperature above 38ºc is

known to be lethal.

(VII) Illumination: Kolanuts stored in transparent plastic bags often turn

green and start to germinate while those in black poly bags or in

traditional way in black of several layers of leaves remain dormant.

Finally, the choice of healthy, fully mature, heavy seed is essential for

obtaining well developed seedlings. Spacing of about 7.5m to 9m for matured

trees is recommended. Kola can also be propagated by rising of rooted cutting.

Weeding is carried out by slashing, hoeing and by application of herbicides.

Fertilizer is applied to increase the fertility of the soil. The Kola matures in 3-5

years and produce kola fruit.

2.3 Harvesting of Kola.

 In harvesting, the farmer must allow the fruits to attain the right degree of

maturity. The fruits should also be free from pest attack. For these reasons, the

farm should be kept in a state of good sanitation by removing and destroying

fallen fruit which are often infested by fruit larvae. During the harvest, any

infested pods should be eliminated. A great deal of wastage which occurs in a

farmer’s kola arises from either harvesting period before they reach maturity or

from poor handling after harvesting. Delayed harvesting often result in infestation

by kola weevils which gave rise to defective units with little or no market value.

The immature kola pods are deep green in colour and turn to an inconspicuous

pale green (Eijnattan, 1973) or light brown colours when mature.

Kolanut is harvested when they are ripe (i.e. the dark green pods turn a

paler green). This occurs approximately when the moisture content of the seeds is

about 55% (Kouame and Sacande 2006). The seed are harvested mainly between

September and January, with a second harvest also during June and July. Where

the fruits are accessible during harvesting they are harvested with a sharp cutlass,

but where the fruits are out of easy reach, they are harvested with a hook knife tied

to the end of a long pole or a long sickle.

2.4 Harvesting of other Tree Crops

Tree crops other than Kolanut (e.g. citrus, coffee, datepalms, avocados, figs,

Olive etc) may be hand harvested with or without any aid. Otherwise harvesting

machines are used. In hand harvesting, the harvester (picker) climbs unto tall trees

to detach ripe fruits and then throws them onto the ground for subsequent
handpicking. Otherwise, while standing on the ground, he may use a long pole to

knock off the fruits.

The ladder is one of the harvesting aids adopted to assist the fruit picker.

Some fruits harvested by the ladder method are citrus, datepalms and avocados.

The picker sets the ladder on the tree trunk and gets to the fruits by climbing over

it. He may climb with a bag to collect the fruits. Alternatively, a trampoline-type

collector (or an ordinary fabric drop cloth) may be placed on the ground between

trees so that he could throw the fruits onto it. Mechanical aids in the form of

clipping or snapping device attached to the end of a pole or the ladder man may

also use lightweight tube. Other mechanical aids are man-positioning machines

that place a harvester in the tree to harvest and handle ripe fruits. They may be

used to harvest any fruit.

A mechanical harvesting machine is either a contact-remover or a mass-

remover. The detachment devices of contact removers make physical contact with

the fruit to be harvested. They also handle the fruits. A mass remover on the other

hand, shakes the tree limbs or foliage or both to detach ripe fruits. Any mass-

remover may be complemented with a catching frame, a rake, a pick-up machine

or manual picking up from the ground after harvesting. Examples of fruits

mechanically harvested are citrus, coffee and deciduous tree fruits.

Some fruits have peculiar harvesting methods. For instance, figs and

filberts drop onto the ground when ripe to be hand or machine picked later.

2.4.1 Harvesting Method for Palm Fruit

 a) The Cutlass Method

The cutlass is used in cutting the frond and bunches of palm within arm-reach.

Thus, the cutlass has limited use in the harvesting of the kolanut as those beyond

arm-reach cannot be harvested by this method.

b) The Chisel Method

A chisel is a metallic blade 7-12cm wide and about 25cm long fixed onto the

end of a 0.9-1.5m long wooden handle. It can be used for cutting the bunch

peduncle without cutting the green leaves that substend the bunch. Chisels are

most efficiently used until palm heights go beyond arm-reach.

c) The Ladder and Cutlass Method

The ladder is rested on the side of the palm tree where a ripe bunch has been

identified. The cutter climbs up the ladder to cut the fruit with a cutlass. To cut a

ripe fruit on any other side of the tree, he comes down and properly repositions the

ladder for another trip to the top of the tree. Much energy is expended in carrying

and setting ladder with this method, climbing is slow; the cutter is exposed to the

danger of snake bites, and accidental falls which may result in deaths. The system

is out of use in most plantations.

d) The double rope and Cutlass Method

 The cutter climbs up the tall palm trees with the aid of two ropes. Each rope is

tied around the palm trunk on one end. The other end of one rope holds on to a

thigh of the cutter while the other rope end supports the underfoot of the cutter’s

second leg. A cutlass is used in cutting fronds and bunches. The merit of this

method is that accidental fall is very rare. However, climbing is very slow and

snake and insect bites are not uncommon. In commercial plantations, it is used

only when there is the shortage of the faster but relatively unsafe single rope

method labour, and also for very tall palm trees (Adetan, 1987).

e) The Single Rope and Cutlass Method

A single rope around the back of the cutlass-carrying cutter and the palm

trunk is used in climbing tall trees. Accidental fall is common with this method but

climbing is much faster than the double rope method. The risk of snake and insect

bites also remains.

f) The bamboo pole and knife Method

A long curved knife (Malaysian hook) securely tied to the end of a bamboo

pole is used in cutting immediately palms get beyond arm-reach up to a height of

about 9m. The bamboo pole length is increased with increasing tree heights. This

method is fast relative to the ladder and single rope and double rope methods. The

speed decreases however with increasing tree heights and therefore increasing
bamboo length and mass. There is no danger of accidental fall, obviously, and the

risk of snake and insect bites is minimized.

g) Aluminum pole and knife Method

A 40mm diameter hollow aluminum tube replaces the bamboo in this method.

It works very well and even faster than the bamboo pole method for low height

palms say below 5.5m. Above a height of 6.5m, pole bending constitutes a very

serious problem to harvesting as bunch and fronds stalks become difficult to

engage for cutting. Pole weights have also been known to aid cutting being a

source of downward force. However, because these aluminium poles are very

light, a very high download force needs to be exerted by the cutter. Because of this

and the smoothness of the aluminum pole body, hand-pole slippage constitutes

another serious problem as the cutter inevitable sweats on the palms of his hands

while on the job. It is yet to enjoy a wide application (Adetan, 1987).

2.5 Harvesting of Grain (rice)

This crop is ready for harvest when 80% of the grains have turned to straw colour

(NCRI, 1988). Rice is harvested manually with a knife. The farmer lifts only the

panicles, which he put together in bundles. This is a very slow operation, which

may take as long as 120 hours per hectare. On the average, one can harvest

between 15 to 20 kg of rice per person per hour. That is the reason why most small

holder farmers stager the dates of when the varieties are sown or grow varieties

with different cycle, in order to avoid shattering. The sickle is another harvesting

implement. It does, however, make it possible to save time. Harvesting with sickle
according to few small holder farmer takes no more than 80 hours per hectare or

thereabouts and one can harvest between 25 to 35 kg of rice per person per hour

(Atanda 2007).

A sickle is a curved, hand-held agricultural tool typically used for harvesting

grain crops before the advent of modern harvesting machinery. There are two basic

types: the toothed sickle and the smooth bladed. They consist of a curved blade

with short, one-hand handle attached. These tools were used only for cutting down

grain. The inside of the curve is sharp, so that the user can swing the blade against

the base of the crop, catching it in the curve and slicing it at the some time. It is

sometimes referred to as a grass hook.

However, in the kolanut harvesting long sickle or hook knife commonly known

as go-to-hell is used. Obviously, energy for cutting comes mainly from the

harvester, and it can only be reduced by the tool sharpness and self skill. Thus the

harvester who is handling such tools should be strong enough to maintain his

energy throughout the day, (Jelani, 1997). Over the past 17 years, many

researchers (Hadi, 1994; Razak et al, 1995; Ralim et al., 1988 and Ahmad, 1990)

have been trying to develop machines and tools to improve the field operations

efficiency. Their efforts in developing an effective cutting device showed some

convincing results. However, economically, they still could not compete with the

existing manual tools such has long sickle or go-to-hell.

 CHAPTER THREE
PROPOSED METHODOLOGY

3.1 Materials

Mild steel flat bar, 5mm thick, of 300mm in length. This would be forged

into a sickle.

One length of 26mm square pipe: This would serve as the handle for the sickle

One length of 18mm, square pipe: This would serve as the handle for the blade

3.2 Equipment & Tools

Local blacksmith kilns at a blacksmith deport: This would be used to heat

the mild steel to red hot

Anvil and hammer: this would be used to beat the flat bar into the curve shape of

sickle.

Hacksaw: This would be used to cut the square pipes to the required length that

would serve as bearer for both the sickle and the blade.

Arc wedding machine and electrode: This would be to join the sickle with the

26mm square pipe.

Drilling machine:

3.3 Design of the sickle

This design might be called a cutting tool. It would be based on the mechanism of

scissors having sharp edges that would cut off the small pieces of stack along with

the fruit. The square pipe that would bear the blade would move up and down in
the square pipe that would bear the sickle forcing the stalk of the kolanut fruit

against the blade of the sickle thereby cutting it.

3.4 Construction of the sickle

The mild, steel flat bar would be heated to austenating temperature (red-

hot) after which it would be forged into the curve shape of the sickle. The handle

of the sickle would comprise two main square pipe of length 2750mm each. The

smaller square pipe of 18mm would be placed inside the bigger square pipe of

26mm, and it would be freed to move in it. The inner square pipe would bear the

square blade of 50mm, which would be bolted to it and the bigger pipe would bear

the sickle, which would be permanently fixed (by welding). The sickle would be

constructed in the form of the existing one. On the outer square pipe a slot of

26mm by 100mm would be made and the rod of 100mm would be bolted on the

18mm square pipe through the slot to enable its movement up and down. The total

length of the tool is 2897mm. The proposed view of this is shown in figure 3.1,

3.2, 3.3, and 3.4.

3.5 Experimental Design

The designed sickle would be used to harvest some randomly selected fruits

and the harvesting time for each fruit would be determined. The existing sickle
would also be used to harvest some randomly selected fruit with the time for

harvesting each fruit noted.

Fig 3.1 Pictorial view of the sickle
`

Figure 3.2 Front view of the sickle

Fig 3.3 Plan of sickle
A B

Fig 3.4 Side view of the sickle

 REFRENCES

1. Adetan, D.A. (1987). ‘An Investigation into the Mechanized Harvesting of

oil Palm’. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Agricultural

Engineering, University of Ife, Ile-Ife.

2. Ahmad, H. (1990). ‘System Analysis of Harvesting of Oil Palm Bunches’.

Ph.D. Dissertation (unpublished). University of Newcastle Upon Tyne,

England.

3. Ahmad, H. (2000). ‘ Evaluation of Design Parameters of Sickle Cutter and

Claw cutter for Cutting Oil Palm Frond’. Agricultural Mechanization in

Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Vol.31, NO.2, 55-59.

4. Atanda, E.O. (2007). ‘Conservation Agriculture as Applied to Harvesting

and Processing Rice (Oryza Sativa.) in the South Western Nigeria’. A

Poster Presentation.

5. Eijnattan C. L (1973). A review of literature on kola, pp541-550.

6. Hadi Suryanto (1994). ‘Fundamental Studies on the Field Stripping

System of Oil Palm Fruitless. Ph.D. Dissertation (unpublished), University

Putra Malaysia.

7. Jelani A. R. (1997). ‘Design and Development of an Oil Palm Fresh Fruit

Bunch Cutting Device’. M.Sc. Thesis (unpublished),University Putra

Malaysia.

8. NCRI, (1988). ‘Step to grow upland rice’, Advisory leaflet No.1,Revised

October, 1988, NCRI Badagri, Niger State, Nigeria.

9. Kouame and Sacande (2006). ‘Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott & Endl’. Forest

& Landscape Seed Leaflet, No.111 Feb. 2006.

10. Opeke L.K. (1987). ‘Tropical Tree Crop’, Spectrum, Ibadan, Nigeria.

11. Rahim, A.S. H. Halim and H. Ahmad (1988). ‘Development of

Harvesting Machine’. Proceedings of the National Oil Palm/Palm Oil

Conference: Oct. 11-15 Kuala Lumpur, pp: 1-7.

12. Razak, A.J., H. Ahmad and A.S. Rahim (1995). ‘Aluminum Pole –

Effect of their Physical Characteristics on Productivity in Tall Palms

Harvesting’. Technical paper yet to publish.

13. Russel, T.A. (1955). ‘The Kola of Nigeria and Cameroon’. A publication on

Tropical Agriculture, vol. 32, pp 210-240.