BuildingAutomation

BY PAUL EHRLICH, P.E., AND IRA GOLDSCHMIDT, P.E.

INTELLIGENT BUILDINGS
Not just old schools use old-school controls.
The title of this column may seem like an oxymoron, but, upon further thought, it appears to be the harsh reality for the majority of our buildings. The fact is that pneumatic and electro-mechanical controls are still used in a significant portion of control in commercial buildings. While the majority of large commercial buildings (i.e., over 100,000 sq ft.) use some form of building automation, many of these buildings still are using antiquated controllers for zone control (VAV boxes, fancoils, etc.) and rooftop units. While no exact figures are available we find that a large percentage, if not a majority, of existing buildings appear to have at least some obsolete controls still in place. The question then is, how intelligent can a building be if most of the temperature control is provided by antiquated controls (e.g., a building with all pneumatic VAV box controls)? While the answer to this is open to opinion, there is no question that it restricts the buildings ability to operate as if it were fully automated. In particular, consider that many of the optimized sequences that can be used in fully automated buildings today are either tied to) or more readily implemented through) the use of networked DDC zone control. Here are a few such sequences. Duct static pressure reset based on VAV box demand Supply air temperature reset based on the amount of zone heating vs. cooling demand Reset of chilled water based on cooling load (optimally determined by, say, the AHUs chilled water valve reaction to above the supply air temperature reset) Occupied/unoccupied control by zone Intermittent occupied control based on occupancy sensing Demand response and smart grid compliance AND THEN THERE ARE THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS Do pneumatic VAV box controls really work? Proper testing and setup of a large number of VAV box volume regulators is a time-consuming effort that is probably not performed at intervals necessary to ensure operators that the question to this answer is yes. However, without this maintenance, there is no ready way to know otherwise, especially when the VAV box has a reheat coil that could be using simultaneous heating and cooling to mask the improper operation. How does a building engineer really know if acceptable space temperatures are being maintained at all times? I dont think we need to provide an answer to this question. So if the use of obsolete zone controls is the figurative last mile in a buildings automation challenge, when will the conversion of all U.S. buildings to full DDC finally be completed? While there is no definitive answer to this question, the evidence indicates that it could take many more years. A recent DOE statistic indicated that the average life of a commercial U.S. building is 73 years. Therefore, unless the owners of existing buildings have a plan for upgrading the controls, they could be in place for decades to come, or at least until a major renovation of the building occurs. 24 En gi n e e r e d Sy stem s
June 2010

In The Age Of Pneumatic Controls?

However, without this maintenance, However, without this maintenance, there is no ready way to k th dy y know otherwis especially when the otherwise, especially when the herwise speciall VAV box has VAV box has a reheat coil that reheat coil that could be using simultaneous heating ld i g i lt ti g and cooling and cooling to mask the improper olin mas the improper ask prop operation. operation.
So why are pneumatic VAV box controls, for example, not being replaced in this age of automation and energy efficiency? Simply put, the typical payback estimated for the work involved is in the five- to ten-year range not a compelling economic argument for most bottom-line oriented building owners. There are, however, a couple of ways that may help to turn this predicament around: Why not utilize wireless technologies? The use of wireless communications offers the potential to upgrade VAV box controls, fancoils, and rooftops, and to add communications at a lower cost than hardwired controls. Why not incorporate the energy savings from the above list of optimum control strategies in the payback calculation? This may not bring the payback of a DDC upgrade to within three years, but it could get it closer and allow owners that are on the fence to make the leap. Stand by while we ponder both of these possibilities we hope to get back to you soon with some real project data. ES
Paul and Ira first worked together on a series of ASHRAE projects including BACnet committee and Guideline 13 Specifying DDC Controls. The formation of Building Intelligence Group provided them the ability to work together professionally providing assistance to owners with the planning, design and development of Intelligent Building Systems. Building Intelligence Group provides services for clients worldwide including leading Universities, Corporations, and Developers. More information can be found at www.buildingintelligencegroup.com. We also invite you to contact us directly at paul@buildingintelligencegroup.com or ira@buildingintelligencegroup.com.

Hospitals, hospitality, municipalities, and industrial applications may face their best chance in years to save money (and natural resources) with a combined heat and power (CHP) system. From steam turbines that rely on boilers to gas turbines, on to reciprocating engines and fuel cells, the variety of options is as wide as the range of settings where it might make sense. Reacquaint yourself with CHP, including the sidebars small example that can save over $100,000 per year.
BY CARL C. SCHULTZ, P.E., LEED AP
ogeneration can be employed anywhere there is a simultaneous need for electrical and thermal energy, and it is often referred to as combined heat and power (CHP). CHP is any number of applied technologies that simultaneously produces two or more forms of energy from a single fuel source. Prior to the development of the electrical distribution grid, industrial concerns generated their power on-site and developed cogeneration techniques and applications to utilize the resulting waste heat. As the utility industry grew and took hold, their economies of scale and reliability eventually made on-site generation of electricity uneconomical in many cases and thereby significantly reduced the prevalence of cogenerated power. But in 1978, the Public Utilities Regulatory Policy Act (PURPA) required public utilities to purchase a portion of their electric generating capacity from non-utility generators that use alternative energy sources and cogeneration in order to reduce dependence on foreign oil. In the 80s, lower natural gas rates allowed the economical production of on-site power and helped to spur cogeneration projects. Growth in this sector was then stalled due to higher gas prices. The recession has kept gas prices depressed and discoveries in Texas Barnett shale

and Pennsylvanias Marcellus shale may keep these prices low. Present concerns about global warming and the long-term availability of fossil fuels have created an environment where re-exploring the application of cogeneration makes good sense, since this process can result in less fossil fuel consumption and fewer emissions than generating electrical power and heat through separate processes. CHP SYSTEMS Most CHP systems use a topping cycle, in which the fuel source is first used for generating electricity and then to recover the resultant heat for thermal needs, such as space and domestic water heating and cooling and the regeneration of desiccants used for dehumidification. A bottoming cycle uses fuel to drive industrial thermal processes, with the exhaust gases then being used to produce power, typically with a heat recovery steam generator in series with a steam turbine. The topping cycle can use a variety of prime movers, such as reciprocating engines, steam turbines, gas turbines, microturbines, and fuel cells to generate electrical power. A common prime mover for CHP applications is the reciprocating engine, which has high mechanical efficiency over a wide

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Closing The Cogeneration Gap

to the electrical power produced, thermal energy can be recovered from radiation off the engine block, exhaust gases, lubricating LP STEAM RETURN 2,700 PPH oil, jacket water, and the engine after-cooler. Jacket heat can be recovered either as hot water or as low-pressure steam, either under pressure in a forced circulation system or an ebullient (boiling water) system. The gas or combustion turbine consists EXHAUST of a compressor that takes air at atmospheric pressure and increases its pressure for entry into the combustor where it is combined with fuel and burned. The exhaust gases in the neighborhood of 2,300F are then delivered to the turbine, where they are converted to NATURAL GAS 500KW RECIPROCATING mechanical work. Up to 50% of the turbine 5.3 MMBTUH GENERATOR 500KW 5,300 FT /HR power can be used to drive the compressor, ELECTRICITY so strategies to cool the inlet air and increase overall efficiencies are often implemented. The turbine exhaust temperatures are typiFIGURE 1. Diagram of a small congeneration system with a reciprocating prime mover. cally less than half that of the temperature entering the turbine and can be used in a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) to produce steam for heating, or they can be used directly for a process that range of loading. By adding a turbocharger, the capacity of an includes a direct-fired absorption chiller. Microturbines operate on engine can be increased by 30 to 40%. Four-stroke engines operatthe same principal as gas turbines but have the advantage of being ing at 1,800 rpm are a typical configuration. Engines can be run small and lightweight, therefore offering installation flexibility. on natural gas, diesel, or heavy (residual) fuel oils. In addition The steam turbine is the workhorse of the utility power industry and can be used on a smaller scale for CHP applications. Fuel is burned in a boiler to generate high-pressure steam, where it is sent to a steam turbine to generate electrical power. Before returning to the boiler, the turbine exhaust must be condensed, and this can be done by using the heat to drive thermal processes instead of being rejected to a heat sink such as a river or cooling tower. A steam turbine can also be used in combination with a combustion turbine in what is known as a combined cycle, where the output from the HRSG is used to drive the steam turbine for additional electric power production. Unlike the combustion turbine, which can be dispatched quickly, the steam turbine system may take several hours for warm-up. Fuel cells produce electric power without combustion by a direct conversion of the fuel into electricity typically by stripping the hydrogen from natural gas, propane, or butane and combining it with oxygen in air. The byproducts include water, direct-current electricity, heat, and low levels of CO, CO2, and NOx. Electrolyte filled cells are placed in series to produce the voltage potential and are arranged in parallel to develop amperage capacity. An inverter is used to convert the direct current power to alternating current power. Although the quantity of waste heat is limited since much of it is used in the conversion process, the usable temperature can be high and can develop hot water as well as low- and high-pressure steam. Although it is viewed as an emerging technology, a fuel cells low noise level is an advantage compared to other types of CHP systems.
EXHAUST GAS HEAT EXCHANGER JACKET WATER HEAT EXCHANGER LUBE OIL HEAT EXCHANGER

APPLICATIONS A base-loaded system will operate so that the prime mover is generating at full capacity nearly year-round only being stopped for annual maintenance. At times when the rejected heat cannot be fully utilized, it will be dumped to the environment. CHP prime movers can also be
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Closing The Cogeneration Gap

Cogeneration Economics: An Example

A research campus has minimum low-pressure steam consumption of 2,700 lb/ hr in the summer at night just to offset losses in the distribution system and has decided to install a CHP plant using a 500-kW natural gas reciprocating generator in a base loaded configuration, which will operate 8,600 hrs/yr. The facility has an average purchased-power cost of $0.07/kWh and a gas cost of $5/MMBtuh. The plant assumptions are an electrical conversion efficiency of 32% and a heat recovery effectiveness of 70%, for an overall efficiency of roughly 80%. The plant will consume 46,000 MMBtuh of natural gas annually x $5 = $230,000/yr The plant will produce 8,600 hr/yr x 500 kWh = 4,300,000 kWh for an avoided cost of 4,300,000 kWh x $0.07/kWh = $301,000 Annual maintenance is assumed at $0.01/kWh production or $43,000 The annual heat recovery is estimated at 22,500 MMBtuh, which would require a boiler input of 27,500 MMBtuh assuming an 80% efficient boiler, for an avoided cost of 27,500 MMBtuh x $5 = $137,500/yr Total electric and gas avoided cost is $301,000 + $137,500 = $438,500. The avoided cost of $438,500 minus the gas consumption of $230,000 yields a $208,500 annual utility cost savings. Subtracting out the $43,000 maintenance cost results in a $165,500 net annual savings. At an installed cost of $1,100 per kWh or $550,000, the CHP plant has a simple payback of $550,000/$165,500 = 3.3 years.

operated to track either the electrical load or thermal load requirements of the site, or they can be used in a limited capacity in a peak-shaving operation. For facilities that have negotiated interruptible rates or are located in areas where the utility has instituted real-time pricing for electricity, the CHP system can be operated in an economic dispatch mode to produce power when it is less to do so that purchasing the power from the utility. Since CHP systems use a single fuel input to provide electrical power and thermal energy, having a simultaneous need for both is a prerequisite for implementation. Leading examples of industrial applications include chemical, pulp and paper, textile, and ethanol production. The hospitality industry, where large hotels, resorts, and casinos have on-site laundry, shower, and other thermally intense needs, can find a CHP system to be an attractive proposition. Corporate research campuses offer opportunities when there is a steam distribution system that requires thermal input year-round. Hospitals and other types of critical facilities can obtain the added benefit of a redundant power supply. Health care and higher education campuses have led the way with smaller CHP plants, but municipalities have gotten into the act with installations at airports and with municipal district heating
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and cooling systems. The thermal energy developed through cogeneration can be used during the cooling season to operate steam turbine-driven chillers and absorption chillers as well as for the regeneration process involved with desiccant dehumidifiers. Municipalities have tied CHP operations with their waste programs by utilizing digester and landfill gas, trash, and other urban wastes. District Energy St. Paul operates the largest wood chip power plant in the United States. This combined heat and power plant heats 185 buildings and 300 single family homes (31.1 million sq ft), cools more than 95 buildings (18.8 million sq ft) as well as generates 25 MW of electricity. The plant uses 280,000 tons of wood waste/yr per year from the citys recycling center, which is supplemented by natural gas, oil, and coal. Military installations account for CHP applications, including remote facilities such as radar sites in Alaska. In this application cogeneration is the obvious choice as there is no grid to tie into and there is a need for simultaneous thermal and electrical production. ECONOMICS The average coal-fired power plant in the U.S. operates at an efficiency of about 32%, which is primarily due to the 40% efficiency of the typical steam turbine in converting mechanical power to electrical power. Con-

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sequently, two-thirds of the prime energy input is wasted as heat to the atmosphere. Because of this, CHP systems can be viable in applications where there is a large and continuous demand for thermal energy in close proximity to the cogeneration plant. To be economical, this thermal load should be year-round and not just seasonal in nature. CHP systems obtain most of their economic benefit from the production of electrical power where large installations may sell excess power to the electric utility, while smaller systems will typically use the power on-site to offset purchased power from the grid. CHP economics fare better where they have a high generating efficiency, so a microturbine-based system with a 24% efficiency may not be as attractive as one with a reciprocating engine with a 36% efficiency. An example of a small CHP application is shown in the sidebar, using a gas reciprocating engine that has an electric efficiency of 32% that coincidently matches the U.S. average of coal-fired plants. CONCLUSION The ultimate appeal of the concept of cogeneration depends on ones vantage point, with technicians marveling at its sheer efficiency, the environmentally minded at its promise for the economical use of the Earths remaining fossil fuels, and with the plant manager looking to reduce operational costs. Most of us should by now have the sense that the cost of fossil fuels will rise over time in one of three possible scenarios: 1) slowly, as technological advances in exploration and discovery help offset increases in consumption; 2) rapidly, as we emerge from economic recession or are faced with carbon caps or taxes; or 3) catastrophically, as we head off a production cliff. Whatever your profession, political tendencies, or social disposition, you should applaud advances in the development of cogeneration technologies, since they will help slow the use of finite resources, reduce pollution, and help us compete in a competitive global economy. ES
Schultz is a vice president with Advanced Engineering Consultants in its Columbus, Ohio office. He is a graduate of the Ohio State University with a BSME and has 20 years of experience designing mechanical systems for commercial and institutional facilities. In addition, he has extensive design experience with central steam, high temperature hot water, and chilled water plants. He is a registered

professional engineer in over a dozen states and is the author of many technical articles related to HVAC system design and commissioning. Contact him at carls@aecmep.com. Founded in 1998, Advanced Engineering Consultants (AEC) provides a wide variety of mechanical and electrical engineering services to support the commercial, industrial, and institutional facilities sectors. AEC is a

minority-owned firm committed to offering the latest in sustainable design practices. For more information, visit the company website at www.aecmep.com.

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